Article(id=1241379091056742873, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, issueId=1241379085109219745, articleNumber=null, orderNo=null, doi=10.13343/j.cnki.wsxb.20230676, pmid=null, cstr=null, oa=null, hot=null, price=null, onlineType=0, articleFormat=0, articleType=null, articleTypeStr=research-article, receivedDate=1698854400000, receivedDateStr=2023-11-02, revisedDate=null, revisedDateStr=null, acceptedDate=1712419200000, acceptedDateStr=2024-04-07, onlineDate=1773897439016, onlineDateStr=2026-03-19, pubDate=1720022400000, pubDateStr=2024-07-04, doiRegisterDate=null, doiRegisterDateStr=null, onlineIssueDate=1773897439016, onlineIssueDateStr=2026-03-19, onlineJustAcceptDate=null, onlineJustAcceptDateStr=null, onlineFirstDate=null, onlineFirstDateStr=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, createTime=1773897439016, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1773897439016, updator=13701087609, issue=Issue{id=1241379085109219745, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, year='2024', volume='64', issue='7', pageStart='2151', pageEnd='2582', issueExtLink='null', onlineDate='null', pubDate='null', beforeIssueId=null, nextIssueId=null, price=null, status=1, issueComplete=1, articleOrder=1, issueType=-1, specialIssue=0, createTime=1773897437598, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1773897688675, updator=13701087609, preIssue=null, nextIssue=null, ext={EN=IssueExt(id=1241380138257010733, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, issueId=1241379085109219745, language=EN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=), CN=IssueExt(id=1241380138257010734, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, issueId=1241379085109219745, language=CN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=)}, issueFiles=null}, startPage=2194, endPage=2208, ext={EN=ArticleExt(id=1241379091367121374, articleId=1241379091056742873, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, language=EN, title=Basic characteristics and catalysis mechanism of bacterial cellulose synthase, columnId=1239895164987175635, journalTitle=Acta Microbiologica Sinica, columnName=Reviews, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

Bacterial cellulose, a natural biopolymer with higher purity and better mechanical properties than plant cellulose, is expected to be widely used as a new green polymer material. A variety of bacteria have now been proven to have the ability to produce cellulose, in which bacterial cellulose synthase plays a crucial role. Therefore, understanding the catalysis mechanism of bacterial cellulose synthase is a key to the mass production and broad utilization of bacterial cellulose. This paper reviews the basic properties of bacterial cellulose synthase, including the screening of strains, the enhancement of yield, and the cellular localization of the synthase, aiming to promote the research on the catalysis mechanism of cellulose synthase. Further, based on the mechanism of cellulose synthase, this paper detail the influencing factors ofin vitro synthesis and review the research progress in the roles of each subunit of this synthesis method. We explore the catalysis mechanism of bacterial cellulose synthase, point out the problems in the current research, and envision the future research directions in this field, with a view to providing a theoretical basis for the large-scale application of bacterial cellulose by deciphering the synthesis mechanism.

, correspAuthors=Shijing SUN, authorNote=null, correspAuthorsNote=
*SUN Shijing, E-mail:
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细菌纤维素是一种天然的生物质高分子聚合物。相较于植物纤维素,其具有更高的纯度和优异的力学性能。有望作为一种绿色的新型高分子材料被广泛应用。细菌纤维素合酶作为合成细菌纤维素的关键酶,其主导细菌纤维素的合成过程。因此,对其合成机理的探索有助于实现细菌纤维素大量生产和广泛应用。本文从细菌纤维素合酶的基本特性出发,综述了菌种筛选、提升产量和合酶的细胞定位等内容;围绕纤维素合酶的作用机理阐述了体外合成方法的影响因素,以及利用该方法探究各亚基相关作用的现状。以此探究细菌纤维素合酶的合成机制,并提出了当前研究中存在的问题。同时,展望了该领域未来的研究方向,以期通过对合成机理的探讨为细菌纤维素的大规模应用提供理论基础。

, correspAuthors=孙世静, authorNote=null, correspAuthorsNote=null, copyrightStatement=版权所有©《微生物学报》编辑部2024, copyrightOwner=null, extLink=null, articleAbsUrl=null, sourceXml=GCbVSdWTfYg9I8a//cXtLA==, magXml=VBQRLFQ706ZCFoocRgbnnA==, pdfUrl=null, pdf=lKAcwEaDasL/FWNLCYkmVw==, pdfFileSize=598702, pdfExtLink=null, richHtmlUrl=null, mobilePdfUrl=null, reviewReport=null, pdfFirstPage=null, abstractGraph=qYkugRGX7O1enTeDL6VN9Q==, abstractGraphContent=null, abstractVideo=null, citation=null, cebUrl=null, magXmlContent=qyNYH+OTo3TxvYjyTu6fjw==, mapNumber=null, authorCompany=null, fund=null, authors=

#These authors contributed equally to this work.

