Article(id=1242149199123391108, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, issueId=1242149197907042945, articleNumber=null, orderNo=null, doi=10.13343/j.cnki.wsxb.20240515, pmid=null, cstr=null, oa=null, hot=null, price=null, onlineType=0, articleFormat=0, articleType=null, articleTypeStr=research-article, receivedDate=1723996800000, receivedDateStr=2024-08-19, revisedDate=null, revisedDateStr=null, acceptedDate=1730390400000, acceptedDateStr=2024-11-01, onlineDate=1774081047086, onlineDateStr=2026-03-21, pubDate=1730649600000, pubDateStr=2024-11-04, doiRegisterDate=null, doiRegisterDateStr=null, onlineIssueDate=1774081047086, onlineIssueDateStr=2026-03-21, onlineJustAcceptDate=null, onlineJustAcceptDateStr=null, onlineFirstDate=null, onlineFirstDateStr=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, createTime=1774081047086, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1774081047086, updator=13701087609, issue=Issue{id=1242149197907042945, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, year='2024', volume='64', issue='12', pageStart='4471', pageEnd='4951', issueExtLink='null', onlineDate='null', pubDate='null', beforeIssueId=null, nextIssueId=null, price=null, status=1, issueComplete=1, articleOrder=1, issueType=-1, specialIssue=null, createTime=1774081046797, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1774081046797, updator=13701087609, preIssue=null, nextIssue=null, ext=null, issueFiles=null}, startPage=4480, endPage=4503, ext={EN=ArticleExt(id=1242149199547015816, articleId=1242149199123391108, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, language=EN, title=Survival strategies of microorganisms in low-energy environments, columnId=1242149199001756290, journalTitle=Acta Microbiologica Sinica, columnName=Hydrosphere Microbiology, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

Microorganisms have survived and evolved in continuously changing and energy-limited environments for billions of years. Compared with those cultured in laboratories with abundant organic substrates, the microorganisms in natural oligotrophic environments exhibit significant differences in physiological states, gene expression, and protein synthesis. Under extreme and low-energy environmental stress, microorganisms utilize a range of substances such as hydrogen, ferrous ions, minerals, and organic remnants as energy or electron sources. They adjust their gene expression, metabolic pathways, and physiological states through various mechanisms to enhance energy utilization efficiency, adapt to nutrient-scarce conditions, sustain metabolic activities and population survival, and drive material transformation and element cycling. Understanding the physiological states of microorganisms in natural environments and their adaptive mechanisms to low-energy supply is crucial for revealing the microbial origins, evolution, growth, metabolism, dormancy, and the minimum energy requirements for life. This review introduces the formation, evolution, and distribution of natural low-energy environments (i.e., environments deficient in electron donors and carbon sources), as well as the physiological states and survival strategies of microorganisms in these variable low-energy environments. The research in this field advances microbial remediation technology development, extreme environment protection, and bio-mining technology development, representing a frontier in geomicrobiology.

, correspAuthors=Juan LIU, authorNote=null, correspAuthorsNote=
*LIU Juan, E-mail:
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微生物自出现以来,已经在持续变化且能量供应不足的环境中生存和演化了几十亿年。相比于实验室中有机底物充足的培养条件,天然寡营养环境中的微生物在生理状态、基因和蛋白表达等多方面表现出显著不同。在极端且低能量的环境胁迫下,微生物会利用周围环境中的氢气、亚铁离子、矿物、有机残体等多种物质作为能量/电子来源,通过多种方式调节自身基因表达、代谢途径和生理状态来提高能量利用效率,适应寡营养环境,获取维持生命代谢活动的能量并延续种群,驱动物质的转化和元素的循环。因此,深入解析天然环境中微生物的生理状态以及微生物应对低能量供给等环境胁迫时的适应生存机制,对于认识微生物的起源、进化、生长代谢、休眠、维持生命的最低能量极限等都具有重要意义。本文重点介绍了天然低能量环境(即电子供体和碳源缺乏的环境)的形成、演变和分布,以及微生物在变化的低能量环境中的生理状态及其生存策略,该领域的研究有助于推动微生物修复技术的开发、极端环境的生态保护、生物采矿技术的发展,是地质微生物学研究的前沿方向。

