Article(id=1242119546954383599, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, issueId=1242119544966283483, articleNumber=null, orderNo=null, doi=10.13343/j.cnki.wsxb.20240238, pmid=null, cstr=null, oa=null, hot=null, price=null, onlineType=0, articleFormat=0, articleType=null, articleTypeStr=research-article, receivedDate=1713110400000, receivedDateStr=2024-04-15, revisedDate=null, revisedDateStr=null, acceptedDate=1723219200000, acceptedDateStr=2024-08-10, onlineDate=1774073977458, onlineDateStr=2026-03-21, pubDate=1724774400000, pubDateStr=2024-08-28, doiRegisterDate=null, doiRegisterDateStr=null, onlineIssueDate=1774073977458, onlineIssueDateStr=2026-03-21, onlineJustAcceptDate=null, onlineJustAcceptDateStr=null, onlineFirstDate=null, onlineFirstDateStr=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, createTime=1774073977458, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1774073977458, updator=13701087609, issue=Issue{id=1242119544966283483, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, year='2024', volume='64', issue='11', pageStart='4011', pageEnd='4465', issueExtLink='null', onlineDate='null', pubDate='null', beforeIssueId=null, nextIssueId=null, price=null, status=1, issueComplete=1, articleOrder=1, issueType=-1, specialIssue=null, createTime=1774073976985, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1774074072279, updator=13701087609, preIssue=null, nextIssue=null, ext={EN=IssueExt(id=1242119944725397854, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, issueId=1242119544966283483, language=EN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=), CN=IssueExt(id=1242119944725397855, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, issueId=1242119544966283483, language=CN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=)}, issueFiles=null}, startPage=4022, endPage=4035, ext={EN=ArticleExt(id=1242119547440922878, articleId=1242119546954383599, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, language=EN, title=Research progress in fungal chitinases, columnId=1239895164987175635, journalTitle=Acta Microbiologica Sinica, columnName=Reviews, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

Chitin is a polysaccharide that is polymerized by N-acetylglucosamine through β-1, 4 glycosidic linkages and ubiquitous in the global terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems. Chitin is one of the most abundant organic macromolecular polymers on earth. Chitinases are a class of enzymes that catalyze the degradation of chitin. Chitinases are not only the focus of basic research but also have shown broad application potential in a variety of fields such as agriculture, medicine, and environmental science. This paper systematically reviewed the research progress in fungal chitinases in terms of the classification, distribution characteristics in different fungal taxa, biological functions in yeasts and filamentous fungi, enzymatic characteristics, and applications in agricultural pest and disease control, disease treatment, and production of chitooligosaccharides. Furthermore, we discussed the future research directions of fungal chitinases. This paper provides new perspectives for the study of fungal chitinases.

, correspAuthors=Huiquan LIU, Ming XU, authorNote=null, correspAuthorsNote=
*LIU Huiquan, E-mail:
XU Ming, E-mail:
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几丁质是一种由N-乙酰葡萄糖胺通过β-1, 4糖苷键连接聚合而成的多糖,在全球陆地和水生生态系统中普遍存在,是地球上最丰富的有机大分子多聚物之一。几丁质酶是一类催化几丁质降解的酶类,其不仅是基础研究的研究重点,而且在农业、医药和环境科学等多个领域展现出广泛的应用潜力。本文系统地概括了真菌几丁质酶的分类体系,探讨了它们在不同真菌类群中的分布特征,以及在酵母和丝状真菌等中的生物学功能。本文还详细分析了几丁质酶的酶学特性,并介绍了其在农业病虫害防治、疾病治疗和几丁质寡糖生产等方面的应用,还讨论了未来真菌几丁质酶研究方向。本文将为真菌几丁质酶的研究提供新的视角。

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tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, articleId=1242119546954383599, language=CN, orderNo=4, keyword=基因功能)], refs=[Reference(id=1243291007933068113, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, articleId=1242119546954383599, doi=10.1007/s12517-021-08239-0, pmid=null, pmcid=null, year=2021, volume=14, issue=18, pageStart=1870, pageEnd=null, url=null, language=null, rfNumber=[1], rfOrder=0, authorNames=null, journalName=Arabian Journal of Geosciences, refType=null, unstructuredReference=HOSSIN MA, AL SHAQSI NHK, AL TOUBY SSJ, AL SIBANI MA. 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Methods for the analysis of the three-dimensional structure of proteins[J]. 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A: Schematic diagram of chitin structure. B: Chitinase active center (SmChiB). C: The reaction mechanism diagram of chitinase SmChiB., figureFileSmall=kmi7autJDPWOjnE3IV4eIw==, figureFileBig=g1RPsUg4ZPF+kTOhUuXtfQ==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1243291006515393241, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, articleId=1242119546954383599, language=CN, label=图1, caption=几丁质的结构、几丁质酶的活性中心和几丁质酶的反应机理示意图

A:几丁质的结构示意图. B:几丁质酶活性中心(SmChiB). C:几丁质酶SmChiB的反应机理

, figureFileSmall=kmi7autJDPWOjnE3IV4eIw==, figureFileBig=g1RPsUg4ZPF+kTOhUuXtfQ==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1243291006616056549, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, articleId=1242119546954383599, language=EN, label=Table 1, caption=

