Article(id=1242149204399829928, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, issueId=1242149197907042945, articleNumber=null, orderNo=null, doi=10.13343/j.cnki.wsxb.20240716, pmid=null, cstr=null, oa=null, hot=null, price=null, onlineType=0, articleFormat=0, articleType=null, articleTypeStr=research-article, receivedDate=1731340800000, receivedDateStr=2024-11-12, revisedDate=null, revisedDateStr=null, acceptedDate=1732204800000, acceptedDateStr=2024-11-22, onlineDate=1774081048344, onlineDateStr=2026-03-21, pubDate=1733241600000, pubDateStr=2024-12-04, doiRegisterDate=null, doiRegisterDateStr=null, onlineIssueDate=1774081048344, onlineIssueDateStr=2026-03-21, onlineJustAcceptDate=null, onlineJustAcceptDateStr=null, onlineFirstDate=null, onlineFirstDateStr=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, createTime=1774081048344, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1774081048344, updator=13701087609, issue=Issue{id=1242149197907042945, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, year='2024', volume='64', issue='12', pageStart='4471', pageEnd='4951', issueExtLink='null', onlineDate='null', pubDate='null', beforeIssueId=null, nextIssueId=null, price=null, status=1, issueComplete=1, articleOrder=1, issueType=-1, specialIssue=null, createTime=1774081046797, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1774081046797, updator=13701087609, preIssue=null, nextIssue=null, ext=null, issueFiles=null}, startPage=4656, endPage=4668, ext={EN=ArticleExt(id=1242149206257906660, articleId=1242149204399829928, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, language=EN, title=Microbial nitrogen removal and the molecular mechanisms underlying modulation and switching of dissimilatory nitrate reduction pathways in Shewanella strains, columnId=1242149199001756290, journalTitle=Acta Microbiologica Sinica, columnName=Hydrosphere Microbiology, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

Although the large scale of industrial nitrogen fixation and chemical nitrogen fertilizer application have increased crop yields and alleviated food crisis, the excess discharge of nitrogen nutrients have affected the environment and human health. The treatment of nitrogen contamination is largely dependent on the nitrogen cycle driven by microorganisms. In the last three decades, researchers have discovered the inorganic nitrogen metabolism pathways such as anaerobic ammonia oxidation (Anammox), complete ammonia oxidation (Comammox), and direct ammonia oxidation (Dirammox). Shewanella, a genus of known bacteria with abundant respiration pathways, are ubiquitous in natural habitats and have potential applications in both microbial fuel cells and environmental bioremediation. In this review, we described the modulation mechanisms of denitrification and dissimilatory nitrate reduction to ammonium pathways in Shewanella from the nitrate reductase systems, regulation of the cyclic AMP (cAMP) receptor proteins (Crp), and modulation and switching of nitrate reduction pathways, aiming to give insights into the microbial-driven nitrogen cycling mechanism in the hydrosphere and the development of novel biotechniques and bioreactors for the removal and mitigation of nitrogen pollution.

, correspAuthors=Dongru QIU, authorNote=null, correspAuthorsNote=
*QIU Dongru, Tel: +86-27-68780215, E-mail:
, copyrightStatement=Copyright ©2024 Acta Microbiologica Sinica. All rights reserved., copyrightOwner=null, extLink=null, articleAbsUrl=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, pdfUrl=null, pdf=null, pdfFileSize=null, pdfExtLink=null, richHtmlUrl=null, mobilePdfUrl=null, reviewReport=null, pdfFirstPage=null, abstractGraph=null, abstractGraphContent=null, abstractVideo=null, citation=null, cebUrl=null, magXmlContent=null, mapNumber=null, authorCompany=null, fund=null, authors=null, authorsList=Yaqi LIU, Hehong WEI, Jingcheng DAI, Shuangyuan LIU, Dongru QIU), CN=ArticleExt(id=1242149208145342596, articleId=1242149204399829928, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, language=CN, title=微生物脱氮与希瓦氏菌异化硝酸盐还原途径抉择机制, columnId=1242149199161139845, journalTitle=微生物学报, columnName=水圈微生物专栏, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

工业固氮和化学氮肥的广泛使用极大地提升了作物产量、缓解了粮食危机,然而所造成的氮污染问题严重影响人类健康和生存环境。氮污染的净化主要依赖于微生物驱动的氮循环,近30多年来,先后发现了厌氧氨氧化、完全氨氧化和直接氨氧化等无机氮代谢新途径。希瓦氏菌属(Shewanella)是目前已知的所有细菌中呼吸系统最丰富的微生物类群之一,且广泛分布于自然生境中,在微生物燃料电池和环境生物修复方面均具有潜在应用价值。本文从希瓦氏菌的硝酸盐还原酶系统、第二信使环状腺苷酸(cyclic AMP, cAMP)受体蛋白(cAMP receptor protein, Crp)的调控以及硝酸盐还原途径的调控和抉择机制等方面出发阐述希瓦氏菌中反硝化脱氮(denitrification)和硝酸盐异化还原成铵(dissimilatory nitrate reduction to ammonium, DNRA)的分子调控机制,旨在为理解水圈微生物驱动的氮循环机制和研发环境保护新工艺提供参考。