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A:指数增长期. B:早期平稳期. C:生长停滞期

, figureFileSmall=C7CaPYiAUUEOdglCBhjHLQ==, figureFileBig=37WjxA2Gbcaypz3rpnSQIQ==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1243293086982456119, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, articleId=1242149199123391108, language=EN, label=Table 1, caption=

Primary electron donors to early-Earth ecosystems[29]

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
电子供体
Electron donor
来源
Source
代谢过程
Metabolism
标准吉布斯自由能变ΔG0
Standard gibbs free energy change ΔG0 (kJ/mol)
H2陆地与海底火山
Subaerial and subaqueous volcanoes
产甲烷
Methanogenesis
−130
厌氧光合作用
Anoxygenic photosynthesis
−109
硫酸盐还原/铁还原
Sulphate reduction/Iron reduction
−38
产乙酸/脱氮
Acetogenesis/Denitrification
−98/−95
H2S陆地与海底火山
Subaerial and subaqueous volcanoes
厌氧光合作用
Anoxygenic photosynthesis
−113
硝酸盐还原
Nitrate reduction
−282
S0陆地火山大气反应
Subaerial volcanoes atmospheric reactions
厌氧光合作用/硫歧化
Anoxygenic photosynthesis/Sulphur disproportionation
−200–−300
Fe2+海底火山,风化
Subaqueous volcanoes, weathering
厌氧光合作用
Anoxygenic photosynthesis
−65.8
硝酸盐还原
Nitrate reduction
−300
CH4海底火山
Subaqueous volcanoes
厌氧甲烷氧化
Anaerobic methane oxidation
−38
NH4+海底火山
Subaqueous volcanoes
氨氧化
Anammox
−275
), ArticleFig(id=1243293087095702330, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, articleId=1242149199123391108, language=CN, label=表1, caption=

早期地球低能量生态系统的电子供体[29]

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
电子供体
Electron donor
来源
Source
代谢过程
Metabolism
标准吉布斯自由能变ΔG0
Standard gibbs free energy change ΔG0 (kJ/mol)
H2陆地与海底火山
Subaerial and subaqueous volcanoes
产甲烷
Methanogenesis
−130
厌氧光合作用
Anoxygenic photosynthesis
−109
硫酸盐还原/铁还原
Sulphate reduction/Iron reduction
−38
产乙酸/脱氮
Acetogenesis/Denitrification
−98/−95
H2S陆地与海底火山
Subaerial and subaqueous volcanoes
厌氧光合作用
Anoxygenic photosynthesis
−113
硝酸盐还原
Nitrate reduction
−282
S0陆地火山大气反应
Subaerial volcanoes atmospheric reactions
厌氧光合作用/硫歧化
Anoxygenic photosynthesis/Sulphur disproportionation
−200–−300
Fe2+海底火山,风化
Subaqueous volcanoes, weathering
厌氧光合作用
Anoxygenic photosynthesis
−65.8
硝酸盐还原
Nitrate reduction
−300
CH4海底火山
Subaqueous volcanoes
厌氧甲烷氧化
Anaerobic methane oxidation
−38
NH4+海底火山
Subaqueous volcanoes
氨氧化
Anammox
−275
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低能量环境中微生物生存策略
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钟超 1, 2 , 任媛媛 1 , 鲁安怀 2 , 刘娟 1, *
微生物学报 | 水圈微生物专栏 2024,64(12): 4480-4503
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微生物学报 | 水圈微生物专栏 2024, 64(12): 4480-4503
低能量环境中微生物生存策略
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钟超1, 2, 任媛媛1, 鲁安怀2, 刘娟1, *
作者信息
  • 1 北京大学 环境科学与工程学院, 水沙科学教育部重点实验室, 北京 100871
  • 2 北京大学 地球与空间科学学院, 矿物环境功能北京市重点实验室, 北京 100871
Survival strategies of microorganisms in low-energy environments
Chao ZHONG1, 2, Yuanyuan REN1, Anhuai LU2, Juan LIU1, *
Affiliations
  • 1 Key Laboratory for Water and Sediment Science, Ministry of Education, College of Environmental Sciences and Engineering, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China
  • 2 Beijing Key Laboratory of Mineral Environmental Function, School of Earth and Space Sciences, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China
出版时间: 2024-11-04 doi: 10.13343/j.cnki.wsxb.20240515
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微生物自出现以来,已经在持续变化且能量供应不足的环境中生存和演化了几十亿年。相比于实验室中有机底物充足的培养条件,天然寡营养环境中的微生物在生理状态、基因和蛋白表达等多方面表现出显著不同。在极端且低能量的环境胁迫下,微生物会利用周围环境中的氢气、亚铁离子、矿物、有机残体等多种物质作为能量/电子来源,通过多种方式调节自身基因表达、代谢途径和生理状态来提高能量利用效率,适应寡营养环境,获取维持生命代谢活动的能量并延续种群,驱动物质的转化和元素的循环。因此,深入解析天然环境中微生物的生理状态以及微生物应对低能量供给等环境胁迫时的适应生存机制,对于认识微生物的起源、进化、生长代谢、休眠、维持生命的最低能量极限等都具有重要意义。本文重点介绍了天然低能量环境(即电子供体和碳源缺乏的环境)的形成、演变和分布,以及微生物在变化的低能量环境中的生理状态及其生存策略,该领域的研究有助于推动微生物修复技术的开发、极端环境的生态保护、生物采矿技术的发展,是地质微生物学研究的前沿方向。

