Article(id=1242119545989693664, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, issueId=1242119544966283483, articleNumber=null, orderNo=null, doi=10.13343/j.cnki.wsxb.20240393, pmid=null, cstr=null, oa=null, hot=null, price=null, onlineType=0, articleFormat=0, articleType=null, articleTypeStr=research-article, receivedDate=1719417600000, receivedDateStr=2024-06-27, revisedDate=null, revisedDateStr=null, acceptedDate=1724947200000, acceptedDateStr=2024-08-30, onlineDate=1774073977228, onlineDateStr=2026-03-21, pubDate=1725465600000, pubDateStr=2024-09-05, doiRegisterDate=null, doiRegisterDateStr=null, onlineIssueDate=1774073977228, onlineIssueDateStr=2026-03-21, onlineJustAcceptDate=null, onlineJustAcceptDateStr=null, onlineFirstDate=null, onlineFirstDateStr=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, createTime=1774073977228, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1774073977228, updator=13701087609, issue=Issue{id=1242119544966283483, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, year='2024', volume='64', issue='11', pageStart='4011', pageEnd='4465', issueExtLink='null', onlineDate='null', pubDate='null', beforeIssueId=null, nextIssueId=null, price=null, status=1, issueComplete=1, articleOrder=1, issueType=-1, specialIssue=null, createTime=1774073976985, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1774074072279, updator=13701087609, preIssue=null, nextIssue=null, ext={EN=IssueExt(id=1242119944725397854, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, issueId=1242119544966283483, language=EN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=), CN=IssueExt(id=1242119944725397855, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, issueId=1242119544966283483, language=CN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=)}, issueFiles=null}, startPage=4134, endPage=4152, ext={EN=ArticleExt(id=1242119546442678501, articleId=1242119545989693664, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, language=EN, title=Research advances of linkers in the design of siderophore-antibiotic conjugates, columnId=1239895164987175635, journalTitle=Acta Microbiologica Sinica, columnName=Reviews, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

Escalating resistance of pathogens, especially Gram-negative bacteria, to antibiotics has become a public health problem arousing worldwide concern because of the abuse of antibiotics. The "Trojan Horse" strategy emerges as a promising approach to the development of new antibacterial agents. This strategy improves the antibacterial activity or broadens the antibacterial spectrum of antibiotics by using the siderophore-mediated bacterial iron transport system. In 2019, cefiderocol as the first siderophore-antibiotic conjugate was approved for marketing, which has garnered wide attention of scientists in this field. Currently, researchers mainly focus on siderophores or utilizing antibiotics with different mechanisms and ignoring linkers in the design of agents based on the "Trojan Horse" strategy. This review will summarize the impact of different linkers of conjugates on antibacterial activity, which could provide reference for the development of new antibacterial drugs and combating bacterial resistance.

, correspAuthors=Jialiang GUO, authorNote=null, correspAuthorsNote=
*GUO Jialiang, E-mail:
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由于抗生素的滥用,细菌耐药性问题日益严峻。细菌耐药性特别是革兰氏阴性菌耐药性已经成为主要公共卫生威胁之一。将细菌分泌的铁载体分子与抗生素偶联,利用细菌的铁摄取系统将抗生素转运至细菌细胞内,从而增强药效或者扩大抗菌谱,称之为“特洛伊木马”策略。2019年,头孢地尔(cefiderocol)作为第一个铁载体-抗生素偶联药物被批准上市,引起研究人员对“特洛伊木马”分子抗生素策略的广泛关注。目前铁载体-抗生素偶联物的设计大都是考虑连接不同作用机制的抗生素或不同种类的铁载体,而缺乏对中间连接体的研究。本综述将归纳总结文献中不同连接体对偶联物抗菌活性的影响,可为新型抗菌药物研发、解决临床耐药问题提供参考。

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journalId=1192105938417971205, articleId=1242119545989693664, language=CN, label=图12, caption=人工合成类铁载体-抗生素偶联物42, figureFileSmall=iR3T1LqrtfrykBKK1EladA==, figureFileBig=zELCGg7QcAFxX22wGGm0lw==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1243291007924682846, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, articleId=1242119545989693664, language=EN, label=Table 1, caption=

The structure and antibacterial activities of siderophore-antibiotic conjugates

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
ConjugateSiderophoreLinkerAntibioticMIC of conjugates (μmol/L)MIC of antibiotics (μmol/L)
13[26]Linear tris-hydroxamateAmideCiprofloxacinStaphylococcus aureus SG 511, 1.00;
Klebsiella pneumoniae ATCC 700603, > 128;
Acinetobacter baumannii ATCC 17961, ≥128;
Pseudomonas aeruginosa ATCC 27853, > 128
Staphylococcus aureus SG 511, 0.50;
Klebsiella pneumoniae ATCC 700603, 0.25;
Acinetobacter baumannii ATCC 17961, 0.25;
Pseudomonas aeruginosa ATCC 27853, 0.13
14[27]bis-catechol-Staphylococcus aureus SG 511, > 128;
Klebsiella pneumoniae ATCC 700603, > 128;
Acinetobacter baumannii ATCC 17961, > 128;
Pseudomonas aeruginosa ATCC 27853, > 128
Staphylococcus aureus SG 511, 0.50;
Klebsiella pneumoniae ATCC 700603, 0.25;
Acinetobacter baumannii ATCC 17961, 0.25;