, correspAuthors=邱东茹, authorNote=null, correspAuthorsNote=null, copyrightStatement=版权所有©《微生物学报》编辑部2024, copyrightOwner=null, extLink=null, articleAbsUrl=null, sourceXml=P9CiUDgXZLUF+/DgbSOtxQ==, magXml=OAEXDMTcnFiGfavLsKg//Q==, pdfUrl=null, pdf=LF9GkoTP1H9E2V5Zw0Wa0w==, pdfFileSize=683648, pdfExtLink=null, richHtmlUrl=null, mobilePdfUrl=null, reviewReport=null, pdfFirstPage=null, abstractGraph=4zJCu2voFPYLM0JU20eNhQ==, abstractGraphContent=null, abstractVideo=null, citation=null, cebUrl=null, magXmlContent=f+kjzAXN0/FBs22bKgr0fQ==, mapNumber=null, authorCompany=null, fund=null, authors=null, authorsList=刘亚琦, 魏贺红, 戴景程, 刘双元, 邱东茹)}, authors=[Author(id=1243293083899642540, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, articleId=1242149204399829928, orderNo=0, firstName=null, middleName=null, lastName=null, nameCn=null, orcid=null, stid=null, country=null, authorPic=null, dead=0, email=null, emailSecond=null, emailThird=null, correspondingAuthor=0, authorType=1, ext={EN=AuthorExt(id=1243293084025471671, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, articleId=1242149204399829928, authorId=1243293083899642540, language=EN, stringName=Yaqi LIU, firstName=Yaqi, middleName=null, lastName=LIU, prefix=null, suffix=null, authorComment=null, nameInitials=null, affiliation=null, department=null, xref=1, 2, address=1 Institute of Hydrobiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan 430072, Hubei, China
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微生物脱氮与希瓦氏菌异化硝酸盐还原途径抉择机制
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刘亚琦 1, 2 , 魏贺红 3 , 戴景程 4 , 刘双元 5 , 邱东茹 1, *
微生物学报 | 水圈微生物专栏 2024,64(12): 4656-4668
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微生物学报 | 水圈微生物专栏 2024, 64(12): 4656-4668
微生物脱氮与希瓦氏菌异化硝酸盐还原途径抉择机制
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刘亚琦1, 2, 魏贺红3, 戴景程4, 刘双元5, 邱东茹1, *
作者信息
  • 1 中国科学院水生生物研究所, 湖北 武汉 430072
  • 2 中国科学院大学, 北京 100049
  • 3 河北工程大学 能源与环境工程学院, 河北 邯郸 056038
  • 4 武汉轻工大学 生命科学与技术学院, 湖北 武汉 430023
  • 5 生态环境部珠江流域南海海域生态环境监督管理局, 生态环境监测与科学研究中心, 广东 广州 510000
Microbial nitrogen removal and the molecular mechanisms underlying modulation and switching of dissimilatory nitrate reduction pathways in Shewanella strains
Yaqi LIU1, 2, Hehong WEI3, Jingcheng DAI4, Shuangyuan LIU5, Dongru QIU1, *
Affiliations
  • 1 Institute of Hydrobiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan 430072, Hubei, China
  • 2 University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
  • 3 School of Energy and Environmental Engineering, Hebei University of Engineering, Handan 056038, Hebei, China
  • 4 School of Life Science and Technology, Wuhan Polytechnic University, Wuhan 430023, Hubei, China
  • 5 Eco-Environmental Monitoring and Research Center, Pearl River Valley and South China Sea Ecology and Environment Administration, Ministry of Ecology and Environment, Guangzhou 510000, Guangdong, China
出版时间: 2024-12-04 doi: 10.13343/j.cnki.wsxb.20240716
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工业固氮和化学氮肥的广泛使用极大地提升了作物产量、缓解了粮食危机,然而所造成的氮污染问题严重影响人类健康和生存环境。氮污染的净化主要依赖于微生物驱动的氮循环,近30多年来,先后发现了厌氧氨氧化、完全氨氧化和直接氨氧化等无机氮代谢新途径。希瓦氏菌属(Shewanella)是目前已知的所有细菌中呼吸系统最丰富的微生物类群之一,且广泛分布于自然生境中,在微生物燃料电池和环境生物修复方面均具有潜在应用价值。本文从希瓦氏菌的硝酸盐还原酶系统、第二信使环状腺苷酸(cyclic AMP, cAMP)受体蛋白(cAMP receptor protein, Crp)的调控以及硝酸盐还原途径的调控和抉择机制等方面出发阐述希瓦氏菌中反硝化脱氮(denitrification)和硝酸盐异化还原成铵(dissimilatory nitrate reduction to ammonium, DNRA)的分子调控机制,旨在为理解水圈微生物驱动的氮循环机制和研发环境保护新工艺提供参考。

微生物脱氮  /  希瓦氏菌  /  环状腺苷酸受体蛋白(Crp)  /  反硝化脱氮  /  硝酸盐异化还原成铵(DNRA)

Although the large scale of industrial nitrogen fixation and chemical nitrogen fertilizer application have increased crop yields and alleviated food crisis, the excess discharge of nitrogen nutrients have affected the environment and human health. The treatment of nitrogen contamination is largely dependent on the nitrogen cycle driven by microorganisms. In the last three decades, researchers have discovered the inorganic nitrogen metabolism pathways such as anaerobic ammonia oxidation (Anammox), complete ammonia oxidation (Comammox), and direct ammonia oxidation (Dirammox). Shewanella, a genus of known bacteria with abundant respiration pathways, are ubiquitous in natural habitats and have potential applications in both microbial fuel cells and environmental bioremediation. In this review, we described the modulation mechanisms of denitrification and dissimilatory nitrate reduction to ammonium pathways in Shewanella from the nitrate reductase systems, regulation of the cyclic AMP (cAMP) receptor proteins (Crp), and modulation and switching of nitrate reduction pathways, aiming to give insights into the microbial-driven nitrogen cycling mechanism in the hydrosphere and the development of novel biotechniques and bioreactors for the removal and mitigation of nitrogen pollution.