微生物  /  低能量环境  /  生理状态  /  基因表达  /  生存机制

Microorganisms have survived and evolved in continuously changing and energy-limited environments for billions of years. Compared with those cultured in laboratories with abundant organic substrates, the microorganisms in natural oligotrophic environments exhibit significant differences in physiological states, gene expression, and protein synthesis. Under extreme and low-energy environmental stress, microorganisms utilize a range of substances such as hydrogen, ferrous ions, minerals, and organic remnants as energy or electron sources. They adjust their gene expression, metabolic pathways, and physiological states through various mechanisms to enhance energy utilization efficiency, adapt to nutrient-scarce conditions, sustain metabolic activities and population survival, and drive material transformation and element cycling. Understanding the physiological states of microorganisms in natural environments and their adaptive mechanisms to low-energy supply is crucial for revealing the microbial origins, evolution, growth, metabolism, dormancy, and the minimum energy requirements for life. This review introduces the formation, evolution, and distribution of natural low-energy environments (i.e., environments deficient in electron donors and carbon sources), as well as the physiological states and survival strategies of microorganisms in these variable low-energy environments. The research in this field advances microbial remediation technology development, extreme environment protection, and bio-mining technology development, representing a frontier in geomicrobiology.

microorganisms  /  low-energy environments  /  physiological state  /  gene expression  /  survival mechanisms
钟超, 任媛媛, 鲁安怀, 刘娟. 低能量环境中微生物生存策略. 微生物学报, 2024 , 64 (12) : 4480 -4503 . DOI: 10.13343/j.cnki.wsxb.20240515
Chao ZHONG, Yuanyuan REN, Anhuai LU, Juan LIU. Survival strategies of microorganisms in low-energy environments[J]. Acta Microbiologica Sinica, 2024 , 64 (12) : 4480 -4503 . DOI: 10.13343/j.cnki.wsxb.20240515
在漫长的地质历史进程中,微生物作为地球早期生命的重要组成部分,广泛参与了全球主要元素的循环,并在地球系统中的物质转化过程中发挥了关键作用。通过长达30多亿年的代谢活动,微生物在地球环境的演化过程中起到了重要的“塑造”作用,对当前地球环境的形成以及生命的演化产生了深远影响[1]。尽管经历了行星撞击、全球冰川作用、大规模火山喷发等地质历史事件,微生物参与驱动地球系统元素/物质生物化学循环过程的“核心机器”被完好地保存了下来[2]。这些核心机器包括微生物的基因、蛋白、代谢途径等,在当今地球系统的元素循环和能量转化过程中仍然发挥着重要作用。17世纪初,显微镜的发明开启了人类对微观世界的探索,随后微生物分离和纯培养技术的建立,以及微生物遗传系统理论的完善,使得环境微生物的研究从表观描述逐步深入到基因和分子层面。然而,微生物在实验室培养条件下与天然环境中的代谢和生长等方面的差异性,限制了我们对于环境微生物生理生态功能的深入了解。例如,1985年,Staley和Konopka发现了“大盘计数异常(the great plate count anomaly)”现象[3],在自然环境样品中,通过显微镜观察到的微生物细胞数量远远高于在琼脂培养基上能够培养出的活菌数目,这表明传统的培养方法难以反映天然微生物的真实生长状态和差异性。此外,目前自然界中超过90%微生物尚无法通过传统的培养策略进行分离和纯培养[4],这限制了我们对环境微生物生理生态和功能的深入了解。随着微生物基因测序技术的飞速发展,大量不可培养的微生物被发现和分类[5]。尽管高通量测序技术能够揭示微生物的分布和功能信息,但仍无法准确了解微生物在特定环境条件下的生理状态、代谢途径及其与其他功能微生物的互作关系。因此,目前对微生物如何响应能量限制的环境胁迫以及在不同天然环境条件下生存和演化的理解仍然十分有限。
低能量环境(low-energy environment),指的是微生物从周围环境中可获取的能量受到了限制,包括有机碳、营养元素、电子供体等不足的环境[6]。这种低能量环境在天然环境中广泛分布。研究发现地球上超过70%的微生物生活在变化且极端的低能量环境中[7],例如深海底部、地下岩层和冰川冻土等。在这些低能量环境中,由于温度、压力、深度等环境条件的限制,光合生物固碳作用提供的有机碳远远低于微生物生长所需的水平。例如,深海环境中微生物利用的有机碳不到光合生物固定碳的1%[8]。因此,在低能量环境中,微生物通常具有较低代谢率和高效的能量利用机制以适应能量的匮乏。与实验室富营养培养下的微生物不同,天然低能量环境中的微生物往往处于静(quiescence)、休眠(dormancy)、饥饿引起的静止(starvation-induced stationary phase)或生长停滞状态(growth-arrested states)[9]。当面临营养缺乏或剧烈变化的环境时,这些微生物会进入非生长状态(non-growth state,包括代谢缓慢或者休眠状态)以应对环境胁迫,并在环境条件改善时从这种状态中“苏醒”过来恢复生长[9]。在天然低能量环境中,微生物倾向处于非生长状态,这种代谢缓慢或停滞的状态有助于微生物在恶劣且多变的环境中生存。然而,该领域仍存在许多亟待解决的科学问题:微生物在低能量环境中如何调节自身代谢来应对能量缺乏?它们的生命进程能缓慢到何种程度?在进入休眠后细胞多久会死亡?尽管单细胞水平技术和定量生物学的飞速发展为解决上述科学问题提供了新的思路和技术手段,但是大部分研究仍处于起步阶段[9]。本文概述了低能量环境的特征、分布和演化,汇总了低能量环境中微生物的能量来源类型及其适应机制,展望了该领域的前沿研究方向。阐明微生物在低能量环境中的生理状态和生存策略有助于深入理解微生物的多样性、进化适应性及其环境的协同演化。全球气候变暖、极端天气、生态退化等环境问题使得这些调节机制对微生物生存变得尤为重要。研究微生物在低能量环境下的代谢活动有助于理解碳、氮、磷等生源元素的全球循环,为开发微生物修复、生物采矿、碳中和、新能源等方面的新技术提供理论支持。