Pseudomonas aeruginosa ATCC 27853, 0.13
15[28]Linear tris-hydroxamateEscherichia coli, 0.97Escherichia coli, 0.23
16[28]Non-linear tris-hydroxamateEscherichia coli, 0.23
17[22]EnterobactinEscherichia coli UTI89, 0.10;
Escherichia coli CFT073, 0.10;
Escherichia coli K-12, > 10;
Escherichia coli B, > 10
Escherichia coli UTI89, 0.10;
Escherichia coli CFT073, 0.10;
Escherichia coli K-12, 0.10;
Escherichia coli B, 0.10
20[29]HydroxypyridonePseudomonas aeruginosa ATCC 27853, 0.86;
Pseudomonas aeruginosa PAO1, 0.43;
Escherichia coli ATCC 25922, 0.03;
Klebsiella pneumoniae ATCC 700603, 1.72;
Staphylococcus aureus ATCC 25923, 3.44
Pseudomonas aeruginosa ATCC 27853, 0.75;
Pseudomonas aeruginosa PAO1, 0.38;
Escherichia coli ATCC 25922, 0.02;
Klebsiella pneumoniae ATCC 700603, 1.51;
Staphylococcus aureus ATCC 25923, 1.51
24[30]EnterobactinTriazole-etherVancomycinEscherichia coli, < 10;
Pseudomonas aeruginosa, < 10
Escherichia coli, > 10;
Pseudomonas aeruginosa: > 10
25[22]EnterobactinEtherCiprofloxacinEscherichia coli UTI89, > 10;
Escherichia coli CFT073, > 10;
Escherichia coli K-12, > 10;
Escherichia coli B, > 10
Escherichia coli UTI89, 0.10;
Escherichia coli CFT073, 0.1;
Escherichia coli K-12, 0.10;
Escherichia coli B, 0.10
26[31]tris-catecholTriazole-etherAmpicillinEscherichia coli, 0.81;
Staphylococcus aureus, > 64;
Acinetobacter baumannii, > 64
Escherichia coli, 19;
Staphylococcus aureus, > 183;
Acinetobacter baumannii, > 183
27[31]tris-catecholTriazoleEscherichia coli, MIC≤0.09;
Staphylococcus aureus, MIC=0.12;
Acinetobacter baumannii, MIC≤0.09
28[29]HydroxypyridoneTriazoleCiprofloxacinPseudomonas aeruginosa ATCC 27853, 108;
Pseudomonas aeruginosa PAO1, 27.05;
Escherichia coli ATCC 25922, 3.38;
Klebsiella pneumoniae ATCC 700603, > 200;
Staphylococcus aureus ATCC 25923, > 200
Pseudomonas aeruginosa ATCC 27853, 0.75;
Pseudomonas aeruginosa PAO1, 0.38;
Escherichia coli ATCC 25922, 0.02;
Klebsiella pneumoniae ATCC 700603, 1.51;
Staphylococcus aureus ATCC 25923, 1.51
30[32]CatecholPyrrolidiniumCeftazidimePseudomonas aeruginosa PAO1, 0.13 μg/mLPseudomonas aeruginosa PAO1, 0.50 μg/mL
32[34]tris-catecholEsterCiprofloxacinPseudomonas aeruginosa DSM 1117, 8 μg/mL;
Pseudomonas aeruginosa AM 85, > 128 μg/mL;
Pseudomonas aeruginosa DSM 1117, 0.25 μg/mL;
Pseudomonas aeruginosa AM 85, 16 μg/mL
35[36]tris-catecholEsterPseudomonas aeruginosa DSM 1117, > 128 μg/mL;
Pseudomonas aeruginosa AM 85, > 128 μg/mL
38[37]Enterobactin(Acyloxy)alkyl esterEscherichia coli K-12, 1.00;
Escherichia coli H1876, 1.00
Escherichia coli K-12, 0.10;
Escherichia coli H1876, 0.10
39[39]Linear tris-hydroxamateTrimethyl lockPseudomonas aeruginosa ATCC 27853, 2.00;
Escherichia coli ATCC 25922, 1.00;
Acinetobacter baumannii ATCC 17961, 8;
Klebsiella pneumoniae 700603, 16
Pseudomonas aeruginosa ATCC 27853, 0.13;
Escherichia coli ATCC 25922, < 0.02;
Acinetobacter baumannii ATCC 17961, 0.25;
Klebsiella pneumoniae 700603, 0.25
41[42]EnterobactinDisulfideEscherichia coli UTI89, > 10;
Escherichia coli CFT073, > 10;
Escherichia coli K-12, > 10;
Escherichia coli B, 0.10
Escherichia coli UTI89, 0.10;
Escherichia coli CFT073, 0.10;
Escherichia coli K-12, 0.10;
Escherichia coli B, 0.01
42[43]bis-catecholCephalosporinOxazolidinoneAcinetobacter baumannii ATCC 17978, 0.40;
Acinetobacter baumannii ATCC 17978 pNT255, 0.40;
Acinetobacter baumannii ATCC 17978 pNT255: ADC-1, 6.00
Acinetobacter baumannii ATCC 17978, > 50;
Acinetobacter baumannii ATCC 17978 pNT255, > 50;
Acinetobacter baumannii ATCC 17978 pNT255: ADC-1, > 50
), ArticleFig(id=1243291008008568932, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, articleId=1242119545989693664, language=CN, label=表1, caption=

铁载体-抗生素偶联物结构与抗菌活性

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
ConjugateSiderophoreLinkerAntibioticMIC of conjugates (μmol/L)MIC of antibiotics (μmol/L)
13[26]Linear tris-hydroxamateAmideCiprofloxacinStaphylococcus aureus SG 511, 1.00;
Klebsiella pneumoniae ATCC 700603, > 128;
Acinetobacter baumannii ATCC 17961, ≥128;
Pseudomonas aeruginosa ATCC 27853, > 128
Staphylococcus aureus SG 511, 0.50;
Klebsiella pneumoniae ATCC 700603, 0.25;
Acinetobacter baumannii ATCC 17961, 0.25;
Pseudomonas aeruginosa ATCC 27853, 0.13
14[27]bis-catechol-Staphylococcus aureus SG 511, > 128;
Klebsiella pneumoniae ATCC 700603, > 128;
Acinetobacter baumannii ATCC 17961, > 128;
Pseudomonas aeruginosa ATCC 27853, > 128
Staphylococcus aureus SG 511, 0.50;
Klebsiella pneumoniae ATCC 700603, 0.25;
Acinetobacter baumannii ATCC 17961, 0.25;
Pseudomonas aeruginosa ATCC 27853, 0.13
15[28]Linear tris-hydroxamateEscherichia coli, 0.97Escherichia coli, 0.23
16[28]Non-linear tris-hydroxamateEscherichia coli, 0.23
17[22]EnterobactinEscherichia coli UTI89, 0.10;
Escherichia coli CFT073, 0.10;
Escherichia coli K-12, > 10;
Escherichia coli B, > 10
Escherichia coli UTI89, 0.10;
Escherichia coli CFT073, 0.10;
Escherichia coli K-12, 0.10;
Escherichia coli B, 0.10
20[29]HydroxypyridonePseudomonas aeruginosa ATCC 27853, 0.86;
Pseudomonas aeruginosa PAO1, 0.43;
Escherichia coli ATCC 25922, 0.03;