microbial denitrification  /  Shewanella  /  cyclic AMP (cAMP) receptor proteins (Crp)  /  denitrification  /  dissimilatory nitrate reduction to ammonium (DNRA)
刘亚琦, 魏贺红, 戴景程, 刘双元, 邱东茹. 微生物脱氮与希瓦氏菌异化硝酸盐还原途径抉择机制. 微生物学报, 2024 , 64 (12) : 4656 -4668 . DOI: 10.13343/j.cnki.wsxb.20240716
Yaqi LIU, Hehong WEI, Jingcheng DAI, Shuangyuan LIU, Dongru QIU. Microbial nitrogen removal and the molecular mechanisms underlying modulation and switching of dissimilatory nitrate reduction pathways in Shewanella strains[J]. Acta Microbiologica Sinica, 2024 , 64 (12) : 4656 -4668 . DOI: 10.13343/j.cnki.wsxb.20240716
氮元素是生命活动的基本元素,在自然界中有着广泛的分布和形态。自然界中不同形式的氮元素通过复杂的循环过程维持着全球生态系统的平衡和稳定[1-2]。氮循环起始于氮的固定,在人类文明出现前生物固氮是地球上的主要固氮途径,估计每年为陆地上提供约90−130 Tg (百万吨)氮营养元素[3-5]。随着全球人口爆炸式地增长,自然固氮较低的效率满足不了全球对氮元素的消耗,人工固氮技术(也称合成氨技术)发明以后,在全世界的推广应用极大地提高了作物的产量,为缓解粮食危机、满足全球日益增长的人口需求作出了巨大贡献[6]。然而,工业固氮和氮肥的大量施用造成越来越多的活性氮(包括氨气、硝酸盐、氮氧化物等)向大气或水体中过量迁移,使自然界中固氮和脱氮作用间的原有平衡遭到破坏,氮循环也因此被严重扰乱,开始出现病态,进而导致温室效应、水体富营养化及土壤酸化等一系列生态环境问题,严重影响人类的生存[7-9]。氮污染的去除主要依赖于微生物驱动的氮循环[9]。希瓦氏菌属(Shewanella)是目前已知的所有细菌中无氧呼吸系统最丰富的微生物之一,可以利用多种电子受体进行无氧呼吸,在生态环境的生物修复中具有潜在的应用价值,是研究微生物氮循环的理想材料[10]。本文从多个方面对希瓦氏菌中的异化硝酸盐还原途径抉择的分子调控机制进行了阐述和总结,旨在为生物脱氮及环境修复提供参考。
自然界中的微生物在氮循环中扮演着重要角色,几乎所有的氮循环过程都有微生物的参与,如固氮作用(nitrogen fixation)、硝化作用(nitrification)、反硝化作用(denitrification)、氨化作用(ammonification)、铵同化作用(assimilation of ammonium)等[11-12] (图1)。自然界中的微生物具有极高的生物多样性和无限潜力,为适应复杂而多变的环境,不同微生物进化出特有的代谢调控机制,如完全氨氧化(complete ammonia oxidation, Comammox)菌的发现打破了100多年来氨(NH4+)氧化为硝酸盐(NO3)需要氨氧化菌(ammonia-oxidizing archaea/bacteria, AOA/AOB)和亚硝酸盐氧化菌(nitrite-oxidizing bacteria, NOB)共同参与的认知[13]。早在2006年,Costa等[14]预测可能存在完全氨氧化菌,多年以后才被证实[13, 15],这也表明只要一个化学反应过程在热力学上是可行的,必然会有相应的微生物进化出相关机制进行代谢和生长。因此,微生物必将在解决人类面临的环境和能源问题等方面发挥更大的作用。
参与氮循环的微生物根据代谢途径的不同分为不同的功能类群,如氨氧化菌、硝化细菌、反硝化细菌、固氮菌和厌氧氨氧化菌等,这些功能微生物不仅是地球元素循环的驱动泵,更是水环境处理工艺中除磷脱氮的主要角色[11-12, 16]。目前已知的微生物参与的脱氮途径主要有3种(图2):硝化-反硝化(nitrification- denitrification)脱氮途径、厌氧氨氧化(anaerobic ammonia oxidation, Anammox)途径和直接氨氧化(direct ammonia oxidation, Dirammox)途径。