在漫长的地质历史时期中,地表环境经历着巨大的变迁,复杂的环境变化和生命代谢活动共同塑造了地球多样的生态环境。低能量环境的形成受到地质活动、气候变化和水文条件等多种因素的共同影响:(1) 地质活动,如火山喷发、地震等,会导致区域性低能量环境的形成。例如,海底扩张脊或火山活动形成深海热泉区,热液口喷发带出大量氢气和硫化氢滋养着大量的化能微生物,但在远离热液口几百米,氢气和硫化氢浓度基本上接近于海水中的浓度,并且由于该地区缺乏光照和有机物质输入,形成了区域性的低能量环境[10]。(2) 气候变化,冰期和干旱等气候事件会抑制环境中初级生产者的代谢活性,减少其他微生物的可利用的能量来源。例如冰期时大部分海洋表面结冰,影响了透光层微生物的光合作用,从而使海洋浅层形成低能量环境[11]。(3) 水文条件,水体循环和水文条件的变化也会导致低能量环境的形成,例如,地下水和深海由于缺乏光照,导致生物的光合作用受限,此外,海洋深部的水体循环缓慢,有机质输入较少,相较于表层,更容易形成低能量环境[12]
现代地球上的低能量环境广泛分布于各种生态系统中,无论是陆地还是海洋,从地球表层到深层。例如,在海洋系统中分布着广泛的低能量环境,包括局部表层海域和大部分深层海域。全球海洋表层叶绿素含量分布图显示,在近海叶绿素浓度可达到10 mg/m3以上,而远海则低于0.1 mg/m3[13]。这种远海低水平生产力主要是由于硝酸盐、磷酸盐和铁离子等关键营养物质的匮乏导致光合生物的生长受到了限制,从而形成了低能量供给的环境[14]。此外,深海由于光能和有机物输入的限制,形成了广泛的低能量环境,如深海沉积物等环境。深海是一个庞大的生态系统,栖息着超过一半的微生物(约3×1029个细胞)[15]。由于表层海域中微生物活跃的分解代谢作用,导致易降解有机质浓度随深度急剧下降,进入海洋深部的大部分是难降解有机物,使得深海成为地球上最大的有机碳(Corg)储库[16]。然而,这些难降解有机物难以直接被微生物分解代谢。研究发现深海微生物能够利用的有机碳仅为光合微生物所固定的1%[17],因此这些深部微生物的呼吸速率通常处于极低的水平[18]。为了应对深海低能量环境,许多微生物会进入非生长状态,其生物量的平均周转时间可达几十甚至上百年[16]
在地表极端环境,如陆地热泉、冰川和永久冻土、盐湖、酸性矿山废水(acid mine drainage, AMD)中,通常为低能量环境[19]。高盐、低pH、高浓度重金属离子、强辐射等环境因素限制了植物、光合微生物等初级生产者的生长,导致这些环境中的有机质含量通常较低。尽管如此,这些极端环境中仍然栖息着种类丰富的微生物,其能量来源和生存机制备受关注[20]。AMD是由矿山开采活动造成的低能量环境。采矿过程中,硫化物矿物从地下无氧环境搬运到地表环境后,通过氧化反应产生大量的硫酸根离子和氢离子,导致水体pH显著下降,形成强酸性和高重金属浓度的环境,这种极端环境不利于光合生物的生长繁殖,造成总有机碳浓度极低(10−50 mg/L,干旱区域甚至低于1 mg/L)[21]。地球的深部环境,如地下水系统、地下洞穴和深部地壳等,也是一类重要的低能量环境。研究发现微生物的数量和代谢活性随着深度呈指数下降。在1 500 m以下的深地环境中,微生物细胞数量仅为10−104个/cm3,其主要能量来源通常是化能而不是光能[22]。在这些环境中,微生物不仅面临高温、高盐、高压和辐射等环境胁迫,还需要应对低能量供给的问题[23]。经过数百万年的演化,微生物已经发展出了多种机制和代谢方式以应对极端环境并从中获取能量[24]
在天然湖泊和河流中,水流和气候条件变化等因素常导致水体中营养元素的流失和缺乏,从而形成局部或间歇性的低能量水体环境,如湖泊深部或冬季水库[25]。尽管初级生产者的固碳作用、陆源输入、大气沉降等过程提供了有机质,但好氧异养微生物会消耗大部分有机物和氧气,在水体下层或表层沉积物中形成局部厌氧的低有机质环境,对于底层异养微生物其可获取的能量受到了限制,从而形成了局部的低能量环境[26]。在这些生境中,活跃着多种厌氧微生物,例如硫酸盐还原菌(sulfate reduction microorganisms, SRMs)、异化铁还原菌(dissimilatory iron reducing bacteria, DIRB)[27],这些微生物长期处于低能量条件下,其能量来源、代谢方式和生存机制还有待进一步研究。
自地球形成以来,地表环境经历了显著变化。早期地球大气主要由氢气、硫化氢和甲烷等还原性气体组成,后来演变为氧气、二氧化碳和氮气等氧化性气体。约23亿年前,大氧化事件(great oxidation event, GOE)发生,大气中的氧气含量显著增加,导致地表环境和微生物代谢方式发生显著变化[28]。在GOE之前,初级生产者主要依靠化能自养进行二氧化碳固定和有机物合成。早期化能自养微生物所需的电子供体(如氢气、亚铁离子和硫化物等)通常由火山喷发、水/岩交互作用等地质过程产生,其产生速率远低于被消耗的速率,致古环境中电子供体浓度较低从而极大限制了初级生产力的水平[29]。因此,在早太古宙时期(约35亿年前),由于电子供体的限制,初级生产力水平仅为现代环境的6%−41% (图1),从而导致环境中有机质浓度处于一个较低的水平。在GOE之后,产氧光合微生物的繁盛使得初级生产力水平得到了较大的提高。这些微生物利用水中的电子固定大气中的二氧化碳并产生氧气。氧气的增加也促进了复杂生命形式的形成和演化。与此同时,有机质的输入也促进了异养微生物的繁盛,其中包括SRMs、DIRB等这些异养微生物对有机质的竞争消耗,可能导致环境中的有机质浓度保持在较低水平。研究表明,在晚太古宙时期SRMs介导的硫酸盐还原速率每年约为10−100 mol/L[31-32],而异化硫酸盐还原过程所需的电子远远高于当时初级生产力对应的有机质所能提供的电子[30]。因此,古环境中有机质所能提供的电子数目可能都远远低于微生物代谢所需的电子数目,导致微生物处于能量受限的状态。然而,大量地质证据证明,在低能量供给的古海洋环境中仍然存在丰富多样的微生物,驱动了大规模的矿物沉积和物质转化等过程[33]。探究微生物如何在能量限制的古环境中生存有助于理解微生物和环境的协同演化。
低能量环境的形成和演变是一个复杂的过程,受到地质活动、气候变化、水文条件、生物活动和人类活动等多种因素的影响。研究其形成和演变规律不仅有助于揭示微生物在低能量环境中的生存策略和适应机制,还为理解微生物与地球环境协同演化提供了科学依据。
多种地质活动能够显著改变低能量环境的分布和特性[34]。地壳运动,如板块构造、火山活动和地震等,可以改变地形和地貌,导致低能量环境的形成。例如,火山岛位于开放的大洋中央,缺乏来自陆地的营养物质输入。火山活动导致火山岛表面被火山岩和火山灰覆盖,土壤养分稀缺,逐步形成了低能量环境[35]。板块边界的构造活动,如造山运动,可以改变区域的水文条件,进而影响低能量环境的特性。板块碰撞形成的青藏高原,由于地理隔离、气候干旱寒冷和贫瘠的土壤条件,限制了其生态系统的生物生产力和营养循环过程,导致了该区域普遍营养匮乏[36]。板块构造运动导致地壳的拉伸、断裂、抬升或沉降,形成各种湖泊。一些湖泊由于地质构造的影响,水体垂直分层显著,加之周围岩石类型限制以及有限的营养物质输入,形成了寡营养的淡水环境[37]
地质活动通常也会导致气候的变化,进而影响低能量环境的形成与分布[38]。例如,频繁的火山喷发可能引发全球气候变化,影响极地等低能量环境的温度、冰盖和有机质输入,进而改变这些环境中的微生物生态。地质历史上经历了多次冰期和间冰期的循环,在冰期期间,海平面下降,浅海区域暴露,大量有机质沉积在深海,使浅海区域形成局部的低能量环境。在间冰期期间,气候变暖,冰川融化,有机质和营养物质输入增加,一些低能量环境逐渐变为富营养环境,但深海和地下环境仍然保持低能量状态[39]
生命活动和环境变化密切相关,生物代谢会影响到低能量环境的形成与分布,而环境变化也会影响到生物的代谢方式[40]。约4.7亿年前,第一批陆生植物出现。这些植物从水生藻类进化而来,主要生活在潮湿环境中,依靠水分扩散进行繁殖并进行活跃的光合作用[41]。随后,维管植物、种子植物和被子植物的出现使得陆地生态系统发生了巨大的变化,大量二氧化碳被固定成有机质,为地球系统提供了重要的初级生产力[42]。植物的光合作用和代谢活动依赖于氮、磷等营养元素,以及铁、锰、锌、钼等金属元素。然而这些元素在自然环境中分布不均,从而影响植物的生长和光合作用,进而导致区域性低能量环境的形成[43]。此外,低温、强酸/碱、高浓度重金属等恶劣的环境条件也限制了植物的生长,形成区域性低能量环境,例如各种类型的极端环境。微生物作为地球系统主要的分解者,通过代谢活动将有机质转化为简单的无机物释放到环境中。例如,陆地及海洋生态系统中存在大量的异养微生物,它们将蛋白、脂肪和长碳链化合物等大分子有机物分解成二氧化碳、水和氨基酸等[44],从而消耗土壤/海洋浅层中可利用的有机质,而难分解的有机质,如纤维素、腐殖酸等,沉降并埋藏到土壤深层/海洋底层,导致这些生境中异养微生物可利用的有机质含量较低,形成低能量环境[45]