Klebsiella pneumoniae ATCC 700603, 1.72;
Staphylococcus aureus ATCC 25923, 3.44
Pseudomonas aeruginosa ATCC 27853, 0.75;
Pseudomonas aeruginosa PAO1, 0.38;
Escherichia coli ATCC 25922, 0.02;
Klebsiella pneumoniae ATCC 700603, 1.51;
Staphylococcus aureus ATCC 25923, 1.51
24[30]EnterobactinTriazole-etherVancomycinEscherichia coli, < 10;
Pseudomonas aeruginosa, < 10
Escherichia coli, > 10;
Pseudomonas aeruginosa: > 10
25[22]EnterobactinEtherCiprofloxacinEscherichia coli UTI89, > 10;
Escherichia coli CFT073, > 10;
Escherichia coli K-12, > 10;
Escherichia coli B, > 10
Escherichia coli UTI89, 0.10;
Escherichia coli CFT073, 0.1;
Escherichia coli K-12, 0.10;
Escherichia coli B, 0.10
26[31]tris-catecholTriazole-etherAmpicillinEscherichia coli, 0.81;
Staphylococcus aureus, > 64;
Acinetobacter baumannii, > 64
Escherichia coli, 19;
Staphylococcus aureus, > 183;
Acinetobacter baumannii, > 183
27[31]tris-catecholTriazoleEscherichia coli, MIC≤0.09;
Staphylococcus aureus, MIC=0.12;
Acinetobacter baumannii, MIC≤0.09
28[29]HydroxypyridoneTriazoleCiprofloxacinPseudomonas aeruginosa ATCC 27853, 108;
Pseudomonas aeruginosa PAO1, 27.05;
Escherichia coli ATCC 25922, 3.38;
Klebsiella pneumoniae ATCC 700603, > 200;
Staphylococcus aureus ATCC 25923, > 200
Pseudomonas aeruginosa ATCC 27853, 0.75;
Pseudomonas aeruginosa PAO1, 0.38;
Escherichia coli ATCC 25922, 0.02;
Klebsiella pneumoniae ATCC 700603, 1.51;
Staphylococcus aureus ATCC 25923, 1.51
30[32]CatecholPyrrolidiniumCeftazidimePseudomonas aeruginosa PAO1, 0.13 μg/mLPseudomonas aeruginosa PAO1, 0.50 μg/mL
32[34]tris-catecholEsterCiprofloxacinPseudomonas aeruginosa DSM 1117, 8 μg/mL;
Pseudomonas aeruginosa AM 85, > 128 μg/mL;
Pseudomonas aeruginosa DSM 1117, 0.25 μg/mL;
Pseudomonas aeruginosa AM 85, 16 μg/mL
35[36]tris-catecholEsterPseudomonas aeruginosa DSM 1117, > 128 μg/mL;
Pseudomonas aeruginosa AM 85, > 128 μg/mL
38[37]Enterobactin(Acyloxy)alkyl esterEscherichia coli K-12, 1.00;
Escherichia coli H1876, 1.00
Escherichia coli K-12, 0.10;
Escherichia coli H1876, 0.10
39[39]Linear tris-hydroxamateTrimethyl lockPseudomonas aeruginosa ATCC 27853, 2.00;
Escherichia coli ATCC 25922, 1.00;
Acinetobacter baumannii ATCC 17961, 8;
Klebsiella pneumoniae 700603, 16
Pseudomonas aeruginosa ATCC 27853, 0.13;
Escherichia coli ATCC 25922, < 0.02;
Acinetobacter baumannii ATCC 17961, 0.25;
Klebsiella pneumoniae 700603, 0.25
41[42]EnterobactinDisulfideEscherichia coli UTI89, > 10;
Escherichia coli CFT073, > 10;
Escherichia coli K-12, > 10;
Escherichia coli B, 0.10
Escherichia coli UTI89, 0.10;
Escherichia coli CFT073, 0.10;
Escherichia coli K-12, 0.10;
Escherichia coli B, 0.01
42[43]bis-catecholCephalosporinOxazolidinoneAcinetobacter baumannii ATCC 17978, 0.40;
Acinetobacter baumannii ATCC 17978 pNT255, 0.40;
Acinetobacter baumannii ATCC 17978 pNT255: ADC-1, 6.00
Acinetobacter baumannii ATCC 17978, > 50;
Acinetobacter baumannii ATCC 17978 pNT255, > 50;
Acinetobacter baumannii ATCC 17978 pNT255: ADC-1, > 50
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铁载体偶联抗生素连接体优化的研究进展
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王园园 , 刘正 , 郭嘉亮 *
微生物学报 | 综述 2024,64(11): 4134-4152
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微生物学报 | 综述 2024, 64(11): 4134-4152
铁载体偶联抗生素连接体优化的研究进展
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王园园, 刘正, 郭嘉亮*
作者信息
  • 佛山大学 医学部, 广东 佛山 528225
Research advances of linkers in the design of siderophore-antibiotic conjugates
Yuanyuan WANG, Zheng LIU, Jialiang GUO*
Affiliations
  • School of Medicine, Foshan University, Foshan 528225, Guangdong, China
出版时间: 2024-09-05 doi: 10.13343/j.cnki.wsxb.20240393
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由于抗生素的滥用,细菌耐药性问题日益严峻。细菌耐药性特别是革兰氏阴性菌耐药性已经成为主要公共卫生威胁之一。将细菌分泌的铁载体分子与抗生素偶联,利用细菌的铁摄取系统将抗生素转运至细菌细胞内,从而增强药效或者扩大抗菌谱,称之为“特洛伊木马”策略。2019年,头孢地尔(cefiderocol)作为第一个铁载体-抗生素偶联药物被批准上市,引起研究人员对“特洛伊木马”分子抗生素策略的广泛关注。目前铁载体-抗生素偶联物的设计大都是考虑连接不同作用机制的抗生素或不同种类的铁载体,而缺乏对中间连接体的研究。本综述将归纳总结文献中不同连接体对偶联物抗菌活性的影响,可为新型抗菌药物研发、解决临床耐药问题提供参考。

细菌耐药  /  铁载体-抗生素偶联物  /  连接体  /  "特洛伊木马"策略

Escalating resistance of pathogens, especially Gram-negative bacteria, to antibiotics has become a public health problem arousing worldwide concern because of the abuse of antibiotics. The "Trojan Horse" strategy emerges as a promising approach to the development of new antibacterial agents. This strategy improves the antibacterial activity or broadens the antibacterial spectrum of antibiotics by using the siderophore-mediated bacterial iron transport system. In 2019, cefiderocol as the first siderophore-antibiotic conjugate was approved for marketing, which has garnered wide attention of scientists in this field. Currently, researchers mainly focus on siderophores or utilizing antibiotics with different mechanisms and ignoring linkers in the design of agents based on the "Trojan Horse" strategy. This review will summarize the impact of different linkers of conjugates on antibacterial activity, which could provide reference for the development of new antibacterial drugs and combating bacterial resistance.