Classification of the GH18 family (adapted from literature [6])

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ClassificationMolecular mass (kDa)Substrate-binding domainEndonuclease or exonucleaseThe Existence of CBMLocation of CBM
−表示不存在此项内容
− indicates that this item does not exist.
A40−60Deep and narrowExo
B30−50Shallow and wideEndoExistC-terminu
C120−200Deep and narrowExoExistN-terminu
), ArticleFig(id=1243291006708331249, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, articleId=1242119546954383599, language=CN, label=表1, caption=

GH18家族分类情况(修改自文献[6])

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
ClassificationMolecular mass (kDa)Substrate-binding domainEndonuclease or exonucleaseThe Existence of CBMLocation of CBM
−表示不存在此项内容
− indicates that this item does not exist.
A40−60Deep and narrowExo
B30−50Shallow and wideEndoExistC-terminu
C120−200Deep and narrowExoExistN-terminu
), ArticleFig(id=1243291006829966074, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, articleId=1242119546954383599, language=EN, label=Table 2, caption=

Chitinase amounts in different species (GH18) (adapted from literature [28])

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
SpeciesTaxonomyChitin content in cell wallThe number of chitinase genes
Saccharomyces cerevisiaeSaccharomycetesLow2
Schizosaccharomyces pombeSchizosaccharomycetesLow1
Fusarium solaniSordariomycetesHigh28
F. graminearumSordariomycetesHigh19
Neurospora crassaSordariomycetesHigh12
Podospora anserinaSordariomycetesHigh20
Pyricularia griseaSordariomycetesHigh14
Aspergillus nidulansEurotiomycetesHigh19
A. nigerEurotiomycetesHigh14
Isaria cicadaeSordariomycetesHigh17
Clonostachys roseaSordariomycetesHigh14
Trichoderma atrovirideSordariomycetesHigh29
T. virensSordariomycetesHigh36
), ArticleFig(id=1243291006947406599, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, articleId=1242119546954383599, language=CN, label=表2, caption=

不同物种中的GH18几丁质酶数量(修改自文献[28])

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
SpeciesTaxonomyChitin content in cell wallThe number of chitinase genes
Saccharomyces cerevisiaeSaccharomycetesLow2
Schizosaccharomyces pombeSchizosaccharomycetesLow1
Fusarium solaniSordariomycetesHigh28
F. graminearumSordariomycetesHigh19
Neurospora crassaSordariomycetesHigh12
Podospora anserinaSordariomycetesHigh20
Pyricularia griseaSordariomycetesHigh14
Aspergillus nidulansEurotiomycetesHigh19
A. nigerEurotiomycetesHigh14
Isaria cicadaeSordariomycetesHigh17
Clonostachys roseaSordariomycetesHigh14
Trichoderma atrovirideSordariomycetesHigh29
T. virensSordariomycetesHigh36
), ArticleFig(id=1243291007077430033, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, articleId=1242119546954383599, language=EN, label=Table 3, caption=

Enzymatic properties of chitinase

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
SpeciesThe name of chitinaseExpression hostOptimal pHOptimal temperature (℃)Enzyme activity or specific vitality under optimal conditionsReference
/表示此项研究未提及或未做相关项目
/ indicates that the study did not mention or do related research.
Aspergillus nidulansAnChiBEscherichia coli5.0/0.2 U/mg (record the generation of N-acetylglucosamine per minute)[48]
Trichoderma guizhouenseChi8Escherichia coli6.0400.5 U/(μmol·h) (record the generation of reducing sugars per minute)[49]
Rasamsonia emersoniiChit1Pichia pastoris3.550−550.4 mmol/mg (record the generation of rchitin trisaccharides per minute)[50]
R. emersoniiChit2Pichia pastoris4.550-553.5 mmol/mg (record the generation of rchitin trisaccharides per minute)[50]
A. nigerAnChiEscherichia coli6.040/[51]
Coprinopsis cinereaChiEn2Pichia pastoris7.040/[52]
Penicillium chrysogenumChi-Pc76/6.055584.8 U/mg (record the generation of reducing sugars per minute)[53]
T. asperellumchi42Escherichia coli7.04526.0 U/mg (record the generation of N-acetylglucosamine per minute)[54]
T. asperellumgene02524Pichia pastoris5.0500.2 U/mg (record the generation of chitin trisaccharides per minute)[55]
T. viride/Pichia pastoris6.0/30.9 U/mL (record the generation of N-acetylglucosamine per minute)[56]
Trichothecium roseumTrchi2Pichia pastoris6.0454.0 U/mL (record the generation of reducing sugars per minute)[57]
), ArticleFig(id=1243291007157121817, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, articleId=1242119546954383599, language=CN, label=表3, caption=