截至目前,人类活动已经深刻影响到了地球环境。大规模的农业活动,如过度的放牧和农耕,使得土地生产力下降,导致大面积的土壤荒漠化,形成低能量环境。工业污染、矿山排水和城市废水对天然环境造成了不可逆的破坏作用,进而改变了环境的能量状态。例如,工业生产和矿山开采过程中产生的重金属离子排放到河流或者湖泊中会使得环境中的微生物群落结构发生变化,影响并改变了生产者和消费者的代谢活性和相对占比,进而影响了该环境的能量状态[21]。城市化改变了微生物的生存环境,进而影响微生物群落结构和多样性,与此同时,城市化导致的植被的破坏会使微生物可利用资源大幅度减少[46]。尽管城市化过程中产生的大量废弃有机物为微生物提供了一定的能量来源,但整体上,城市化仍然导致了更多的区域性/局部性低能量环境。
目前,关于微生物基因表达、能量合成和生长代谢的研究主要基于在富营养实验室培养条件下能够快速生长的模式微生物(如大肠杆菌)中。在这些条件下,大肠杆菌理论上可以在2 d内增殖到相当于地球质量的生物量。然而,实际环境中的细胞增长远远低于理论预测值。研究表明天然环境中微生物大多处于能量受限的状态,代谢缓慢且不进行分裂,其能量获取方式和代谢过程与实验室培养条件下的截然不同[9]。在低能量环境中,微生物通过高效捕获和利用无机电子供体、代谢有机残体和胞内存储物质、建立互营协作关系、调控基因表达、优化代谢途径、调节生理状态等途径,以应对电子供体和能量的匮乏,适应低能量环境。
生命体的维持依赖于能量的摄取和产生,而电子传递是生命体产生能量的主要途径。在产氧光合作用出现之前,早期生物圈主要依赖化能自养和不产氧光合作用形成有机质[29]。研究表明,早期地球生态系统中最活跃的代谢方式是氢气和亚铁离子驱动的化能自养过程。化能自养微生物通过氧化氢气、硫化氢、亚铁离子等无机电子供体来获取能量,固定二氧化碳来合成有机质[29]。虽然这种代谢方式所贡献的初级生产力比现代环境中的产氧光合作用产生的生产力要低至少2−3个数量级,但在光合作用出现之前,它对于古环境中微生物的生存和代谢至关重要。化能自养微生物仍广泛存在于现代极端环境(如热液喷发口、热泉、酸性矿山废水)中,对这些生境的初级生产力和元素循环具有重要贡献[23]。在低能量环境中,微生物主要利用以下电子供体进行化能自养代谢(表1)。
矿物和微生物长期共同存在于地球环境中。矿物为微生物提供物质和能量来源,共同驱动元素循环和环境演化[47]。微生物的主要能量来源包括太阳光子、元素价电子和矿物光电子。在低能量环境中,一些微生物可以通过直接/间接途径从含有变价金属元素的矿物(铁氧化物、锰氧化物等)中摄取价电子,用于能量合成[48]。此外,自然界中存在大量的半导体矿物(如赤铁矿、水钠锰矿等),能够将太阳光能转化为可以被非光合微生物利用的矿物光电子,为微生物提供能量来源[49]。在缺乏有机质的低能量环境中,矿物的价电子/光电子可能是微生物重要的电子/能量来源。
在太古代早期,由于产氧光合微生物的生长受限,导致海洋中有机质匮乏,异养微生物处于能量供给不足的环境[50]。在GOE之前,古海洋中氧气含量低,铁元素主要以亚铁离子(Fe2+)形式存在;铁氧化菌(如依赖硝酸盐还原的铁氧化菌,nFeOB)能够以Fe2+作为电子来源、硝酸盐作为电子受体进行代谢;在GOE之后,古海洋环境从整体缺氧的还原状态演变为上部氧化、下部还原的“分层”状态;铁元素主要以三价铁氧化物的形式存在,Fe2+无法在海水透光层中稳定存在,使得nFeOB的电子来源受到限制;为了适应这一变化,铁氧化菌进化出从含Fe(II)的矿物(如磁铁矿、绿锈、黄铁矿、马基诺矿等)获取价电子的能力,使其能够在有机质匮乏的环境中获取电子和能量;由于固体矿物无法进入微生物胞内,铁氧化菌利用跨膜电子传递途径将胞外固体矿物的价电子传递到胞内;例如,嗜中性铁氧化菌(Sideroxydans lithotrophicus) ES-1和沼泽红假单胞菌(Rhodopseudomonas palustris) TIE-1可以利用以细胞色素蛋白组成的跨膜电子传递通路(MtoABC和PioAB)从胞外矿物获取价电子[51-53]
在地表透光系统中,如岩石表面普遍被一层厚度较薄、颜色灰黑、构造多孔的“矿物膜”覆盖,“矿物膜”中大部分矿物为半导体矿物,其中包含以针铁矿和赤铁矿为主的铁氧化物和以水钠锰矿为主的锰氧化物;“矿物膜”在日光辐射下具有稳定而灵敏的光电转化性能,能够产生大量矿物光电子(e)和光空穴(h+)[54]。自然环境中一些还原性物质,如腐殖酸、二价铁、低价态硫、微生物生物电子等,可以填补光生空穴[55],使半导体矿物产生的光电子和光空穴分离。矿物光电子能够直接影响微生物的代谢或在地表经由环境介质(如有机质、变价元素等)进行长距离传递,最终进入非光合微生物胞内参与其能量代谢过程[56]。如光电子可还原二氧化碳产生小分子有机物(如甲酸、乙酸等可被微生物代谢的有机物),也可还原变价金属元素如还原Fe3+形成Fe2+被铁氧化菌代谢利用[56]。最近研究也发现半导体材料硫化镉(CdS)在光照条件下产生的光电子可以促进非光合微生物热醋穆尔式菌(Moorella thermoacetica)还原力的形成和产乙酸代谢过程[57-58]。Zhong等研究发现,在有机质缺乏/去除的条件下,非光合的异养微生物——脱硫脱硫弧菌(Desulfovibrio desulfuricans) 可以通过多条跨膜途径(包括细胞色素c、纳米导线和黄素的合成)来摄取闪锌矿(ZnS)产生的光电子,帮助其在低能量的环境中存活(图2)[59]。Liu等研究发现,在天然典型透光层——黄海近海岸区域中,近海透光层悬浮颗粒物中存在的大量赤铁矿、针铁矿、锐钛矿、金红石等半导体矿物并具有良好的光电响应,通过对天然样品光照富集培养得到高丰度的电活性微生物,其中假单胞菌属(Pseudomonas)和副梭菌属(Paraclostridium)为优势菌,推测在近海岸透光层中半导体矿物产生的光电子可以为电活性微生物提供源源不断的电子/能量[60]。矿物不仅可以为微生物提供物质/营养元素来源,还可以在各种极端环境中为微生物提供庇护所和能量[47]
部分人造材料,如金属铁和电极,也可以作为微生物的电子来源。在金属腐蚀过程中,微生物在金属表面形成生物膜,表层异养微生物的代谢作用消耗大部分的氧气和有机质,使得生物膜的底部形成厌氧的低能量环境[61]。如嗜铁脱硫弧菌(Desulfovibrio ferrophilus) IS5可以利用外膜细胞色素c蛋白及其纳米导线,从零价铁中获取电子用于合成能量和硫酸盐还原,在生物膜内部的低能量环境存活下来[62]。近年来,越来越多的嗜电微生物(electricity- consuming microorganisms)从不同生境中发现和分离,它们可以在不添加有机底物的环境中,以阴极电子为电子供体进行氮气固定、二氧化碳固定、产氢、有机质合成等代谢活动[63]。这些以电极电子为“食”的嗜电微生物在生物能源开发、有机质合成、环境生物修复等方面都有重要的应用前景。
在海洋生态系统中,微生物可利用有机质的浓度随着海水深度增加而逐渐下降,微生物的细胞密度和代谢活性也随之呈指数下降[6]。微生物死亡后,其残体下沉到海底,成为深部微生物重要的能量和物质来源[64]。这些微生物残体主要由蛋白质和多糖构成,微生物通过发酵作用将残体转化成小分子有机质,供深部微生物利用。例如,微生物可以通过甲烷发酵反应将死细胞中的蛋白质转化为乙酸、氢气和二氧化碳,用以产生甲烷以及合成自身的蛋白质[64]。在深部能量匮乏的环境中,由于氨基酸的合成需要消耗能量,微生物更倾向于通过外界直接摄取氨基酸用于蛋白质的合成,从而在热力学上实现更高效的碳转化和生物量合成[65]。此外,研究表明来自墨西哥湾(51%)和地中海(35%)的微生物细胞中检测到非传染性病毒DNA,表明病毒可能在海洋微生物食物网中扮演着重要角色,并可能构成海洋中病毒颗粒的重要储存库[66]。在低可利用有机质的环境中,微生物能够摄取并转化这些病毒为自身的碳源,这一过程对微生物食物网中的碳循环有着重要的影响作用,也为有机质匮乏环境中的微生物提供了重要的碳元素和能量来源。