bacterial resistance  /  siderophore-antibiotic conjugate  /  linker  /  "Trojan Horse" strategy
王园园, 刘正, 郭嘉亮. 铁载体偶联抗生素连接体优化的研究进展. 微生物学报, 2024 , 64 (11) : 4134 -4152 . DOI: 10.13343/j.cnki.wsxb.20240393
Yuanyuan WANG, Zheng LIU, Jialiang GUO. Research advances of linkers in the design of siderophore-antibiotic conjugates[J]. Acta Microbiologica Sinica, 2024 , 64 (11) : 4134 -4152 . DOI: 10.13343/j.cnki.wsxb.20240393
抗生素耐药性是一个全球性的公共卫生问题,它对人类健康构成了巨大的威胁。随着抗生素的不合理使用,细菌逐渐产生耐药性,甚至是对多种不同类型的抗生素产生交叉耐药,这会导致一些原本易于治疗的感染变得难以控制[1-2]。日益严峻的抗生素耐药性也引起全球的发病率与死亡率发生显著变化[2]。如果抗生素耐药性问题仍无法得到有效解决,预计2050年,全球每年将有1 000万人死于抗生素耐药菌感染[3-4],超过癌症的死亡人数,成为全球人类死亡的主要原因之一,造成的直接经济损失将超10万亿美元。2023年11月20日,全国细菌耐药监测网总结了从2 000所成员单位上报的关于2022年细菌耐药的检测数据,并发布了《2022年全国细菌耐药监测报告》[5],报告指出,2021年10月至2022年10月主要临床分离菌种分布(n=4 928 509)中,革兰氏阳性菌占28.5%,革兰氏阴性菌占71.5%,前5位分别是:大肠埃希菌、肺炎克雷伯菌、金黄色葡萄球菌、铜绿假单胞菌和鲍曼不动杆菌。此外,2024年5月,世界卫生组织(https://www.who.int)更新了2024年细菌类重点病原体目录(2024 WHO BPPL)[6],纳入了15种耐药细菌,依照重要性分为关键、高度和中度优先级;其中,关键优先级包括鲍曼不动杆菌和肠杆菌。从以上分析,我们发现革兰氏阴性菌的耐药问题尤为突出。
革兰氏阴性菌对临床常用抗生素的耐药性之所以比阳性菌更为严重,这与阴性菌细胞壁特殊的双膜结构密切相关[7]。相比于革兰氏阳性菌,革兰氏阴性细菌细胞壁的外层周质还有一层外膜,这使得它们对许多抗生素的通透性降低,因而对一些临床常用的抗生素(如β-内酰胺类抗生素)天然耐药[8-9]。革兰氏阴性菌的外膜属于其细胞壁的一部分,主要由脂多糖、磷脂以及外膜蛋白所构成[2]。脂多糖位于革兰氏阴性菌细胞壁的最外层,是一层较厚的类脂多糖类物质,包含类脂、多糖等。其中,类脂为革兰氏阴性菌致病物质内毒素的物质基础。外膜蛋白是嵌入脂多糖和磷脂层外膜上的蛋白,种类多达20多种。其中的脂蛋白具有使外膜层与细胞内壁肽聚糖层紧密相连的功能,此外,孔蛋白能够控制某些物质进入外膜[10]。革兰氏阴性菌独特的双膜结构作为一种渗透屏障,阻碍部分抗菌药物进入细菌细胞内,保护细胞免受破坏,从而提供给细菌耐药性保护[11]。革兰氏阴性菌细胞壁双膜结构具有一定的特殊性和复杂性,这也是阴性菌产生耐药的重要机制之一。
铁是大多数生命体所必需的营养物质,对于维持正常生命活动发挥着至关重要的作用。在生理条件(pH 7.4)下,每个细菌细胞分裂需要Fe3+大约10−5 mol/L,而人血清中以Fe3+形式存在的浓度仅大约为10−24 mol/L[12]。因此,部分细菌为了从外环境中获取足够的铁,分泌铁载体分子去螯合宿主环境中的铁离子从而形成铁载体与铁离子复合物,经细菌细胞铁载体蛋白识别,将铁与铁载体分子(如亚铁血红素)复合物转运至细胞质,再在铁还原酶的作用下释放出铁离子供细菌利用和储存[13]。细菌通过此种铁摄取机制,能够从外环境中获取足够的铁离子,以适应宿主环境并调控细胞内铁离子浓度的变化,满足细菌生长需要。铁载体对铁离子的强螯合能力使其成为新型药物研发的热点,例如一些天然的铁载体-抗生素偶联物已被证实可以通过特定的铁转运系统进入目标细菌,进而发挥作用[9]
目前,抗菌药物的研发大多聚焦于对已知化合物的改造或者优化,然而细菌耐药性的问题依然是一个严峻的挑战。因此,研发新靶标和新作用机制的抗菌剂对于克服细菌耐药性十分重要。基于细菌特有的铁获取机制,科学家提出了“特洛伊木马”分子抗生素策略[9],将铁载体分子与临床使用的抗生素偶联,借助细菌铁摄取系统将抗生素递送至细胞内,从而突破细菌的渗透屏障,杀死细菌(图1)。这种策略的主要目标在于促使抗生素进入细菌细胞,特别是阴性菌,增加细胞内药物浓度,从而增强抗菌活性或者扩大抗菌谱。2019年,第一个铁载体偶联抗生素药物头孢地尔(cefiderocol, 图1)被美国食品药品监督管理局(Food and Drug Administration, FDA)批准上市。头孢地尔的成功上市证实了“特洛伊木马”分子抗生素策略作为一种新型抗耐药菌抗生素研究的可行性。
“特洛伊木马”分子抗生素由3个部分组成:铁载体、连接体和抗菌剂。偶联物结构中的铁载体对于细菌的选择性尤为重要,抗菌剂对药物靶点至关重要,而中间连接体对偶联物能否裂解释放药物起着关键作用(图1)。因此,这3个组成部分在偶联物的设计中都需要综合考虑,进行系统地选择和优化,以便在药物转运和释放方面达到最优的抗菌作用。我们对已报道的铁载体-抗生素偶联物的研究文献进行归纳总结,偶联物发挥抗菌作用既有成功的典范也有失败的例子。大部分偶联物的设计都是考虑连接不同类型的抗生素。如何选择最合适的连接体,关乎偶联物进入细菌细胞内能否释放出母体抗生素,目前还无此类分子设计的指引。本综述归纳总结了已报道文献中不同连接体对抗菌效果的影响,为新型铁载体-抗生素偶联物的设计提供重要的参考价值。