一些几丁质酶的酶学性质

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
SpeciesThe name of chitinaseExpression hostOptimal pHOptimal temperature (℃)Enzyme activity or specific vitality under optimal conditionsReference
/表示此项研究未提及或未做相关项目
/ indicates that the study did not mention or do related research.
Aspergillus nidulansAnChiBEscherichia coli5.0/0.2 U/mg (record the generation of N-acetylglucosamine per minute)[48]
Trichoderma guizhouenseChi8Escherichia coli6.0400.5 U/(μmol·h) (record the generation of reducing sugars per minute)[49]
Rasamsonia emersoniiChit1Pichia pastoris3.550−550.4 mmol/mg (record the generation of rchitin trisaccharides per minute)[50]
R. emersoniiChit2Pichia pastoris4.550-553.5 mmol/mg (record the generation of rchitin trisaccharides per minute)[50]
A. nigerAnChiEscherichia coli6.040/[51]
Coprinopsis cinereaChiEn2Pichia pastoris7.040/[52]
Penicillium chrysogenumChi-Pc76/6.055584.8 U/mg (record the generation of reducing sugars per minute)[53]
T. asperellumchi42Escherichia coli7.04526.0 U/mg (record the generation of N-acetylglucosamine per minute)[54]
T. asperellumgene02524Pichia pastoris5.0500.2 U/mg (record the generation of chitin trisaccharides per minute)[55]
T. viride/Pichia pastoris6.0/30.9 U/mL (record the generation of N-acetylglucosamine per minute)[56]
Trichothecium roseumTrchi2Pichia pastoris6.0454.0 U/mL (record the generation of reducing sugars per minute)[57]
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真菌几丁质酶研究进展
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庄钰鑫 , 刘慧泉 * , 许铭 *
微生物学报 | 综述 2024,64(11): 4022-4035
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微生物学报 | 综述 2024, 64(11): 4022-4035
真菌几丁质酶研究进展
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庄钰鑫, 刘慧泉* , 许铭*
作者信息
  • 西北农林科技大学 植物保护学院, 作物抗逆与高效生产全国重点实验室, 陕西 杨凌 712100
Research progress in fungal chitinases
Yuxin ZHUANG, Huiquan LIU* , Ming XU*
Affiliations
  • State Key Laboratory for Crop Stress Resistance and High-efficiency Production, College of Plant Protection, Northwest A & F University, Yangling 712100, Shaanxi, China
出版时间: 2024-08-28 doi: 10.13343/j.cnki.wsxb.20240238
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几丁质是一种由N-乙酰葡萄糖胺通过β-1, 4糖苷键连接聚合而成的多糖,在全球陆地和水生生态系统中普遍存在,是地球上最丰富的有机大分子多聚物之一。几丁质酶是一类催化几丁质降解的酶类,其不仅是基础研究的研究重点,而且在农业、医药和环境科学等多个领域展现出广泛的应用潜力。本文系统地概括了真菌几丁质酶的分类体系,探讨了它们在不同真菌类群中的分布特征,以及在酵母和丝状真菌等中的生物学功能。本文还详细分析了几丁质酶的酶学特性,并介绍了其在农业病虫害防治、疾病治疗和几丁质寡糖生产等方面的应用,还讨论了未来真菌几丁质酶研究方向。本文将为真菌几丁质酶的研究提供新的视角。

几丁质酶  /  GH18  /  多糖  /  基因功能

Chitin is a polysaccharide that is polymerized by N-acetylglucosamine through β-1, 4 glycosidic linkages and ubiquitous in the global terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems. Chitin is one of the most abundant organic macromolecular polymers on earth. Chitinases are a class of enzymes that catalyze the degradation of chitin. Chitinases are not only the focus of basic research but also have shown broad application potential in a variety of fields such as agriculture, medicine, and environmental science. This paper systematically reviewed the research progress in fungal chitinases in terms of the classification, distribution characteristics in different fungal taxa, biological functions in yeasts and filamentous fungi, enzymatic characteristics, and applications in agricultural pest and disease control, disease treatment, and production of chitooligosaccharides. Furthermore, we discussed the future research directions of fungal chitinases. This paper provides new perspectives for the study of fungal chitinases.