硝化-反硝化脱氮途径是微生物最普遍的脱氮方法,全球范围内城市污水处理厂广泛采用的厌氧(anaerobic)-缺氧(anoxic)-好氧(aerobic)生物化学处理工艺(简称AAO或者A2O工艺)就是基于活性污泥微生物驱动的硝化-反硝化脱氮途径,既可脱氮,又可除磷[17]。该途径通常包括硝化细菌所介导的硝化作用和反硝化菌所介导的反硝化作用2个阶段。第1阶段的硝化反应通常在好氧条件下进行,氨(NH4+)先被氨单加氧酶(ammonia monooxygenase, Amo)和羟胺氧化还原酶(hydroxylamine oxidoreductase, Hao)氧化为亚硝酸盐(NO2),接着在亚硝酸盐氧化还原酶(nitrite oxidoreductase, Nxr)的催化下氧化为硝酸盐(NO3)[18-19]。此阶段可由氨氧化菌(AOA/AOB)和亚硝酸盐氧化菌(NOB)共同完成,也可由完全氨氧化菌(Comammox)独立执行。第2阶段的反硝化作用通常在缺氧条件下进行,NO3在硝酸盐还原酶(nitrate reductase) Nap和Nar催化下先被还原为NO2,然后在可溶性含铜亚硝酸还原酶(nitrite reductase) NirK或者细胞色素cd1亚硝酸还原酶NirS催化下还原为一氧化氮(NO),接着在一氧化氮还原酶系(nitric oxide reductase) NorB和NorC的催化下还原为一氧化二氮(N2O,也叫氧化亚氮),最后在一氧化二氮还原酶(nitrous-oxide reductase) NosZ的催化下还原为氮气(N2)[20-22]。此外,硝化反应所产生的中间产物NO2可直接参与反硝化作用,称之为短程硝化-反硝化(single reactor high activity ammonia removal over nitrite, SHARON)[23-24]
早前认为硝酸盐/亚硝酸盐的还原只能在厌氧条件下进行,氧气会抑制硝酸盐/亚硝酸盐的呼吸作用,随着研究的深入,研究人员发现有些菌在有氧条件下也可以进行硝酸盐/亚硝酸盐还原,最典型的是利用氧气和硝酸盐进行呼吸的泛养硫球菌[(Thiosphaera pantotropha,现改名为脱氮副球菌(Paracoccus denitrificans)][25-26]。这些好氧反硝化菌与厌氧反硝化菌不同,前者是利用周质空间硝酸盐还原酶Nap系统进行有氧硝酸盐还原,而后者是利用与细胞膜结合的NarA系统进行厌氧硝酸盐的还原[27]
第二种微生物脱氮途径是厌氧氨氧化(Anammox)途径。早在1977年就有科学家通过化学反应热力学计算预言微生物可能存在厌氧氨氧化现象[28],随后,荷兰Delft理工大学Kuenen教授团队经过多年努力,最终通过富集培养、流化床反应器以及同位素标记等手段证明了厌氧氨氧化现象的存在,并成功培养了高产量的厌氧氨氧化菌[29]。厌氧氨氧化是一种在无氧条件下,以NH4+为电子供体,以NO2为电子受体,将NH4+氧化为N2的过程(图2)[30],其中一氧化氮(NO)和联氨(N2H4)是重要的反应中间体,NO在联氨合成酶(hydrazine synthase, Hzs)的催化下将氨氧化为N2H4,后者在联氨氧化酶(hydrazine oxidoreductase, Hzo)的催化下转化为N2[31-32]。厌氧氨氧化细菌不仅广泛分布于淡水湖泊和湿地中,在海洋氮循环中也具有重要功能[33-34],尽管厌氧氨氧化在工艺和适用范围上存在巨大的困难,但其工艺的研究和开发方兴未艾。
直接氨氧化途径(Dirammox)是近年来中国科学院微生物研究所在产碱菌属(Alcaligenes)中发现的一条新的脱氮途径,即氨(NH4+)先被转化为有机氮化合物(R-NH2),然后被直接氨氧化(direct dinitrogen-forming, Dnf)基因簇氧化为羟胺(NH2OH),所产生的羟胺可被dnfAB基因直接催化氧化为N2[35-36]。除产碱杆菌属以外,直接氨氧化(Dirammox)现象也广泛存在于以假单胞菌属(Pseudomonas)为代表的γ-变形杆菌纲(Gammaproteobacteria)和以代尔夫特菌属(Delftia)为代表的β-变形杆菌纲(Betaproteobacteria)中,并受溶氧水平的调控[37]