在“特洛伊木马”分子抗生素设计中应考虑每一组分对抗菌作用的影响。已报道的天然铁载体-抗生素偶联物有阿波霉素(albomycin)、salmycins (图2)等[14-15],它们的结构中通过酰胺键或酯键将铁载体分子与抗生素进行连接。例如,阿波霉素主要是由三异羟肟酸型铁载体和硫代核糖嘧啶抗菌剂部分通过酰胺键相连接而形成的。在大肠杆菌(Escherichia coli)内,阿波霉素利用细菌铁摄取系统将偶联物穿过外膜、周质和内膜进而转运至细胞质[16]。在细胞质中,阿波霉素经肽酶裂解释放抗菌剂[17],研究结果表明阿波霉素对Escherichia coli的抗菌活性是氨苄西林的100倍。与阿波霉素不同的是,salmycins通过酯键将铁载体与抗菌部分进行连接。Salmycins能够通过铁还原引发的分子内环化释放出蛋白合成抑制剂氨基糖苷[18],它对金黄色葡萄球菌(Staphylococcus aureus)和肺炎链球菌(Streptococcus pneumoniae)表现出很强的抗菌活性(MIC=10 nmol/L)[19]。这些天然铁载体-抗生素偶联物通过酰胺键或酯键将二者连接起来,利用细菌的铁摄取系统将抗生素递送到细胞内的作用靶点,从而发挥较强的抗菌作用。
铁载体是微生物或植物合成并分泌的一类能够螯合铁离子的低分子量化合物,对铁离子具有强螯合力,能帮助微生物摄取铁,在微生物生存和生长中具有重要作用。截至目前,已知的具有独特结构的铁载体有600余种被收录在铁载体信息数据库中。这些铁载体主要由细菌产生,其次是真菌和植物。铁载体按照来源主要分为两大类,分别是天然铁载体和人工合成类铁载体。天然铁载体是由自然界中的生物自行合成并分泌而来的。例如在细菌中,革兰氏阴性菌铜绿假单胞菌(Pseudomonas aeruginosa)分泌的荧光嗜铁素(pyoverdine, 3)和螯铁蛋白(pyochelin, 4)[20-21],大肠杆菌分泌的肠杆菌素(enterobactin, 5)[22],革兰氏阳性菌金黄色葡萄球菌(Staphylococcus aureus)分泌的葡萄铁蛋白(staphyloferrin, 6)[23],以及从果蝇红酵母菌(Rhodotorula pilimanae) 中提取出来的红酵母酸[24] (rhodotorulic acid, 7)和镰刀菌(Fusarium roseum)产生的一种线型fusarinine B (8)[25]铁载体(图3)等。这些天然铁载体乃是生物在漫长的进化进程中形成的适应机制,用于在铁含量有限的环境里以极高的亲和力同三价铁离子结合形成螯合物,被细菌膜特异性铁载体受体蛋白识别并递送至胞内,以此竞争和获取铁资源。此种铁摄取机制在微生物的生存、繁衍以及与环境的相互作用中发挥着至关重要的作用。人工合成类铁载体则是通过化学合成方法,模拟天然铁载体的结构和功能设计合成的。
在对微生物代谢产物的研究中,天然铁载体具有高度多样化的结构。依照铁螯合功能基团的化学性质,天然铁载体能够分为三大类(异羟肟酸型、儿茶酚型和α-羟基羧酸型),还有类似儿茶酚结构的羟基吡啶酮型(图4)。异羟肟酸型铁载体具有独特的化学结构和强大的铁螯合能力。例如,去铁胺(desferrioxamine)就是一种典型的异羟肟酸型铁载体[15]。它在许多微生物中都有存在,能够有效地从环境中摄取铁元素,以满足微生物的生长和代谢需求。儿茶酚型铁载体的结构中包含儿茶酚基团,这使其具备了与铁离子紧密结合的能力。肠杆菌素是儿茶酚型铁载体的代表之一。它在肠道细菌中发挥着关键作用,帮助细菌在铁含量有限的环境中获取铁。α-羟基羧酸型铁载体通过其特殊的α-羟基羧酸基团来螯合铁离子[15]。例如,柠檬酸就属于这一类型。虽然它不是微生物特有的铁载体,但在一些微生物的铁摄取过程中也可能起到一定的辅助作用。对于实验室人工合成的铁载体,合成类铁载体的常见结构主要以异羟肟酸、儿茶酚、α-羟基羧酸还有类儿茶酚结构的羟基吡啶酮作为主要的骨架构成,这为后续的药物研发提供了基础。异羟肟酸型结构具有独特的化学性质和强大的铁螯合能力,儿茶酚型结构中的儿茶酚基团使其能够与铁离子紧密结合[16];α-羟基羧酸型结构通过其特殊的α-羟基羧酸基团来螯合铁离子;而羟基吡啶酮作为类儿茶酚结构,也表现出对铁离子的螯合能力[15]。这些结构特点使得合成类铁载体能够有效地与铁离子结合,帮助微生物摄取铁元素,在微生物的生存和生长中发挥重要作用。需要注意的是,铁载体的具体结构和性质可能会因微生物种类、环境条件等因素而有所不同。
2013年,Wencewicz等[26]将三异羟肟酸型铁载体与环丙沙星通过酰胺键连接得到偶联13 (图5),在抗菌实验中,偶联物13对革兰氏阳性菌Staphylococcus aureus (MIC=1.00 μmol/L)表现出与母药环丙沙星(MIC=0.50 μmol/L)相似的抗菌活性;然而偶联物13对肺炎克雷伯菌(Klebsiella pneumoniae)、鲍曼不动杆菌(Acinetobacter baumannii)、Pseudomonas aeruginosaEscherichia coli等革兰氏阴性菌近乎失效(MIC≥128 μmol/L);这些结果暗示了三羟肟酸型铁载体可被Staphylococcus aureus的铁载体蛋白识别并转运至细胞内,但三异羟肟酸型铁载体似乎难以被革兰氏阴性菌识别。随后,Wencewicz等又设计了儿茶酚-异羟肟酸混合型铁载体与环丙沙星偶联物得到化合物14[27];遗憾的是,偶联物14对7种测试菌株几乎均未表现出抗菌活性(MIC > 128 μmol/L)。这暗示着儿茶酚-异羟肟酸混合型铁载体可能不能被细菌识别,或者由于铁载体体积过大阻碍了抗生素弹头与靶蛋白结合,从而造成活性丧失。