chitinase  /  GH18  /  polysaccharides  /  gene function
庄钰鑫, 刘慧泉, 许铭. 真菌几丁质酶研究进展. 微生物学报, 2024 , 64 (11) : 4022 -4035 . DOI: 10.13343/j.cnki.wsxb.20240238
Yuxin ZHUANG, Huiquan LIU, Ming XU. Research progress in fungal chitinases[J]. Acta Microbiologica Sinica, 2024 , 64 (11) : 4022 -4035 . DOI: 10.13343/j.cnki.wsxb.20240238
几丁质是真菌细胞壁中的一种重要成分,它是由N-乙酰葡萄糖胺单元[N-acetyl-d-(+)-glucosamine]通过β-1, 4糖苷键连接而成的多聚体[1-2],其结构如图1A所示。几丁质在真菌细胞壁的构成中起着关键作用,为真菌提供了必要的结构支持和保护。在真菌细胞壁中,几丁质通常与其他多糖(如葡聚糖、甘露聚糖等)共同存在,共同维持细胞壁的完整性和功能[3]
几丁质酶是一类具有高度特异性的酶,它们能够催化几丁质中的β-1, 4糖苷键水解,这些酶在自然界中广泛分布[4],存在于多种生物体中,包括细菌[5]、真菌[6]、病毒[7]、昆虫[8]、植物[9]和动物[10-11]等多种生物体。真菌是几丁质酶的重要来源,所有真菌都含有几丁质酶[12],尽管几丁质酶的研究已有数十年的历史,近些年随着分子生物学的发展和生物信息学技术的进步,人们对真菌几丁质酶才有了更深入的认识。本文旨在为真菌几丁质酶的研究进行全面综述,探讨真菌几丁质酶分类的多样性、生物学功能、酶学特性及应用,揭示几丁质酶研究的新趋势,并为未来的研究方向提供启示。
真菌几丁质酶根据不同的分类依据有着不同的分类结果,若根据水解位置的不同,几丁质酶可被分为内切几丁质酶(endochitinase, EC 3.2.1.14)和外切几丁质酶(exochitinase, EC 3.2.1.29)。传统认为,内切几丁质酶作用于几丁质链内部区域,水解β-1, 4糖苷键,产生低分子量的N-乙酰葡萄糖胺多聚物,其主要产物为几丁二糖(N, N′-diacetylchitobiose)、几丁三糖(N, N′, N′′-Triacetylchitotriose)等各种低聚几丁质寡糖[12-13]。这种酶可以持续不断地将长链几丁质降解,直到聚合度低于一定数量为止;外切几丁质酶又可分为2类:一类是几丁二糖苷酶(chitobiosidase, EC 3.2.1.29),催化长链几丁质非还原端的糖苷键水解,逐渐使其释放几丁二糖;另一类是N-乙酰氨基葡萄糖苷酶(exo-β-N-acetylglucosaminidase, EC 3.2.1.30),作用是进一步水解上述2种几丁质酶产生的低聚物,生成N-乙酰葡萄糖胺单体[14-15]。最近,在许多数据库(如Expasy[16]、ExplorEnz[17]等)将上述2种外切几丁质酶重新合并为β-N-乙酰己糖胺酶(β-N-acetylhexosaminidase, EC 3.2.1.52)[18]。特别注意的是,几丁质酶特指对几丁质的糖苷键进行水解的酶,对于一个完整的几丁质降解过程,除了需要多种几丁质酶的配合外,还需要一系列共同作用的酶,如裂解性多糖单加氧酶(lytic polysaccharide monooxygenases)等[12, 19],它们虽间接参与了几丁质的降解,但通常不属于几丁质酶。
利用酶类自身保守结构域作为标准进行分类是一种广泛采用的分类依据。CAZy数据库是一个专门记录酶类信息的在线资源库,为几丁质酶的分类和功能研究提供了一个重要的信息平台[13]。在该数据库记录中,真菌源的几丁质酶均被纳入GH18家族,并根据其结构域的共通性与序列相似度进行了更细致的分类。依据酶分子的大小、活性位点特征及是否含有特定的碳水化合物结合模块(carbohydrate-binding module, CBM)等特征,传统上,GH18家族可被进一步划分为A、B、C共3个亚类[6],从而为这些酶的生物学功能和应用研究提供参考,详见表1
在最近一项研究中,对烟曲霉(Aspergillus fumigatus)、尖孢镰孢(Fusarium oxysporum)、汤氏多毛菌(Hirsutella thompsonii)、罗伯茨绿僵菌(Metarhizium robertsii)等数十种真菌的GH18结构域进行系统发育分析,研究表明这些基因在长度、编码序列、外显子和内含子的数量上存在显著差异,这种结构的多样性可能与它们在生物过程中的不同功能有关,通过这些差异,可将GH18几丁质酶基因进一步分为3个主要类群和8个亚类群[20]
另一项研究中,研究结果挑战了之前的“ABC”的分类方法,通过大规模的基因组分析,发现“C”群并不是一个独立的群,而是与“A”群有关联[21]。这表明需要对真菌几丁质酶的分类进行重新评估。Goughenour等研究同时指出几丁质结合域并不局限于特定的几丁质酶群,而是在不同的几丁质酶群中都有发现,这意味着几丁质结合域并不是定义特定几丁质酶群的特征[21]。随着测序技术与生物信息学的进步,GH18的分类势必会朝着精确、客观的方向发展。