相比于厌氧氨氧化和直接氨氧化途径,存在于大多数微生物中的反硝化脱氮途径不仅可以减少水体中NH4+含量,还能减少水体中NO3和NO2含量,更有利于环境氮循环的平衡。然而,土壤或水体中的NO3或NO2还存在另一种异化还原途径,即异化型硝酸盐还原成铵(dissimilatorily nitrate reduction to ammonium, DNRA)途径[38]。DNRA一般在厌氧条件下进行,NO3被硝酸盐还原酶催化还原为NO2后,未被NirK/NirS还原为NO,而是被细胞色素c亚硝酸还原酶(nitrite reductase) NrfA催化还原为NH4+,产生的NH4+可以被微生物和藻类同化吸收(图1)[38]。DNRA是缺氧条件下许多微生物进行无氧呼吸的主要途径,与反硝化脱氮反应竞争NO3和NO2底物[38]。具有反硝化脱氮或DNRA能力的菌群在自然界中广泛存在,甚至有些菌株同时存在这2种异化硝酸盐还原途径[38]。揭示反硝化脱氮和DNRA途径间的竞争机制有利于实现人为控制反硝化脱氮。希瓦氏菌的呼吸系统具有多样性,有的仅具有反硝化脱氮途径,有的仅具有DNRA途径,也有的同时具有反硝化脱氮途径和DNRA途径,是研究反硝化脱氮和DNRA途径抉择机制的良好材料,受到国内外专家学者的广泛关注[10]。本课题组也对希瓦氏菌异化硝酸盐还原途径进行了大量研究。因此,本文对希瓦氏菌异化硝酸盐还原的分子调控机制进行总结。
希瓦氏菌属(Shewanella)是一类广泛分布于海洋、淡水、沉积物和地层等多种环境的微生物,它们以呼吸系统的多样性和嗜冷性而闻名,既能在有氧气条件下利用氧气进行呼吸,也能在厌氧条件下利用金属离子和各种有机物进行异化还原,是目前已知的所有细菌中呼吸策略最丰富的微生物之一,在生物电池的开发以及生物修复、降解中具有很高的研究价值[10, 39]。希瓦氏菌属菌株多为兼性厌氧微生物,也是探究硝酸盐还原及其他氮代谢途径的理想材料。
硝酸盐还原为亚硝酸盐是硝酸盐异化还原反应的第一步,通常是在硝酸盐还原酶的催化下完成的。从已测序的希瓦氏菌的基因组分析和实验结果看,不同种类的硝酸盐还原系统差异较大[40]。大多数希瓦氏菌属细菌基因组中含有2个编码周质空间硝酸盐还原酶的基因簇,即NapEDABC (Napα)和NapDAGHB (Napβ)[40]。然而,也有些种类的硝酸盐还原酶系统简化,如奥奈达湖希瓦氏菌(S. oneidensis) MR-1菌株仅拥有Napβ,脱氮希瓦氏菌(S. denitrificans) OS217菌株仅拥有Napα[40]
在奥奈达湖希瓦氏菌MR-1菌株中,NO3先被NapA (由操纵子NapDAGHB和基因napF编码)催化还原成NO2,接着被NrfA催化还原成NH4+[41]。然而,反应过程中出现了NO2的积累现象,有人猜测可能是因为NrfA对氧气敏感,使其表达晚于NapA,但菌株MR-1中NapA (唯一的硝酸盐还原酶)和NrfA是同时表达的。Gao等[42]研究发现,菌株MR-1基因组中的CymA (c型细胞色素的一种,负责将电子传递给末端还原酶)首选电子接受蛋白是NapB,推测可能是NapB将电子挟持先传递到NapA (因为敲除菌株MR-1的napB基因后NO3和NO2的还原发生耦联),然后再将电子传递给NrfA,使NapA比NrfA更早地得到电子,因而产生NO2积累的现象。与MR-1菌株不同,脱氮希瓦氏菌OS217菌株在厌氧条件下可以利用NO3和NO2为电子受体进行反硝化产生N2O或者N2[43]。在OS217菌株中,硝酸盐还原酶是由NapEDABC基因簇(Napα)编码的,依赖于NapC (一种膜锚定的四血红素Nac/NirT家族的c型细胞色素)传递电子至NapB[40]
因此,有人推测依赖于NapC传递电子的Napα (NapEDABC)可能与反硝化途径耦联,而依赖于CymA获取电子的Napβ (NapDAGHB)主要参与硝酸盐还原成铵途径(DNRA)[40]。然而,Chen等[44]在同时拥有2个硝酸盐还原酶Nap基因簇的耐压希瓦氏菌(S. piezotolerans) WP3菌株中发现Napα (NapEDABC)和Napβ (NapDAGHB) 2个操纵子均参与DNRA途径;2种体系均在厌氧条件下被硝酸盐诱导表达,而在有硝酸盐的好氧情况下均不表达;此外,相较于野生型WP3菌株,敲除Napβ基因簇中napA基因的突变株在硝酸盐呼吸中更具优势。由此,Chen等[44]推测Nap的进化趋势可能为Napβ (NapDAGHB)作为原型起初存在,后来获得Napα (NapEDABC)而形成Napβ和Napα共同存在的状态,最后进化的方向可能是Napα。