相似地,2019年,Pandey等[28]设计了三异羟肟酸型铁载体-环丙沙星偶联物1516;它们对Escherichia coli表现出优异的抗菌活性(15, MIC=0.97 μmol/L; 16, MIC= 0.23 μmol/L),与环丙沙星相当(MIC=0.23 μmol/L),进一步研究发现了富铁环境会显著抑制偶联物的抗菌活性(MIC > 64 μmol/L)。这些结果证明了富铁环境会抑制细菌对铁载体的转运,也间接表明三异羟肟酸-环丙沙星偶联物1516可被Escherichia coli外膜铁载体蛋白识别并转运至细胞内,从而发挥强的抗菌作用。2018年,Neumann等[22]报道了Escherichia coli分泌的天然铁载体肠杆菌素与环丙沙星通过酰胺键连接得到偶联物17,并初步研究了不同类型的连接体对偶联物抗菌效果的影响;偶联物17对2种致病性Escherichia coli表现出与环丙沙星相似的抗菌活性(MIC=0.10 μmol/L)。后续的抗菌机制研究表明偶联物17可被致病性Escherichia coli外膜铁载体转运蛋白FepA识别和转运,并借助肠杆菌素转运系统将偶联物转运至胞内,从而发挥优异的抗菌活性[22]
2023年,本课题组[29]报道了羟基吡啶酮类铁载体偶联环丙沙星得到了偶联物1823,并考察了不同的连接位点及连接体的长度对偶联物抗菌活性的影响;结果表明,偶联物20Pseudomonas aeruginosa ATCC 27853 (MIC= 0.86 μmol/L)、Pseudomonas aeruginosa PAO1 (MIC=0.43 μmol/L)、Escherichia coli (MIC= 0.03 μmol/L)、Klebsiella pneumoniae (MIC= 1.72 μmol/L)和Staphylococcus aureus (MIC= 3.44 μmol/L)的抗菌活性达到了与环丙沙星相当的效果;此外,偶联物20对4株多药耐药Pseudomonas aeruginosa (FB、1167、1121和1129)也表现出较好的抗菌作用;除了Pseudomonas aeruginosa ATCC 27853、Pseudomonas aeruginosa PAO1、Escherichia coliKlebsiella pneumoniae,偶联物20对其他测试菌株的抗菌活性是环丙沙星的1/2;抗菌活性微弱降低可能归因于将羟基吡啶酮作为铁载体连接到环丙沙星,改变了细菌对原药环丙沙星的吸收方式,导致进入细胞内的药物浓度降低;然而,当把偶联位点转移到羟基吡啶酮的N-1位得到偶联物19,它对测试菌株的抗菌活性是20的1/7−1/2。这些结果表明,羟基吡啶酮作为铁载体的理化性质微弱变化会影响偶联物的抗菌活性,这归因于羟基吡啶酮作为铁载体结构的微小变化可能会干扰小分子与铁载体蛋白间的相互作用,或者减少偶联物经铁载体介导的吸收;此外,我们也考察了烷基链连接体的长度对活性的影响,结果发现,无论偶联位点在羟基吡啶酮的C-6还是C-2位,随着烷基链的延长,抗菌活性逐渐减弱(如20 vs. 21 vs. 22);令人意外的是,偶联物23包含6个碳长的连接体几乎完全丧失活性,这表明连接体的柔性太强,可能会导致偶联物结构高度折叠,空间结构变大,致使无法通过蛋白通道,阻碍抗菌剂与靶蛋白的结合。综合分析,不同的细菌分泌不同的铁载体,有不同的铁载体吸收和转运机制。在低铁环境下,不同的细菌分泌和识别特定的铁载体分子来获取足够的铁离子以满足细菌生长的需求。将铁载体分子引入到环丙沙星可能改变了抗菌剂的吸收机制,因而导致偶联物对不同的致病菌表现出不同水平的抗菌活性。
2012年,Zheng等[30]将肠杆菌素与万古霉素通过三氮唑-聚乙二醇(polyethylene glycol, PEG)进行连接得到偶联物24 (图6),成功地将万古霉素的抗菌谱扩大到了革兰氏阴性菌(Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa: MIC < 10 μmol/L);进一步的转运机制研究表明,偶联物24可被Escherichia coliPseudomonas aeruginosa铁载体转运系统识别。然而,与偶联物17结构相似,此团队也设计了将天然铁载体肠杆菌素与环丙沙星通过PEG进行连接而得到偶联物25[22];然而,25Escherichia coli几乎无抑制作用,这与偶联物7的抗菌作用截然相反;作者猜测,尽管偶联物25可借助Escherichia coli肠杆菌素转运系统被递送至细胞内,然而PEG类连接体阻碍了环丙沙星弹头与靶蛋白的结合,从而丧失了抗菌活性。与偶联物24的连接体相似,Pinkert等[31]报道了人工合成类铁载体三儿茶酚经三氮唑-PEG连接体与氨苄西林偶联得到26;偶联物26Escherichia coli的抗菌活性(MIC=0.81 μmol/L)是母体抗生素氨苄西林(MIC=19 μmol/L)的23倍;尽管26Staphylococcus aureusAcinetobacter baumannii (MIC > 64 μmol/L)仅表现出微弱的抑制作用,但它的抗菌活性仍约是氨苄西林(MIC > 183 μmol/L)的3倍;此外,该团队也设计了将三氮唑-PEG连接体替换为三氮唑得到偶联物27;令人惊喜的是,三氮唑连接体偶联物27Escherichia coli(MIC≤0.09 μmol/L)、Staphylococcus aureus (MIC=0.12 μmol/L)和Acinetobacter baumannii (MIC≤0.09 μmol/L)均表现更强的抑制作用,是氨苄西林的250倍;进一步的转运机制研究表明,偶联物27可被Escherichia coli细胞外膜铁载体转运蛋白FepA、CirA和Fiu识别。此外,我们团队也考察连接体的分子柔性对抗菌活性的影响,将酰胺连接体换成刚性更强的三氮唑基团得到偶联物2829[29];然而,三氮唑偶联物对所有测试菌株的抗菌活性都大幅降低。这表明连接体需要保持一定的柔性才能满足抗菌剂弹头更好地与靶蛋白结合。