虽然GH18家族在真菌几丁质酶中占有重要地位,但是随着研究不断深入,人们不断发现真菌的几丁质酶还包括其他家族成员,现作简要介绍。
近期的研究发现,在苍耳叉丝单囊壳(Podosphaera xanthii)中鉴定出一类新型几丁质酶(enzymatically with chitinase activity, EWCAs)[22],这类蛋白的保守结构域是未知功能结构域(domain of unknown function, DUF)而不是GH18,为一个独立的新家族;这类几丁质酶在多种病原真菌中普遍存在;研究通过生物信息学分析和体外酶学验证,确证了这些酶的活性,揭示它们与传统几丁质酶无直接同源关系,代表了一种全新类别的几丁质酶;研究进一步推测,这些新型几丁质酶在真菌侵染过程中可能担当关键角色,通常植物细胞通过感知几丁质寡糖来激发植物免疫,抵抗病原菌侵染;然而,在此报道中,这种病原菌侵染植物时,其分泌的新型几丁质酶可以将质外体空间中的几丁质寡糖进一步降解,从而让植物细胞表面受体不能有效接受免疫信号,作为“效应蛋白”来抑制宿主植物的免疫反应,提高侵染植物的能力[22]。这一发现为理解病原真菌的致病机理提供了新视角。
以往的观点认为,GH19家族的几丁质酶只存在于放线菌[4]、植物[23-24]和一些其他细菌[25-26]中。最近,在一种名为家蚕微粒子虫(Nosema bombycis)的真菌中发现了首个GH19家族的几丁质酶NbchiA,不但验证了其活性位点,而且通过高效液相色谱鉴定了催化反应产物[27]。随着鉴定手段的进步,未来一定会有越来越多新型的真菌几丁质酶被鉴定。在诸多几丁质酶家族中,GH18几丁质酶研究历史最长,研究最清晰,本文也将重点讨论。
GH18几丁质酶家族的分布最为明确,它们广泛存在于几乎所有生物体中,包括那些不含几丁质的植物[9]和哺乳动物[10]。在真菌中,几丁质酶虽普遍存在,但研究表明其种类与数量在不同真菌物种间表现出显著的多样性[6]。对GH18家族几丁质酶的结构域进行研究发现,真菌几丁质酶的基因组分布数量与其细胞壁几丁质含量有很大关联。例如,在裂殖真菌中,由于其几丁质含量较低,其几丁质酶的数量也相对较少,比如酿酒酵母(Saccharomyces cerevisiae)只有2种,白色念珠菌(Candida albicans)只有4种[6]。然而丝状真菌由于其细胞壁中几丁质含量较高,基因组中编码几丁质酶基因的数量往往也较多(表2)[28]。寄生性的丝状真菌和一些木霉属(Trichoderma sp.)真菌通常也具有数量较多的几丁质酶[28],具体产生这些变化的原因还不清楚。这些几丁质酶可能存在着功能分化,反映了真菌在生态位和生物学功能中的复杂性和适应性。
真菌几丁质酶具有多种生理功能,包括形态建成、自溶、营养吸收和真菌寄生作用等[12, 29],不同类别真菌几丁质酶的生理功能略有差异。
以酵母为例,几丁质酶在酵母细胞中主要影响细胞分离,也有报道影响产孢等生理过程。酿酒酵母的一项研究中,对几丁质酶编码基因CTS1进行敲除,酵母突变体细胞具有细胞分离的缺陷,分裂后无法正常分离,导致细胞聚集成团,形成大的细胞团块,这些细胞通过它们的细胞隔膜区域相互连接,无法像正常细胞那样独立生长[30]。在酵母细胞通过出芽方式繁殖的过程中,有时会观察到芽体上再次出现新的子代细胞,这些细胞在连续繁殖后会立即和母细胞分离,然而其分离不够充分,还依然与母细胞形成了一种特殊的藕节状的粘连结构,称为假菌丝[31],可以被认为是某种分离缺陷。酿酒酵母中,几丁质酶基因CTS1的破坏导致了假菌丝的产生,正常酵母二倍体菌株既可以作为球形酵母形式生长,也可以作为丝状假菌丝形式生长,而破坏此基因会在这种背景下产生更多的假菌丝[32]。几丁质酶还有可能参与产孢过程。一项早期研究中,研究者系统地构建了酿酒酵母的基因缺失突变体,发现了几丁质酶基因CTS2的缺失导致孢子壁生物合成异常并且无法形成成熟的孢子[33]
丝状真菌由于基因扩增和功能冗余,所以具体单独的几丁质酶功能鉴定往往是困难的[12]。然而,依旧有许多研究显示了几丁质酶在菌丝生长和真菌致病等过程中的功能。由于粗糙脉孢(Neurospora crassa)中GH18基因的数量较少,因此这种真菌便成为研究丝状真菌GH18基因功能的模式物种。研究者依次敲除粗糙脉胞基因组中全部共12个GH18基因,发现CHIT-1基因的缺失会导致生长速率降低,结合CHIT-1蛋白的C端存在预测的糖基磷脂酰肌醇锚定基序,这表明细胞壁定位可能在菌丝生长过程中在细胞壁重塑中发挥作用。其中另一基因GH18-10的缺失会导致生长速率降低,分生孢子增加,非生物胁迫耐受性增加。在对比野生型与GH18-10基因敲除菌株的研究中,观察到后者在胞外蛋白的分泌量显著减少,相应的细胞外蛋白酶活性水平也有所降低[34]。丝状真菌的几丁质酶也可能参与细胞分离过程,在另一独立研究中,通过评估玉蜀黍黑粉菌(Ustilago maydis) 4种几丁质酶在整个生命周期的不同形态阶段的功能,发现几丁质酶CTS1和CTS2通过不同的机制分泌,并展现出各自独特的催化活性,这2种酶分别从不同的方向对几丁质层进行降解,其共同缺失导致了细胞在分离过程中呈现明显的缺陷。这项研究不仅强调了这些酶在真菌生命周期中的多样性和复杂性,同时也为几丁质酶在真菌发育和侵染过程中的具体作用提供了新的见解[12]。此外,几丁质酶可能与真菌自溶现象也有关。研究显示,曲霉属(Aspergillus sp.)中几丁质酶ChiB/ChiB1的缺失[35-36]和烟曲霉(A. fumigatus)中所有5个B亚家族几丁质酶的缺失导致自溶减少[37]