在能量匮乏的环境中,微生物还可以代谢自身细胞结构或胞内存储物质来补充能量,从而在长期能量限制的环境中生存。研究发现,霍乱弧菌(Vibrio cholerae)在饥饿状态下可以利用自身的膜结构作为其物质和能量来源,维持细胞活性,以在长期缺乏营养的环境中生存[67]。此外,微生物还可以代谢胞内存储的物质,如糖原、聚磷酸盐和聚羟基烷酸盐(polyhydroxyalkanoates, PHA)等,来应对能量受限的环境。聚羟基烷酸酯是一类由微生物合成的天然生物聚合物,作为细胞内碳源和能量的储存形式,通常在碳源充足但其他营养(如氮或磷)缺乏的情况下合成。研究发现,微生物在进入休眠时会大量合成聚羟基烷酸酯等物质作为碳源和能源储备[68],在营养条件恶劣时,这些物质可以被分解为单体,用于维持细胞的基础代谢过程。
互营(microbial symbiosis)是微生物的重要生存策略。通过种群间的互作和互利,微生物能够协同应对环境变化并维持种群结构的长期稳定。为了克服自然界资源的限制,微生物种群创建了一种“劳动分工”或“资源分配网络”,以支持每个互营微生物的生存。该网络包括资源(电子供体和受体、微量金属元素和碳源等)的生产、转移和利用(图3)。在资源分配网络中,一个成员产生的代谢产物可被另一个成员利用[69],这种互营方式可以通过被动或主动摄取方式实现微生物之间的资源传递,例如纳米管合成、团聚体的形成、主动扩散和运输蛋白介导等。微生物间互营方式包括:(1) 通过交换可扩散的代谢产物(如氢气、甲醇、甲硫醇、氨基酸或碳水化合物),互营微生物能够显著提高生物量及能量的合成,并拓展能量来源和碳源的类别;(2) 互营微生物可以利用彼此产生的酶和相关蛋白,节省合成蛋白所需的能量;(3) 某些微生物能够产生抗生素或其他生物活性物质,抵御共同的病原体或竞争者,保护互营关系中的其他成员;(4) 研究发现,不同微生物之间可以通过细胞色素c蛋白和纳米导线进行种间电子传递(interspecies electron transfer, IET),帮助微生物进行代谢。例如,金属还原地杆菌(Geobacter metallireducens)代谢乙醇产生的生物电子通过纳米导线传递给硫还原地杆菌(Geobacter sulfurreducens)还原富马酸盐从而获取能量,两者能形成紧密的团聚体,共同适应复杂多变的环境[70]。导电矿物和电子传递介体(如磁铁矿、腐殖酸等)也可以介导G. metallireducensG. sulfurreducens之间的电子传递,加速两者互营关系的建立[71-72]。在硫酸盐-甲烷转换带(sulfate methane transition zone, SMTZ)中,硫酸盐还原菌(SRMs)可以利用厌氧甲烷氧化古菌(anaerobic methanotrophic archaea, ANME)产生的生物电子进行硫酸盐还原,该过程控制海床甲烷的排放,对于全球的气候变化起着重要的调控作用[73]。甲烷氧化-硫酸盐还原反应在自然环境条件下的产能(−20 kJ/mol CH4到−40 kJ/mol CH4)远低于代谢有机物产生的能量[74],但研究发现SRMs和ANME能够形成紧密的团聚体,通过种间电子传递在有机质匮乏的环境中存活[75]。因此,微生物种群的互营机制是不同种微生物共同应对环境胁迫,在低能量供给环境的重要生存机制。
在低能量环境中,微生物通过多种生存策略应对能量限制的胁迫。这些策略包括形成芽孢、改变细胞形貌、构建生物膜等[76]。当环境中资源变得充足时,微生物会迅速恢复生长与分裂;而在环境恶劣时,微生物又会进入代谢停滞或者休眠状态,以等待有利环境条件的到来[77]
芽孢(endospores)是微生物在不利环境条件下形成的一种耐久性结构,是其应对环境胁迫的常见生存策略[78]。芽孢的形成使得微生物能够在干燥、高温、高辐射等恶劣环境条件下进入休眠,并在环境改善时再次萌发成为活跃的细胞。厚壁孢子(akinetes)是某些蓝藻的营养细胞通过增大体积、积累储存物质(如糖原和蛋白质)形成厚壁结构。虽然厚壁孢子在不利环境下能够存活,但其耐受极端条件的能力通常不如芽孢[79]。这些耐久性结构使微生物能够在极端环境(例如冰川、深海沉积物、热液口等)中生存。研究发现在深部生物圈中,芽孢的数量通常和营养细胞数量相当[80]。形成芽孢的模式微生物主要包括芽孢杆菌属和梭菌属的细菌[81]。这些微生物在缺乏水、营养物质等环境中形成芽孢,并能在此状态下存活几年到几十年。在一些冻土等严寒的极端环境中,芽孢杆菌属的细菌更趋向于形成芽孢来对抗环境胁迫,有些芽孢甚至可以在低温环境中存活上万年。虽然休眠可以增加微生物在严酷的环境中存活的机会,但在随着周围环境中可利用能量逐渐减少,休眠可能会使微生物最终走向死亡。此外,微生物从休眠期苏醒需要额外的能量,如芽孢萌发和关键大分子积累损伤的修复,可能会将细胞置于不利地位。研究发现,在冻土中冰冻了几十万年的微生物群落中,为了长期生存下去,大部分微生物倾向于不形成芽孢[82],因此,芽孢在低能量环境中的作用及其对微生物群落延续的影响仍需要进一步探究。
在低能量环境中,微生物通过提高底物的摄取效率、降低最低能量需求以适应不利的环境条件[16]。增加细胞的比表面积是微生物增加对外界营养物质吸收、获取更多能量的重要手段。1977年,Kuenen等研究发现,当有机底物减少时,微生物细胞形态从棒状逐渐变成螺旋状,推测这种形态的改变可能有助于营养物质的摄取[83]。在天然低能量环境中,微生物细胞倾向于变得更小、更圆[80]。Kallmeyer等通过研究大量海底沉积物中的微生物细胞,发现这些细胞直径通常在0.2−0.7 µm之间,平均体积为0.042 µm3,且多为球形[84]。相比之下,在实验室富营养状态下培养的细胞体积通常可达到0.5 µm3[85]。这种在深海沉积物中观察到变小的细胞,与天然寡营养海水中的微生物以及经过长期饥饿后培养的微生物在形貌上具有相似性[80]。因此,改变细胞形貌来提高能量的获取效率,可能是微生物应对能量限制的常见策略。然而,细胞比表面积的增大也有限度,因为过大的比表面积需要消耗更多能量来维持,这对于微生物而言并不划算。
微生物会在多种环境中形成生物膜,以增强其生存能力。生物膜不仅能够保护微生物免受外部环境胁迫,还通过集体行为优化营养物质的利用和信号的传递[86]。在医疗领域中,病原微生物如金黄色葡萄球菌、肺炎球菌、铜绿假单胞菌等,在抗生素和药物的胁迫下,往往通过形成生物膜来抵御化学药品的胁迫。例如,在囊性纤维化患者的肺部感染中,铜绿假单胞菌形成的致密生物膜导致常规的抗生素治疗效果不佳,引发慢性、难以治愈的感染。然而,抗生素作用期间,一部分细胞会成为代谢活性极低的“持留细胞”(persister cells),它们对几乎所有抗生素都耐受,并在抗生素消失和营养物质来临时重新激活,导致感染复发[87]。根据“侦察兵假说(scout hypothesis)”,在生物膜生态系统中,如果某个复活的细胞遇到合适的条件(如抗生素消失、营养物质增加等),它可能会产生群体感应化合物(如Rpf),唤醒休眠的同类[88]。相比之下,生物膜的存在进一步促进了群体感应分子的扩散和传递。在低能量环境中,生物膜的形成还可以帮助微生物更有效地获取能量。例如,在有机质匮乏的环境中,硫酸盐还原菌为了应对低能量胁迫,会主动形成生物膜,在菌体周围固定富集闪锌矿纳米颗粒,从而更好地获取闪锌矿产生的光电子用于细胞代谢[59]。尽管硫酸盐还原菌也可以通过分泌电子穿梭体等物质进行长距离的电子传递[89],但是研究表明依赖外膜细胞色素c蛋白和纳米导线的直接胞外电子传递途径介导了超过90%的光电子摄取。因此,生物膜的形成有利于微生物种群更有效地进行电子传递和能量摄取[59]
在低能量环境中,微生物不仅在生理层面发生变化,还在基因组和基因表达调控等方面进行了适应性进化。这些变化包括基因组重排、基因表达调节和非编码RNA的合成等,从而帮助微生物更好地适应低能量环境[77]
通过基因组重排,微生物能够删除或重组不必要的基因,从而大幅度减少能量消耗。例如,长期处于低能量环境中的放线菌会丢失部分次要代谢基因,以优化其基因组结构[90]。在低能量环境中,微生物通常进入非生长状态,其显著特征是DNA复制和细胞分裂受到抑制,同时DNA核区也发生变化。进入非生长状态的微生物核区呈现出凝缩甚至结晶状的形态,这种状态被认为可以保护DNA免受损伤,为微生物提供生存优势[91]。例如当大肠杆菌的细胞处于不同生理状态时,其胞内DNA核区的形貌和功能会发生显著变化(图4)。在指数生长期时(exponential phase),核区DNA和RNA呈松散分布,大肠杆菌进行活跃的复制和转录等生命活动(图4A)。然而,当细胞进入早期静止期时(early stationary phase) (图4B),尽管复制活动仍在进行,但细胞分裂、核糖体生物合成和其他生物合成活动会被抑制。研究表明,大肠杆菌的细胞分裂过程由细胞膜的糖基转移酶(O-polysaccharide glycosyltransferase H, OpgH)与细胞分裂调节因子(FtsZ)的相互作用进行调控。在营养匮乏时,OpgH水平降低,抑制FtsZ组装,进而抑制细胞分裂[92]。当细胞进入到生长停滞期时(growth stasis) (图4C),细胞的核区进一步凝缩,核糖体数量显著减少,核区的复制、转录和翻译等功能进入停滞状态。同时,大量的Dps蛋白通过与DNA结合,将其与细胞中的有害物质隔离,以保护DNA免受损伤[93]。由于DNA损伤修复是非常耗能的过程,因此维持核区功能对于微生物的生存至关重要。细胞在不同生长时期中核区形态的变化,正是微生物在不同环境条件下维持核区功能的关键机制。