日本盐野义公司研发的头孢地尔(30)于2019年被美国FDA批准上市,其由单儿茶酚型铁载体通过吡咯烷鎓基团与头孢类抗生素偶联。头孢地尔的抗生素部分化学结构与头孢他啶类似,由一个典型的β-内酰胺环与二氢噻嗪环组成(图7)。有研究在C-7位侧链中引入羧基丙氧基亚氨基,使得头孢地尔对β-内酰胺酶的稳定性增强,并提高了对革兰氏阴性菌的抗菌活性[32];中间连接体选择了吡咯烷鎓基团,这让偶联物具有两性离子特性,水溶性提升,提高了药物分子穿透革兰氏阴性菌外膜的能力,使其不易被水解,增强稳定性。此外,日本盐野义公司研发也发现了偶联物31,儿茶酚型铁载体通过吡咯烷内胺盐与抗生素连接,借助细菌铁离子吸收系统,增强其对革兰氏阴性菌的抗菌作用[33]
2014年,Fardeau等[34]合成了将三儿茶酚型铁载体通过可水解的酯键与环丙沙星相连接得到偶联物3235 (图8);偶联物32Pseudomonas aeruginosa呈现出适中的抗菌活性(MIC=8 μg/mL),但偶联物35即使在高浓度(128 μg/mL)条件下仍然未表现出抗菌作用;而且,这4个偶联物的抗菌活性都远差于环丙沙星;作者猜测可能是由于偶联物进入细胞内只能发生部分水解,抗生素不能被完全释放出来,从而导致抗菌活性比母体抗生素有所降低。Rivault等[35]报道了以螯铁蛋白作为铁载体通过亚甲基二氧基酯与诺氟沙星偶联得到3637;初步的抗菌活性测试结果显示,不稳定连接基团的偶联物3637Pseudomonas aeruginosa仅呈现出与诺氟沙星相似的抑制作用;作者猜测可能是由于酯基连接体易受酯酶破坏,导致偶联物在细胞外可能已经被酯酶水解破坏,提前释放出母体抗生素,仅余少量的偶联物借助细菌铁摄取系统被转运至细胞内发挥抗菌作用[36],因而偶联物仅表现出与母体抗生素相似的抗菌活性。
2015年,Zheng等[37]设计并合成了以不稳定的(酰氧基)烷基酯作为连接体,将肠杆菌素铁载体与环丙沙星相连接得到偶联物38 (图8),旨在探究连接基团对抗菌效果的影响。他们之前的研究发现,(酰氧基)烷基酯在溶液中难以长时间稳定存在[38],因此通过改变连接体周围的取代基类型,增大空间位阻,增强稳定性,减少药物的破坏;偶联物38Escherichia coli K-12和H1876的MIC达到了1.00 μmol/L;而且,偶联物38在细菌培养液中可保持结构稳定,只检测到了1%的(酰氧基)烷基连接体的降解产物。
2015年,Ji等[39-40]报道了以“三甲基锁”作为连接体的异羟肟酸-环丙沙星偶联物3940 (图9);“三甲基锁”属于一种邻羟基肉桂酸衍生物,其结构上3个甲基彼此之间的位阻会促使其进行内酯化,进而转变成二氢香豆素;细菌铁代谢的还原途径激活偶联物释放抗生素的过程,偶联物螯合的三价铁被还原成二价铁,“三甲基锁”的核心骨架由醌还原为酚,并进一步内酯化,以此释放出药物,发挥抗菌作用(图10);研究结果表明偶联物39与具有稳定连接体的偶联物13Pseudomonas aeruginosaEscherichia coli的抗菌活性相当,但都弱于母药环丙沙星;这些结果暗示偶联物的连接体还需要进一步地优化,以提高药物的释放效率。在此之前,该课题组也验证了酯酶可裂解三甲基锁连接体,偶联物40依然呈现出比环丙沙星更弱的抗菌作用[41]
Neumann等[42]设计了以二硫键作为连接体将肠杆菌素铁载体与环丙沙星偶联得到41 (图11),继续探索连接基团的稳定性对偶联物抗菌活性的影响;结果显示,偶联物41仅对部分Escherichia coli表现出较好的抗菌效果(MIC= 0.1 μmol/L),是环丙沙星的(MIC=0.01 μmol/L) 1/10;作者猜测偶联物41在进入细菌细胞前就已经被还原裂解,从而释放出环丙沙星,所以二硫键在铁载体-抗生素偶联物的设计中不宜被广泛应用。
Liu等[43]和Schalk[44]设计了以头孢菌素作为连接体将双儿茶酚型铁载体与噁唑烷酮连接得到偶联物42 (图12);其设计思路为以头孢菌素作为连接基团,进入细胞内可由青霉素结合蛋白或β-内酰胺酶裂解,从而将噁唑烷酮类抗生素释放出来,提高噁唑烷酮的抗菌活性,乃至扩大抗菌谱;抗菌实验结果也证实了作者的猜想,偶联物42的抗菌活性是头孢菌素或单独的铁载体-噁唑烷酮偶联物的125倍,尤其是在高表达β-内酰胺酶的Acinetobacter baumannii仍呈现出出色的抗菌活性(MIC=6.00 μmol/L);此外,偶联物42和铁载体-头孢菌素偶联物对Acinetobacter baumannii表现出相似的抗菌作用(MIC=0.40 μmol/L);这些结构暗示了偶联物42和铁载体-头孢菌素偶联物的抗菌活性均归因于抗生素弹头头孢菌素;随后,又构建β-内酰胺酶过表达的Acinetobacter baumannii进行抗菌活性检测,以验证作者的猜想;实验结果表明,铁载体-头孢菌素偶联物对β-内酰胺酶过表达菌株呈现出明显的耐药性(MIC > 50 μmol/L),但偶联物42对β-内酰胺酶过表达菌株依然表现出较强的抗菌作用(MIC= 6.00 μmol/L)。以上结果验证了作者的猜想,也为研究人员拓宽了新的思路,指出了新的方向。