植物病原真菌利用其寄主植物来完成生命周期,其几丁质酶往往在寄生、侵染等方面发挥作用。植物拥有各种防御机制来抵御真菌侵染。植物免疫系统的第一层即为识别到病原体相关分子模式(pathogen-associated molecular patterns, PAMPs)而触发的基础防御反应。植物对PAMPs的感知是由高度保守的胞外跨膜受体蛋白介导,这些蛋白被称为模式识别受体,它们激活防御反应,导致PAMPs触发的免疫反应。几丁质作为真菌细胞壁的保守分子,其降解产物几丁质寡糖便是重要的PAMP。然而,病原体已进化出多种机制来逃避识别和随后的防御反应。在“分子军备竞赛”的进化过程中,越来越多的几丁质酶被证明可能参与了这个过程。有害丛梗霉皮伞(Moniliophthora perniciosa)是一种寄生于可可(Theobroma cacao)的一种病原真菌,其分泌的一种几丁质酶MpChi与几丁质寡聚物具有超高亲和力,MpChi可以与几丁质寡聚物结合,从而与植物几丁质寡聚物受体竞争信号分子,以此达到逃逸植物免疫的目的[38]。此外,植物病原微生物的几丁质酶还可能有将几丁质寡糖降解,产生不能触发植物免疫的小分子几丁质寡聚物,达到逃逸植物几丁质免疫的作用[39]。苍耳叉丝单囊壳是作物甜瓜(Cucumis melo)上的一种寄生真菌,研究从中鉴定出一类新的几丁质酶家族EWCAs,认为其在质外体中可以有效降解几丁质寡聚物从而抑制几丁质触发的免疫反应[22]。最新研究还表明,稻绿核菌(Ustilaginoidea virens)可以分泌几丁质酶UvGH18.1,这种几丁质酶通过结合并水解免疫诱导剂几丁质,与水稻几丁质受体OsCEBiP及共受体OsCERK1相互作用,损害它们几丁质诱导的二聚化,干扰植物免疫信号往下游传递,影响宿主在颖片和内稃处的免疫反应,以便病原真菌更好地侵染雄蕊和雌蕊[40]。有证据表明植物病原真菌也有可能参与细胞壁降解和侵染过程。禾谷镰孢(F. graminearum)是一种重要的植物病原真菌,研究对其生活史不同阶段15个时期或组织的链特异性RNA-seq数据进行生信分析,发现包括一些几丁质酶在内的碳水化合物水解基因在侵染阶段显著富集,暗示着禾谷镰孢几丁质酶在病菌致病过程中发挥了一定的作用[41]
动物病原真菌的几丁质酶可能也参与了侵染过程。昆虫病原真菌金龟子绿僵菌(Metarhizium anisopliae)是一种重要的生防真菌,研究者通过遗传工程手段构建了过表达CHI2几丁质酶的菌株用来感染害虫秘鲁棉红蝽(Dysdercus peruvianus),发现其能够更快地杀死宿主昆虫,起到抗虫作用[42]。蜡蚧轮枝菌(Verticillium lecanii)的寄主范围广,能寄生许多昆虫种类,其侵染菌丝分泌的脂肪酶、蛋白质酶、几丁质酶共同作用可能具有破坏昆虫表皮的作用[43]
与林木根系共生的大型真菌的几丁质酶参与营养吸收,研究显示,这些林木根系共生真菌在其寄主树木的无机氮吸收与同化过程中可能起着至关重要的作用,结合基因组学和转录组学确定了这些真菌确实参与外源性几丁质降解的途径,以美味牛肝菌(Boletus edulis)、栗褐褐牛肝菌(Imleria badia)、褐环乳牛肝菌(Suillus luteus)和圆柱滑锈伞(Hebeloma cylindrosporum)为例的外生菌根真菌可以通过自身几丁质酶有效地从外源几丁质中对氮元素进行调用,说明这类物种的几丁质酶在其获取氮源中也发挥重要的功能[44]
几丁质酶最广为人知的酶学功能是水解几丁质糖单位间的β-1, 4糖苷键,尤其是GH18家族几丁质酶的催化机制已较为清晰。随着对其催化机制的研究,越来越多的证据表明底物辅助保留模型能够更好地解释反应机理。虽然直接对真菌源几丁质酶机制的研究报道较少,但酶通常具有一定保守性,不同来源、不同种类几丁质酶催化机制相似[45]。因此可参考细菌黏质沙雷菌(Serratia marcescens)产生的外切几丁质酶SmChiB来了解真菌几丁质酶的催化机制。其催化中心如图1B所示[46-47],呈现一个典型的(β/α)8 TIM桶状构型,由8条α螺旋和8条β折叠链通过非规则连接区域(loops)相互连接构成。催化活性区位于整个桶状结构的顶端,有些几丁质酶在Loop7上还额外具有1个插入结构域(CID)用于辅助底物的结合与催化。