基因组分析显示腐败希瓦氏菌(S. putrefaciens) W3-18-1中同时拥有Napα和Napβ基因簇[40],Wei等以该菌株为研究对象,发现在W3-18-1菌株中,虽然NapC和CymA是附着于细胞质膜的高度同源的c型细胞色素,负责将电子传递至其他细胞色素或末端还原酶,但两者在硝酸盐还原中的功能并不等同;NapC和CymA两者都参与DNRA,但前者只能将电子传递至Napα,而后者可以将电子传递至Napα、Napβ和NrfA[45]。这与Chen等在菌株WP3中的研究结果一致,即在菌株WP3中,CymA非特异性地传递电子给Napα和Napβ,而NapC更倾向于将电子传递给Napα,当硝酸盐被完全消耗后,CymA直接将电子传递给NrfA,CymA是唯一传递给NrfA的电子传递蛋白[44]。进一步研究发现,CymA中的第91位的赖氨酸(Lys-91)残基、第97位的天冬氨酸(Asp-97)残基和第166位的天冬氨酸(Asp-166)残基在硝酸盐和亚硝酸盐还原中起关键作用,Asp-166影响CymA的成熟,Lys-91影响CymA从醌库获取电子,而Asp-97可能是影响CymA与NapB和NrfA的相互作用的关键因素之一,这些结果说明同源性高的细胞色素在与其他蛋白质的相互作用方面存在差异,其细胞功能的不同不仅取决于基因表达上的不同,更取决于基因组成上的差异[45]
第二信使环状腺苷酸(cyclic AMP, cAMP)是细胞内参与调节物质代谢和多种生物学功能的重要信号分子,与细菌适应环境变化能力的调节密切相关[46]。细菌cAMP通常与其受体蛋白(cAMP receptor protein, Crp)结合形成cAMP-Crp复合体来发挥转录调控功能[46-47]。由于Crp或其同源蛋白广泛存在于不同细菌中,因此cAMP-Crp的调控作用在细菌中具有普遍性[46]。希瓦氏菌(Shewanella)利用硝酸盐作为电子受体进行呼吸时也受到第二信使环状腺苷酸(cAMP)受体蛋白Crp的调控[48]。不同的微生物中通常含有2−4个编码Crp家族蛋白的基因,大多数希瓦氏菌中通常存在的是编码Crp1 (b3357)和Crp3 (b1334)的相关基因[49]
Saffarini等[50]在希瓦氏菌MR-1菌株中(仅拥有Napβ)发现环状腺苷酸(cAMP)受体蛋白Crp (SO_0624)的缺失会导致厌氧硝酸盐还原酶活性的丧失,他们也在硝酸盐还原酶操纵子上找到了Crp结合位点,这表明在无反硝化作用的希瓦氏菌MR-1菌株中,Crp在厌氧呼吸调节中发挥重要作用[50]。在希瓦氏菌的染色体上,Napα操纵子上游区域缺乏Crp的结合位点,而Napβ操纵子和nrfA基因序列上游存在Crp结合位点[50-51]。Chen等[44]也发现耐压希瓦氏菌WP3菌株中的Napα和Napβ操纵子具有不同的控制机制。与菌株MR-1不同,敲除crp (Sputw3181_3522)基因的W3-18-1突变株仍能进行硝酸盐还原。然而,同时敲除crp基因和napα基因簇时,双突变株的生长受到限制,这表明napα基因簇的转录不受第二信使环状腺苷酸(cAMP)受体蛋白Crp的调控,在微氧条件下硝酸根即可诱导其表达,且要早于Napβ[51]。因此,菌株W3-18-1的硝酸盐还原反应比仅拥有Napβ基因簇的MR-1菌株相对提前,前者在氧气未耗尽之前即可进行反应,这种看似功能冗余的呼吸系统(拥有2个硝酸盐还原基因簇Napα和Napβ)使得菌株W3-18-1可以更好地适应氧气含量较高的环境,不仅如此,菌株W3-18-1比菌株MR-1含有更多的末端氧化酶、较少的c型细胞色素和末端还原酶,这些基因簇的细小差异可能增强了希瓦氏菌株的生态适应性[51]
然而,这些研究仅表明Crp家族蛋白在异化硝酸盐还原成铵(DNRA)途径中起到重要的调控作用,但Crp家族蛋白在反硝化脱氮途径中的调控尚不清楚。因此,本课题组在同时拥有Napα和Napβ这2个异化硝酸盐还原成铵的基因簇,以及编码有反硝化脱氮相关基因(即同时拥有DNRA和反硝化脱氮途径)的罗希海山希瓦氏菌(S. loihica) PV-4菌株中,通过框内缺失敲除基因的方法,构建crp缺失突变株(菌株PV-4中包含4个crp同源物)来研究Crp蛋白在异化硝酸盐呼吸途径抉择中的功能。研究发现,在菌株PV-4及其他反硝化细菌中,crp1 (Shew_0585)及其旁系同源基因crp2 (Shew_3331)可能都参与2个竞争性的异化硝酸盐还原途径,即Crp1可能参与DNRA途径的调节,而Crp2可能参与反硝化脱氮途径。在罗希海山希瓦氏菌PV-4菌株中,发现参与DNRA的相关基因簇如napβ (NapDABGH)、nrfA (编码将亚硝酸盐还原为铵的亚硝酸盐还原酶)和cymA的转录水平可被Crp1上调,而参与反硝化的nirK (编码将亚硝酸盐还原为NO的亚硝酸盐还原酶)的转录则依赖于Crp2。通过构建一系列缺失突变体,也进一步发现crp1的缺失影响nrfA基因的转录,而参与反硝化的nirKnorBCnosZ基因的转录显著上调,同时也加速了亚硝酸盐还原为一氧化氮(NO);crp2的缺失不仅阻断了NO的产生,也影响nirK基因的转录,这表明Crp1对于反硝化途径并非必不可少,它实际上抑制了NO和N2O的产生,crp1的缺失在关闭DNRA途径的同时也开启了反硝化途径;而Crp2参与反硝化脱氮途径的转录调节[49]。此外,基因组分析发现,具有反硝化作用的脱氮希瓦氏菌OS217菌株和亚马逊河希瓦氏菌(S. amazonensis) SB2B菌株等的基因组中也含有crp2,而大多数非反硝化菌中不存在crp2,这表明Crp2及NirK/NirS通常在反硝化菌中编码[49]