当外界环境发生变化时,微生物通过调节基因表达来启动或抑制特定的代谢途径,从而更好地适应环境的变化。这个过程可以通过调节转录调控蛋白质(如激活子或抑制子)的活性来实现。例如,在营养充足时,大肠杆菌通过转录延伸因子(NusG)的作用,使转录启动子结合的RpoD共识序列的基因高度表达,从而加快转录过程。此外,转录延伸因子有助于DNA链与RNA聚合酶的结合,进一步促进转录;当营养物质受限时,大肠杆菌会降低基因表达速率,改变生物合成方向;此时RNA聚合酶会倾向于优先转录更为紧迫的基因,例如那些防止或修复DNA损伤、渗透保护、重新折叠损坏蛋白质或促进缺失中间体合成的基因[94]。此外,大肠杆菌通过调节环磷酸腺苷(cyclic adenosine monophosphate, cAMP)的水平来控制乳糖操纵子(lactose operon, Lac)的表达,以适应不同的营养环境。当葡萄糖水平低时,大肠杆菌胞内cAMP水平升高,cAMP与cAMP受体蛋白(cAMP receptor protein, CRP)结合,形成的复合物能够促进Lac操纵子的转录,从而加快乳糖的代谢;当大肠杆菌处于低营养环境,并暴露于非葡萄糖的碳源时,它会通过一系列信号传导和基因表达调控机制,包括利用Lac操纵子、阿拉伯糖操纵子(arabinose operon, Ara) (负责阿拉伯糖的代谢)和半乳糖操纵子(galactose operon, Gal) (负责半乳糖的代谢)[95],以迅速适应新的碳源。精确快速的转录调控过程能够帮助微生物迅速适应环境变化,节省胞内能量开支,提高微生物在低能量环境中的生存能力。
非编码RNA (non-coding RNA, ncRNA)是一类不翻译成蛋白质的RNA分子。与编码蛋白质的mRNA不同,ncRNA在基因表达调控、RNA加工、染色质结构调控及其他生物学过程中具有重要作用[96]。在低能量环境中,微生物通过调节代谢途径以提高能量利用效率。ncRNA可以通过与特定mRNA结合,调节相关基因的表达。例如,小RNA (sRNA)可以通过阻止mRNA的翻译或促进其降解迅速调节代谢酶的水平,以帮助微生物适应能量供给的变化。在铜绿假单胞菌(Pseudomonas aeruginosa)中,非编码RNA (RsmZRsmY)通过结合RNA结合蛋白(RNA-binding protein involved in the regulation of the small RNA, RsmA),调控与群体感应、运动性和生物膜形成相关的基因表达;在低氧或营养限制的条件下,RsmZRsmY的表达增加,抑制RsmA的活性,从而促进生物膜的形成,这有助于细菌在不利环境中通过集群生活方式提高生存率[97]。在沙门氏菌(Salmonella enterica)胞内,MicA是一种重要的sRNA,它调控外膜蛋白(outer membrane protein A, OmpA)的表达,帮助细菌适应宿主细胞内的低pH和低营养环境。此外,MicA还参与调节与膜稳定性和耐药性相关的基因表达,增强细菌在宿主体内的生存能力[98]
在低能量环境中,微生物必须优化其代谢途径,以提高资源利用效率和能量保存,从而在能量资源匮乏的环境中生存下来。这种优化通常涉及提高能量合成效率,降低能量消耗、重新分配代谢途径和调整资源利用优先级。
在低能量环境中,微生物会优先将摄取的底物转化为通用的“能量货币”,通常为ATP。ATP的合成主要通过底物水平磷酸化和电子传递磷酸化2种方式实现。底物水平磷酸化在底物充足的情况下产生能量,而在底物缺乏的低能量环境中,微生物通常依赖电子传递磷酸化过程来生成能量[99]。在电子传递磷酸化过程中,微生物通过泵出H+或Na+离子来建立质子驱动力,从而推动ATP的合成。因此,细胞需要维持其细胞质中H+/Na+浓度低于外部周质浓度,才能通过H+/Na+浓度差来获取能量。如果微生物不能主动进行H+/Na+的跨膜运输,则无法合成ATP。H+/Na+被动的逆向扩散会导致能量损失,微生物必须通过额外的主动运输来补偿这部分能量的损失。在实验室底物或营养丰富的环境中,这部分能量损失只占总能量的一小部分。然而,在深地或深海等低能量环境中,被动的跨膜扩散会导致显著的能量损失。为了减少在低能量环境中的能量损失,研究发现微生物会改变细胞膜的通透性来减少这部分的能量损失。例如,古菌通过增加膜脂肪酸链的长度或饱和键的数量来降低细胞膜的通透性,从而提高它们在长期能量限制环境中的能量利用效率[100-101]。这些具有低通透性细胞膜的古菌在深部海洋沉积物中的丰度会远远高于表层沉积物[102]。此外,由于H的跨膜通透性比其他离子高出几个数量级[103],因此深部微生物更倾向于利用Na+驱动力来介导合成ATP,以减少因被动扩散产生的能量损失[104]。对深层地下环境微生物样品的测序研究显示,Na⁺驱动的ATP合成酶c亚基的编码基因显著富集[105]。以上结果表明,Na⁺驱动的ATP合成系统在地球深部低能量环境中更为广泛存在,可能是微生物为提高能量合成效率的一种普遍适应性机制。
在环境能量匮乏时,许多微生物会进入静息或休眠状态。细胞在这种状态下仅维持基本的生理功能(例如核酸等生物大分子的维持和修复)[106]。核酸的完整性对于微生物的感受和复苏至关重要,其损坏意味着微生物可能进入不可逆的死亡过程。此外,微生物的能量储存在休眠状态下主要以氧化-还原电势的形式存于胞内,而非ATP[107]。尽管处于休眠状态,微生物仍需要消耗一定的能量,这种能量通常称为“存活能量”(survival energy),其仅为正常生长状态下维持能量(maintenance energy)的千分之一[108]。微生物在休眠状态下胞内的低能量水平有助于微生物应对长期的低能量胁迫。当休眠微生物遇到适宜的环境或营养物质来临时,微生物膜表面的受体蛋白会与环境中的物质(如丙氨酸)结合,触发微生物的复苏,而这一结合过程通常不消耗能量,从而帮助休眠微生物更快地复苏[109]
微生物通过进化出多样的代谢途径,能够在不同的环境条件下灵活切换代谢方式,从而在不同生态位中生存。例如,如希瓦式菌(Shewanella)具有多种呼吸链,能够利用氧气、硝酸盐、亚硝酸盐等多种电子受体进行呼吸,实现产能最大化[110]。此外,微生物还可以利用其代谢产物作为电子受体进行代谢。在有氧的环境中,结核分枝杆菌(Mycobacterium tuberculosis)倾向用反向三羧酸循环(reverse tricarboxylic acid cycle, rTCA cycle)消耗氧气来产生还原力NADH。当氧气耗尽时,该菌可以重组其代谢途径,利用自身代谢产生的富马酸盐替代氧气作为电子受体进行氧化磷酸化,从而在缺氧的环境中存活[111]。此外,微生物可以根据环境中可用的碳源来调节其代谢途径。例如,硫酸盐还原菌在缺乏优质碳源(如乳酸钠)的情况下,可以利用乙醇、乙酸盐等其他碳源进行代谢,抑制能量消耗高的合成代谢途径[27]。微生物还可以通过调节多酶系统的活性,在低能量状态下选择性激活关键代谢途径,关闭或减少非必需代谢途径的活动,以减少能量和资源的浪费。例如结核分枝杆菌在宿主的低氧、营养匮乏环境中生存时,通过减少三羧酸循环(TCA cycle)的活性,并增加乙酸盐和脂肪酸的利用来适应低能量环境。同时,该菌还能够通过调控糖酵解和糖异生途径实现能量的高效利用[112]
代谢产物的再利用(或称“代谢循环”)是微生物在低能量环境中生存的关键策略之一。通过重新利用自身或其他微生物产生的代谢产物,微生物能够维持基本的生理功能,提高能量利用效率,并在资源有限的环境中生存。这些可循环利用的代谢产物包括发酵产物(如乳酸、乙醇)、碳源(如乙酸、甲酸)、氨基酸、尿素、氨、氢气和胞外分泌物(如多糖和蛋白质)等。在缺氧或低能量条件下,某些微生物会将葡萄糖发酵生成乳酸。然后,这些微生物或其他共生微生物可以再利用乳酸,将其转化为丙酮酸,进而进入TCA循环或进行其他代谢过程,以产生能量。例如,乳酸菌在乳酸积累后,通过乳酸脱氢酶将乳酸转化为丙酮酸,再进入代谢途径[113]。产甲烷菌(如Methanobacterium)能够利用发酵菌群产生的乙酸、氢气和二氧化碳作为代谢产物,生成甲烷。这些甲烷菌将其他微生物的废物再利用,作为能量来源和碳源,从而在低能量环境中生存[114]