具体来说,如图1C所示,底物不在时,酶处于静息状态,Glu144氨基酸残基不在活性中心,不起作用。底物到来后,酶活性中心发生变构,Asp142与Glu144相互作用,N-乙酰氨基葡糖进入该酶的所谓“−1”活性位点,Glu144氨基酸残基靠近活性中心,使底物几丁质糖六元环从椅式构象变构为船式构象,从而使得N-乙酰基羧基氧原子有机会接近异头碳,可以进行亲核攻击。在此时,几丁质酶活性位点的Tyr214残基与羧基氧原子形成氢键稳定该结构。Asp142翻转与N-乙酰基形成氢键,稳定中间体。随后,Asp142残基翻转后靠近Glu144残基,二者形成氢键激活质子供体,糖苷键断裂,产物解离,生成恶唑啉离子中间体。后续催化水分子对异头碳进行亲核攻击,恶唑啉离子中间体分解,Glu144残基恢复初始状态,在Asp140残基协助下,Asp142残基翻转回初始位置,产物释放完成酶促反应[46-47]。对于不同种类的几丁质酶机制,已有更深入的归类与分析,其差异与几丁质酶本身分类(表1)有关。
几丁质酶的酶动力学方面也有许多报道,不同来源、不同表达方法、不同纯化方式、不同酸碱度、不同温度对酶的活性影响大。真菌来源的几丁质酶进行表征的较少,更多地以各类放线菌、细菌等来源展开实验。对于真菌来源的几丁质酶,大都来源于曲霉属和木霉属(Trichoderma sp.)真菌。总的来说,许多几丁质酶均有较好的热稳定性,而且在酸性状态下具有较高酶活性。现总结近年部分研究,详见表3
由于几丁质是真菌的细胞壁、昆虫肠道(约3%−13%)及角质层(高达干重的40%)的主要成分[58],这使几丁质酶有望作为一种生物农药来对抗植物病虫害。几丁质酶在害虫治理和抗真菌农药领域具有十足的潜力。将几丁质酶融入杀虫剂和抗真菌剂中不仅可以提升药效,而且可以同时降低后两者的使用剂量,有助于避免因后两者使用浓度过高而导致的人体健康和环境破坏等问题[59-61]。有许多研究已经证实了不同来源的几丁质酶对线虫、真菌、昆虫等具有良好的抑制作用[62],如内几丁质酶CHI2在金龟子绿僵菌(M. anisopliae)昆虫致病性中起着重要作用,菌株过表达或缺乏CHI2基因的菌株表现出了对害虫秘鲁棉红蝽(D. peruvianus)更高或更低的毒力[43]
此外,直接将真菌几丁质酶基因转入植物中是另一种防治病虫害的思路。这些转基因作物通常获得了对一些病虫害的抗性,而且在增强抗病能力的同时,未对植株的主要农业性状如生长速率和产量产生负面影响。转基因技术在甜瓜[63]、棉花(Gossypium hirsutum)[64]、普通烟草(Nicotiana tabacum)[65]、水稻(Oryza sativa)[66]、苹果(Malus×domestica)[67]、花生(Arachis hypogae)[68]、胡萝卜(Daucus carota var. sativus)[69]等植物上均得到了应用。如在甜瓜中转入几丁质酶后,抗百分病的等级同对照相比提高2−4级,且农艺性状未有明显影响[43];在新疆陆地棉中利用花粉管通道法将几丁质酶基因导入棉花后,经黄萎病病圃鉴定,T2代中有30株具有较高的抗病性[64];在烟草中转入几丁质酶基因后,接种核盘菌(Sclerotinia sclerotiorum)后的病斑显著减小,表明几丁质酶在提供抗性方面发挥了作用[65]。这些转基因策略的优势在于它提供了一种持续、内在的防御机制,减少了对化学农药的依赖,有助于实现可持续农业。
几丁质酶具有抑制真菌生长的作用,这一功效已得到证实。鉴于人体和哺乳动物体内不存在内源性几丁质,它可以被加入抗真菌霜剂和洗剂中,或与其他药物联合应用,以治疗各类真菌感染疾病[4],如几丁质酶可以抑制白色念珠菌菌丝形成,展示出良好的抗菌丝活性,有望成为治疗白色念珠菌感染的新方法[70]。此外,几丁质还可能具有潜在的抗癌作用,有报道指出,几丁质酶被引入癌细胞培养基时,癌细胞表面会出现明显损伤,最终导致细胞死亡,从而发挥抗癌作用。如使用绿色木霉产生的几丁质酶处理2种癌细胞系MCF-7和HCT-116,测得对MCF-7的IC50 (半抑制浓度)为20 mg/mL,对HCT-116细胞系的IC50值为44 mg/mL,显示出明显的抗癌效果[71]
几丁质寡糖具有抗菌、抗氧化、抗肿瘤和免疫调节等多种生物活性,被广泛应用于医药、食品和农业等领域。在食品工业中,几丁质寡糖可以作为防腐剂、抗氧化剂等,延长食品的保质期。在医药领域,几丁质寡糖可用于治疗肿瘤、病毒感染等疾病[72]。此外,几丁质寡糖还在抗氧化、抗病毒等方面具有广泛的应用前景[73]。几丁质寡糖的用途广泛,但由于产量低、纯化难、成本高等因素,推广起来较为困难。几丁质寡糖的生产方式包括物理方法、传统化学方法、电化学方法、酶促法以及化学酶促法[74]。在几丁寡糖的制备过程中,酶促法特异性强、成本低、节能且无污染,从而克服了其他方法如反应条件严格、控制困难以及后续处理复杂等问题[74],成为合成几丁质寡糖的首选方案。真菌是几丁质酶的重要来源,近年围绕着几丁质寡糖的高产展开了不少研究。研究围绕着酶学性质、制备方案等方面展开:酶学性质方面研究包括其最适温度、最适pH值、热稳定性、底物特异性和催化效率等[75],这些研究有助于理解酶的催化机制,并为优化酶的活性和稳定性提供了基础;制备方法方面,研究者们探索了多种几丁质酶水解法,结合物理、化学或生物预处理方法,如蒸汽爆破法、高压均质机处理法和球磨法[76]等,以提高几丁质的降解效率和寡糖的产率。