综上所述,Crp家族蛋白参与调控希瓦氏菌中异化硝酸盐还原途径。大多数希瓦氏菌中含有2个编码Crp蛋白(Crp1和Crp3)的基因,少数希瓦氏菌中含有3−4个编码基因。Crp1几乎存在于所有的希瓦氏菌中,主要参与DNRA途径,调控napβ基因簇、nrfAcymA基因的表达;Crp2仅存在于具有反硝化作用的希瓦氏菌中,调控nirKnorBCnosZ基因的表达。此外,napα基因簇的表达不受Crp家族蛋白的调控。
Costa等[14]在对微生物的生长速率(growth rate)和生长量(growth yield)之间的权衡机制(trade-off)进行模拟时发现,微生物的生长速率通常偏向于较短代谢途径(产生ATP的速率快,因而生长速率快),而其生长量通常偏向于较长代谢途径(ATP生成步骤多,产能量高,因而生长量高)。由此推断,在拥有不同氮代谢途径的环境微生物中,硝酸盐还原中的DNRA (2步反应)可以提高ATP的生成速度,进而提高生长速率,反硝化脱氮途径则通过多个产能步骤(4步反应),最大限度地提高能量产量和生长量。理论计算也显示DNRA和反硝化脱氮这2种硝酸盐还原过程相应的自由能变化比有氧呼吸分别降低35%和7%,似乎反硝化脱氮过程产生的ATP要远高于DNRA[52]。然而,Strohm等[52]用不同细菌种类进行的细胞纯培养实验结果表明,脱氮副球菌(P. denitrificans) DSM 65T和施氏假单胞菌(Pseudomonas stutzeri) DSM 5190T等反硝化细菌通过ATP转化的生长量不但远低于上述的理论计算值,甚至低于产琥珀酸沃林氏菌(Wolinella succinogenes) DSM 1740T和德氏硫化螺旋菌(Sulfurospirillum deleyianum) DSM 6946T等通过DNRA所合成的细胞质量。与Strohm等用不同细菌种类所做的比较研究不同,Yoon等[53]以同时拥有反硝化脱氮和DNRA途径的罗希海山希瓦氏菌PV-4菌株为研究对象,发现碳氮比(C/N)、温度、pH等都会影响硝酸盐还原代谢途径的选择,即高C/N时(NO3为限制条件),nirK基因和nosZ基因(编码N2O还原酶)的转录水平降低,导致DNRA途径占主导地位;低C/N时,电子供体的限制不仅增加了nirK基因和nosZ基因的转录水平,也降低了nrfA基因的转录水平,使反硝化脱氮途径占优势;在高温和高pH (碱性)条件下,nrfA基因表达水平上调,更有利于DNRA途径,而低温和低pH (酸性)条件更有利于反硝化脱氮。
本课题组在前期工作中发现,罗希海山希瓦氏菌PV-4菌株中Crp1参与DNRA途径的调控,而Crp2参与反硝化脱氮途径[49]。在此研究基础上,分别敲除DNRA途径和反硝化脱氮途径相关基因,比较这些来源于同一野生型菌株具有相同遗传背景的突变株的生长速率和生长量,发现缺失crp1nirK基因的PV-4双突变株因NO2还原为NH4+和NO均被阻断,几乎不能在硝酸盐为氮源和电子受体的培养基中生长。相比之下,在不同C/N和无氧条件下,PV-4野生型菌株(具有DNRA和反硝化途径)和缺失nirK基因的PV-4突变株(只具有DNRA途径)最初的生长速度最快,而缺失crp1基因的PV-4突变株(只具有反硝化途径)最终的产量最高。也就是说,野生型和缺失nirK基因的单突变株的DNRA途径生长速率最高,但生长量略低,而缺失crp1基因的单突变株通过反硝化途径的生长速率较低,但生长量较高。在低C/N和高C/N的有氧条件下,这一趋势更加明显[49]。Liu等通过计算生物能量证实了这一结果(图3),即低C/N (碳源为限制性因子),反硝化途径中每摩尔乳酸氧化产生的自由能高于DNRA途径,前者占优势;高C/N (氮源为限制性因子),反硝化途径中每摩尔硝酸盐还原产生的自由能低于DNRA途径,后者占优势[49]
自然界中的许多细菌可以同时拥有多种氮代谢和氮循环途径,而且催化同一步骤的酶或酶系也不同,甚至还存在表面上看起来功能冗余的旁系同源基因。微生物的这些途径可响应不同的环境条件和营养水平而起作用,并且受到细菌信号转导途径的紧密调控,以充分利用限制性的碳源(电子供体)或者氮源(电子受体)来进行生长和繁殖,提高种群存活的几率。