细菌的耐药性,特别是革兰氏阴性菌所表现出的耐药性,对人类的健康带来了极为严重的威胁,急切需要研发出新型抗生素来克服细菌耐药性。目前抗生素的研发大都是对已有抗生素的结构进行优化或改良,通常耐药性会很快发生。“特洛伊木马”分子抗生素策略作为一种崭新作用模式的抗生素,在实验及临床方面都收获了一定的成效,具备非常大的研发潜力和十分广阔的应用前景。“特洛伊木马”分子抗生素将铁载体与临床常用的抗生素偶联,借助细菌铁载体摄取系统将抗生素递送至细胞内,增加药物浓度,从而增强药效或扩大抗菌谱。“特洛伊木马”分子抗生素由3个部分构成:铁载体(结构式中的黑色部分)、连接基团(结构式中的红色部分)以及抗生素(结构式中的蓝色部分)。在偶联物分子的设计过程中,应当全方位考虑这3个组成部分中的每一个组分对抗菌效果带来的影响,开展系统的选择和优化工作,以便在膜渗透和抗生素释放方面实现最优的抗菌活性。然而,这些部分的选择与优化存在一定的难度。正因为如此,截至目前,成功的“特洛伊木马”分子抗生素依旧寥寥无几。我们对已有的铁载体-抗生素偶联物研究文献进行了较全面的调研,研究人员在铁载体-抗生素偶联物的设计时多集中于抗生素的选择。按照铁载体偶联抗生素的原药作用机制进行了归类和分析,我们发现作用于细菌细胞周质靶标的抗生素(如作用于细菌细胞壁的β-内酰胺类抗生素和作用于细胞膜的达托霉素)与铁载体偶联能大幅提升对革兰氏阴性菌的抗菌效果,有较好的增效作用[31, 45-47],偶联物242730就是最好的例子(表1);然而,作用于细胞质内靶标的抗生素(如作用于核糖体的恶唑烷酮类和作用于DNA螺旋酶的氟喹诺酮类)抗菌活性均未明显提高,甚至失效[22, 26, 28-29, 48],偶联物142535就是代表性化合物(表1)。这种限制的关键原因可能是,抗生素偶联的铁载体与细菌自身分泌的天然铁载体的结构存在差异,细菌细胞外膜上的铁载体转运蛋白对这两种铁载体的转运选择性存在差异,使得携带抗生素的铁载体绝大部分被带入周质,只有少量或无铁载体偶联抗生素再次跨过内膜被递送至细胞质。因此,对于革兰氏阴性菌而言,大部分铁载体-抗生素偶联物只能够被递送至周质,与周质中靶蛋白作用。
铁载体-抗生素偶联物发展的另一项难点在于寻找合适的连接基团。在新型药物的研发设想中,理想的连接基团不但需要在细胞外部的条件(比如面对复杂的体液环境)及在铁吸收系统的主动转运过程中能保持结构稳定,并且在偶联物进入细菌细胞内部能够促使铁载体-抗生素偶联物裂解,释放出母体抗生素。通过总结铁载体-氟喹诺酮类抗生素偶联物的研究(表1),发现连接体对喹诺酮类偶联物的抗菌活性尤为重要。大部分不稳定的连接基团偶联物在细胞外可能就已经被水解破坏,未进入细胞内而过早地释放出药物,如偶联物323541。然而稳定的连接体可使偶联物在体内、体外及转运过程中相对更稳定,不易受环境破坏,进入细菌内后才释放或不释放药物,从而提高偶联物在细菌细胞内的药物浓度,发挥较好的抗菌效果,如偶联物16、1720。然而,若连接基团过于稳定,便会增加抗生素释放的难度,还需要进行更进一步的优化改良。Liu等[43]和Schalk[44]有关铁载体-噁唑烷酮类偶联物的研究成果为我们提供了成功的案例,β-内酰胺类抗生素(42)也能够成为一种理想的连接基团(表1),应用到其他以周质为靶点的抗生素的铁载体-抗生素偶联物中。对于偶联周质靶点的抗生素,稳定的连接体(如酰胺)对于偶联物发挥优秀的抗菌作用更为适宜;而对于偶联胞质靶点的抗生素,连接体的选择需要兼顾其稳定性和可裂解性,以达到偶联物在细胞外环境和转运过程中能保持稳定,进入细胞质可被特异性裂解释放出母体抗生素,从而达到增强抗菌效果的目的。综上所述,“特洛伊木马”分子偶联物的3个组成部分,即铁载体、连接体和抗生素,在设计偶联物的过程中,除了要对铁载体和抗生素进行考虑外,选择合适的连接体关乎偶联物在转运过程中能否稳定存在以及母体抗生素能否从偶联物中释放,同样对偶联物发挥抗菌作用也起着至关重要的作用,值得进一步关注及探索。
  • 国家自然科学基金(82373835)
  • 国家自然科学基金(82173781)
  • 国家自然科学基金(82304313)
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2024年第64卷第11期
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doi: 10.13343/j.cnki.wsxb.20240393
  • 接收时间:2024-06-27
  • 首发时间:2026-03-21
  • 出版时间:2024-09-05
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  • 收稿日期:2024-06-27
  • 录用日期:2024-08-30
基金
National Natural Science Foundation of China(82373835)
国家自然科学基金(82373835)
National Natural Science Foundation of China(82173781)
国家自然科学基金(82173781)
National Natural Science Foundation of China(82304313)
国家自然科学基金(82304313)
作者信息
    佛山大学 医学部, 广东 佛山 528225

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鹅膏菌科Amanitaceae 2 11 5.26 鹅膏菌属 Amanita 10 4.78
小菇科 Mycenaceae 2 12 5.74 丝盖伞属 Inocybe 5 2.39
多孔菌科 Polyporaceae 8 14 6.70 蜡蘑属 Laccaria 5 2.39
红菇科 Russulaceae 3 23 11.00 小皮伞属 Marasmius 6 2.87
小菇属 Mycena 11 5.26
光柄菇属 Pluteus 5 2.39
红菇属 Russula 17 8.13
栓菌属 Trametes 5 2.39
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