近年来,人们对真菌几丁质酶进行了大量研究,涵盖了分类、分布、生理功能、酶学性质和实际应用等多个方面。随着科学技术的不断发展,真菌几丁质酶在农业、医药、食品工业等领域的应用前景广阔。在农业领域,几丁质酶有望用于植物分子育种、开发病虫害农药等方面;在医药领域,几丁质酶可能具有抗菌等活性;在环保领域,几丁质酶不仅有望减少环境污染,还可能在生物防治中发挥潜在作用。未来的研究将继续深入探讨几丁质酶的生物学功能、分子机制等方面,以期为实际应用提供更多创新技术和解决方案。通过持续的研究和探索,人们对几丁质酶的了解有望成为众多行业的重要推动力。
真菌几丁质酶未来的研究可以从以下几个方向进行展望。(1) 生物功能研究,回答真菌几丁质酶的多种生物学功能、发掘研究新的生物学功能、研究其上下游调控等;再者可利用生物信息学和系统生物学工具分析几丁质酶基因在不同真菌物种中的分布和表达模式,构建几丁质酶在真菌生命周期中作用的系统生物学模型,揭示其在真菌生长、繁殖、致病的侵染等过程中的调控网络,从而深入理解几丁质酶在真菌生命活动中的全局作用。(2) 分子机制研究,随着分子生物学发展,虽然几丁质酶的催化机制已有不少报道,未来仍可利用结构生物学方法,如X射线晶体学、核磁共振(nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy, NMR)和冷冻电镜技术等[77],进一步解析几丁质酶的三维结构,揭示其活性位点和底物结合模式。同时,真菌几丁质酶作用机理的深入解析仅在少数物种中被报道,其机理是否可以推广,是否与物种来源相关等问题仍有待回答。(3) 可丰富其应用研究,在农业领域,研究几丁质酶在作物广谱抗病虫害方面中的应用,特别是在生物农药和转基因植物中的应用;在几丁质寡糖生产方面,从基因工程和蛋白质工程角度来看,未来可通过更加先进的基因工程技术,对几丁质酶进行定向进化,如提高其稳定性、活性和底物特异性,或开发新型几丁质酶变体,以适应不同的工业应用环境,如提高耐热性、耐酸碱性等,从而实现创制更加普适、高产的工程酶,降低几丁质寡糖的生产成本;在医药领域,探索几丁质酶在治疗真菌感染等疾病中的潜力;在环境科学中,几丁质作为一种难降解多糖,研究几丁质酶在生物降解和废物处理中的应用,特别是在处理含有几丁质的农业废弃物和海洋垃圾的方面将很有意义。未来的研究应注重基础科学与应用技术的结合,同时关注几丁质酶研究对环境和社会的长远影响。通过不断地创新和跨学科合作,人们对真菌几丁质酶的研究有望带来更多的福祉。
  • 国家重点研发计划(2022YFD1400100)
  • 中央高校基本科研业务费专项资金(2452023045)
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2024年第64卷第11期
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doi: 10.13343/j.cnki.wsxb.20240238
  • 接收时间:2024-04-15
  • 首发时间:2026-03-21
  • 出版时间:2024-08-28
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  • 收稿日期:2024-04-15
  • 录用日期:2024-08-10
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National Key Research and Development Program of China(2022YFD1400100)
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中央高校基本科研业务费专项资金(2452023045)
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    西北农林科技大学 植物保护学院, 作物抗逆与高效生产全国重点实验室, 陕西 杨凌 712100

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2种不同金属材料的力学参数

Family
属数
Number of
genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of
total species (%)

Genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of total
species (%)
鹅膏菌科Amanitaceae 2 11 5.26 鹅膏菌属 Amanita 10 4.78
小菇科 Mycenaceae 2 12 5.74 丝盖伞属 Inocybe 5 2.39
多孔菌科 Polyporaceae 8 14 6.70 蜡蘑属 Laccaria 5 2.39
红菇科 Russulaceae 3 23 11.00 小皮伞属 Marasmius 6 2.87
小菇属 Mycena 11 5.26
光柄菇属 Pluteus 5 2.39
红菇属 Russula 17 8.13
栓菌属 Trametes 5 2.39
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