尽管关于微生物非生长状态的分子机制的研究尚处于起步阶段,然而,大量研究表明微生物会主动调控自身的生理状态以在低能量环境中生存。通过测定非生长状态下微生物胞内的基因表达发现,微生物在低能量环境中细胞内部系统并非处于停滞状态,而是通过调控基因表达来维持内部系统功能的稳定及修复受损的生物大分子;随着多组学和单细胞技术的发展,研究重点逐渐从休眠细胞的分布和生理表型变化,转向基因表达和代谢过程,从而更加深入探究微生物休眠的具体调控机制;这些研究也逐渐从抽象、定性的数学模型演变为具有普适性、定量的生态学理论[115-116]。目前,宏基因组学已广泛应用于研究各种天然生境中的休眠细胞,包括永久冻土[117]、热液沉积物[118]、干旱土壤[119]等环境。一些与休眠相关的基因,如唤醒促进因子RpfC、抗性基因hipAyafQ等,已被发现广泛存在于各种低能量环境中[120]。通过探究这些休眠基因的丰度,并结合休眠细胞的物种组成,可以更好地理解休眠对微生物进化、生物地理分布和生物多样性的影响[121-122]。由于休眠细胞群落中存在不同的生理状态亚群,而宏组学技术目前不能很好地对群落的异质性进行区分和研究。相比之下,单细胞技术的发展为区分并深入研究这些细胞亚群,评估微生物休眠的表型异质性和代谢差异提供了有力帮助[123]。荧光染色法和流式细胞仪的单细胞技术也已被用于表征休眠细胞并量化其在环境样品中的占比[124]。此外,新兴的基于液滴的微流控技术(drop stabilization on A chip, dropSOAC)结合共聚焦激光扫描显微镜(confocal laser scanning microscope, CLSM)可以监测单细胞的生长及其生理差异,有助于深入理解微环境中休眠细胞的复苏及生长代谢过程[125]。近年发展的微生物单细胞测序技术也成为研究微生物休眠的强大工具。利用单细胞测序技术区分枯草芽孢杆菌群落中的不同亚群,并对不同亚群细胞的基因表达情况进行实时跟踪和动态监测[126]。随着细胞亚群(甚至单个细胞水平)的测序技术、微环境中敏感因子(如氧气,二价铁等)的检测工具的发展,以及在不同生物体中创建遗传系统的技术的成熟,对非生长状态细胞的实验室或原位研究变得更加可行。非生长状态的细胞不仅存在于海洋深层沉积等特定生境中,还可能广泛分布于生物膜内部、土壤孔隙水等各类天然微环境以及地球早期环境中。对这一普遍且长期维持状态的研究,不仅需要聚焦于特定微生物的基因、蛋白和代谢通路,还需结合定量生物学的方法解析整个系统的特征,探究低能量环境中生命维持时间、最小能量需求和微生物适应及调节的分子学机制。该方向的研究将有助于建立环境微生物学和分子微生物学之间的桥梁,从独特的视角揭示天然环境中微生物生存的分子机制和能量代谢方式。
在天然环境中,微生物通常面临能量限制的胁迫。经过了数十亿年的演化,微生物已经从基因、蛋白到群落互作水平构建了一套多层次的适应系统,以适应恶劣多变的天然环境。微生物通过形成芽孢、改变细胞大小、形成生物膜、改变代谢途径等多种调节方式,提高自身的能量合成效率,降低胞内能量消耗。此外,微生物还通过拓展电子/碳源谱来最大化资源利用。微生物在低能量环境中通常处于非生长的状态,以降低内部能量消耗,等待资源的到来。微生物在低能量环境中的生存策略体现了其对极端环境的高度适应性。然而,仍有许多问题悬而未决。例如,生命活动可以减慢到什么程度,使得细胞在不死亡的前提下维持细胞活性?细胞内的存活能量能持续多久?休眠细胞如何感知环境信号并复苏?这些问题的解答有赖于对微生物生理机制的深入研究。低能量环境中微生物的代谢过程对生态系统的影响有多大?由于检测技术和表征手段的限制,当前研究主要集中于生长代谢较快的模式微生物。然而,在天然环境尤其是低能量环境中,微生物的代谢通常极为缓慢,导致在有限的时间内难以观测到显著变化。研究表明,实验室条件下微生物的碳周转时间一般为1−7 d,而在海洋表层沉积物可能需要1个月至1年;在一些极端低能量环境中,微生物碳周转的时间可达几十到几百年[6]。尽管这些代谢过程可能很缓慢,但从地球演化的时间尺度来看,其累积效应可能很显著,足以影响地球的物质循环和环境演化。
为了阐明上述科学问题,进一步认识微生物在低能量环境中的能量代谢方式和生存策略,解析其在地球系统元素循环和能量转化中的作用,可以从以下方面开展深入的研究。
(1) 微生物进化与适应的机制。通过研究微生物在低能量环境中的生存策略,深入探讨微生物在数十亿年进化过程中如何适应低能量胁迫,为理解生命起源、地球早期环境演变、微生物-环境的协同演化提供新认知。
(2) 探索生命的极限。通过研究微生物在低能量环境中的生存状态和分子机制,探索生命在地球上乃至其他星球上可能存在的极限条件。这不仅有助于理解地球生命的多样性,还可能为寻找地外生命提供理论依据。
(3) 低能量环境中微生物群落互作和生态功能。低能量环境中的休眠细胞是微生物群落的重要组成部分,可以维持群落的稳定性。研究这些环境中的微生物群落和生理代谢反应,有助于补充现有的生态模型并预测环境变化对微生物生态系统的影响。
(4) 环境保护与资源管理。理解微生物在低能量环境中的生态适应性,为环境保护和资源管理提供科学依据和重要的参考。研究有助于有效管理和保护脆弱生态系统,并为环境修复和资源再生提供新思路。
(5) 开发新型生物技术。微生物在低能量环境中的生存策略可以为新型生物技术的开发提供新的启示。例如,微生物如何高效利用有限资源的机制,可以应用于工业发酵、废物处理以及能源生产等领域。同时,这些微生物的耐受性和适应性特征,也可以为合成生物学提供新思路,以开发在极端条件下高效运行的生物系统。
(6) 拓展地球物质循环途径。探索深海、地下和极地等低能量环境中微生物的代谢途径和生态功能,发现新的功能微生物和代谢途径,拓展对地球生命多样性的认识,拓展对微生物驱动的碳、氮、硫等元素循环机制的理解。
(7) 地球系统与环境变化的微生物指标。研究低能量环境中的微生物群落特征及其代谢特征对地质活动和气候变化的响应机制,建立基于微生物代谢和功能基因的环境监测指标。
综上所述,低能量环境中微生物的研究具有重要的科学意义和应用价值。通过多学科交叉与技术创新,不断深化对微生物在天然环境中生存策略的理解,推动微生物生态学、地质微生物学、环境微生物学和生物修复技术的发展,为实现可持续发展目标提供科学依据。
  • 国家自然科学基金(92251301)
  • 国家自然科学基金(42192502)
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2024年第64卷第12期
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doi: 10.13343/j.cnki.wsxb.20240515
  • 接收时间:2024-08-19
  • 首发时间:2026-03-21
  • 出版时间:2024-11-04
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  • 收稿日期:2024-08-19
  • 录用日期:2024-11-01
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National Natural Science Foundation of China(92251301)
国家自然科学基金(92251301)
National Natural Science Foundation of China(42192502)
国家自然科学基金(42192502)
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    1 北京大学 环境科学与工程学院, 水沙科学教育部重点实验室, 北京 100871
    2 北京大学 地球与空间科学学院, 矿物环境功能北京市重点实验室, 北京 100871

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2种不同金属材料的力学参数

Family
属数
Number of
genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of
total species (%)

Genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of total
species (%)
鹅膏菌科Amanitaceae 2 11 5.26 鹅膏菌属 Amanita 10 4.78
小菇科 Mycenaceae 2 12 5.74 丝盖伞属 Inocybe 5 2.39
多孔菌科 Polyporaceae 8 14 6.70 蜡蘑属 Laccaria 5 2.39
红菇科 Russulaceae 3 23 11.00 小皮伞属 Marasmius 6 2.87
小菇属 Mycena 11 5.26
光柄菇属 Pluteus 5 2.39
红菇属 Russula 17 8.13
栓菌属 Trametes 5 2.39
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