不同C/N不仅影响希瓦氏菌异化硝酸盐还原途径的抉择,也影响环境中具有异化硝酸盐还原能力的菌群的分布。研究表明高C/N更有利于经DNRA途径还原硝酸盐的微生物分布[54]。此外,大分子碳水化合物的水解也影响着环境中异化硝酸盐还原途径的选择,即当以葡萄糖(单糖)为碳源时,DNRA途径优于反硝化途径;当以蔗糖(二糖)为碳源时,DNRA效率降低,硝酸盐主要通过反硝化途径还原转化;当使用更难以降解的碳源纤维素(多糖)为底物时,几乎观察不到DNRA活性,这是由于缓慢可生物降解的底物提供更少的稳定碳源,导致反硝化作用比DNRA更受青睐[55]。不仅如此,水环境中参与异化硝酸盐还原的菌群分布也受到沉积物中盐度和垂直深度的影响,即深层(30 cm以上)和淡水沉积物中普遍存在DNRA优势,浅层(30 cm以内)和咸水沉积物中反硝化占主导[54, 56]
充分利用微生物驱动氮循环途径中的某些代谢过程,有望减轻工业固氮和人类活动所造成的氮营养过量输入生态环境的不利影响,有助于维持全球生态系统的平衡,减少氧化亚氮等温室气体的释放。对于水环境而言,利用微生物将硝酸盐、亚硝酸盐和铵盐等水溶性氮素通过硝化-反硝化、厌氧氨氧化和直接氨氧化等途径转化为气态分子氮逸出水体实现脱氮,防止水质恶化[57]。水环境中细菌的DNRA途径易造成亚硝酸盐的积累,厌氧氨氧化途径同时需要铵根电子供体和亚硝酸根电子受体,因此,DNRA途径可与厌氧氨氧化途径进行耦联,为后者提供丰富的电子受体[58],这种不同微生物的种间相互作用具有重要的生态学意义和应用潜力。
  • 国家自然科学基金(91751106)
  • 中国科学院中国-斯里兰卡水技术研究与示范联合中心项目(Y72Z261)
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2024年第64卷第12期
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doi: 10.13343/j.cnki.wsxb.20240716
  • 接收时间:2024-11-12
  • 首发时间:2026-03-21
  • 出版时间:2024-12-04
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  • 收稿日期:2024-11-12
  • 录用日期:2024-11-22
基金
National Natural Science Foundation of China(91751106)
国家自然科学基金(91751106)
Program of China-Sri Lanka Joint Research and Demonstration Center for Water Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences(Y72Z261)
中国科学院中国-斯里兰卡水技术研究与示范联合中心项目(Y72Z261)
作者信息
    1 中国科学院水生生物研究所, 湖北 武汉 430072
    2 中国科学院大学, 北京 100049
    3 河北工程大学 能源与环境工程学院, 河北 邯郸 056038
    4 武汉轻工大学 生命科学与技术学院, 湖北 武汉 430023
    5 生态环境部珠江流域南海海域生态环境监督管理局, 生态环境监测与科学研究中心, 广东 广州 510000

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2种不同金属材料的力学参数

Family
属数
Number of
genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of
total species (%)

Genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of total
species (%)
鹅膏菌科Amanitaceae 2 11 5.26 鹅膏菌属 Amanita 10 4.78
小菇科 Mycenaceae 2 12 5.74 丝盖伞属 Inocybe 5 2.39
多孔菌科 Polyporaceae 8 14 6.70 蜡蘑属 Laccaria 5 2.39
红菇科 Russulaceae 3 23 11.00 小皮伞属 Marasmius 6 2.87
小菇属 Mycena 11 5.26
光柄菇属 Pluteus 5 2.39
红菇属 Russula 17 8.13
栓菌属 Trametes 5 2.39
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