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BcsA (PDB: 4HG6) is synthase subunit A; BcsB (PDB: 7LBY, 4HG6) is synthase subunit B; BcsC (PDB: 6TZK) is synthase subunit C; BcsD (PDB: 3A8E) is synthase subunit D. BcsA, BcsB, BcsC, and BcsD are the main components of CSC which are linearly arranged to form TCs., figureFileSmall=9iCVaF9sii53SWuMYMbeog==, figureFileBig=NvO/StXJ/3j8W/9SOepVtA==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1241445809863054241, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, articleId=1241379091056742873, language=CN, label=图1, caption=细菌纤维素合酶(Bcs)主要亚基的跨膜结构示意图[47,49]

BcsA (PDB:4HG6)为纤维素合酶亚基A;BcsB (PDB:7LBY、4HG6)为纤维素合酶亚基B;BcsC (PDB:6TZK)为纤维素合酶亚基C;BcsD (PDB:3A8E)为纤维素合酶亚基D. BcsA、BcsB、BcsC和BcsD是纤维素合酶复合体CSC的主要组成部分,CSC直线排列构成终端复合体(TCs)

, figureFileSmall=9iCVaF9sii53SWuMYMbeog==, figureFileBig=NvO/StXJ/3j8W/9SOepVtA==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1241445810030826414, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, articleId=1241379091056742873, language=EN, label=Table 1, caption=

Bacterial cellulose synthase subunits

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
Subunit proteinManipulator typeFunction
其他目前未知具体作用的亚基(BcsO、BcsP、BcsK、BcsN、BcsS、BcsU和BcsV等)未在表中列出
Other subunits (BcsO, BcsP, BcsK, BcsN, BcsS, BcsU, and BcsV, etc.) are not listed in this table for which the specific role is currently unknown.
BcsAⅠ, Ⅱ, Ⅲ, ⅣCatalytic subunit A of cellulose synthase
BcsBⅠ, Ⅱ, ⅢCatalytic subunit B of cellulose synthase (periplasmic space)
BcsCⅠ, Ⅱ, ⅢCatalytic subunit C of cellulose synthase (spans periplasm and extracellular membrane)
BcsDCatalytic subunit D of cellulose synthase
BcsECytoplasmic subunit E of cellulose synthase (binding to c-di-GMP)
BcsFSubunits anchoring the cell membrane
BcsGContains four TM fragments and an AlkP domain
BcsQ-RⅠ, ⅡThe complex is an NTPase associated with ParA/MinD
BglXⅠaBeta-glucosidase, glycosylase, hydrolase family 3, secretory type
BcsHⅠaCellulose-supplemented protein A (specific toBacillus acetobacter)
BcsLⅢaFor acetyl transfer
BcsMⅢaDependent aminohydrolase, deacylation of glucose residues
BcsTMembrane protein (8 TM fragments) containing glycosyltransferase structural domains
), ArticleFig(id=1241445810131489717, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, articleId=1241379091056742873, language=CN, label=表1, caption=

细菌纤维素合酶相关亚基

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
Subunit proteinManipulator typeFunction
其他目前未知具体作用的亚基(BcsO、BcsP、BcsK、BcsN、BcsS、BcsU和BcsV等)未在表中列出
Other subunits (BcsO, BcsP, BcsK, BcsN, BcsS, BcsU, and BcsV, etc.) are not listed in this table for which the specific role is currently unknown.
BcsAⅠ, Ⅱ, Ⅲ, ⅣCatalytic subunit A of cellulose synthase
BcsBⅠ, Ⅱ, ⅢCatalytic subunit B of cellulose synthase (periplasmic space)
BcsCⅠ, Ⅱ, ⅢCatalytic subunit C of cellulose synthase (spans periplasm and extracellular membrane)
BcsDCatalytic subunit D of cellulose synthase
BcsECytoplasmic subunit E of cellulose synthase (binding to c-di-GMP)
BcsFSubunits anchoring the cell membrane
BcsGContains four TM fragments and an AlkP domain
BcsQ-RⅠ, ⅡThe complex is an NTPase associated with ParA/MinD
BglXⅠaBeta-glucosidase, glycosylase, hydrolase family 3, secretory type
BcsHⅠaCellulose-supplemented protein A (specific toBacillus acetobacter)
BcsLⅢaFor acetyl transfer
BcsMⅢaDependent aminohydrolase, deacylation of glucose residues
BcsTMembrane protein (8 TM fragments) containing glycosyltransferase structural domains
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细菌纤维素合酶的基本特性及作用机理
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张凯仁 # , 李任杰 # , 柯晶滢 , 李骏卓 , 孙世静 *
微生物学报 | 综述 2024,64(7): 2194-2208
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微生物学报 | 综述 2024, 64(7): 2194-2208
细菌纤维素合酶的基本特性及作用机理
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张凯仁#, 李任杰#, 柯晶滢, 李骏卓, 孙世静*
作者信息
  • 南京林业大学材料科学与工程学院, 江苏 南京 210037
Basic characteristics and catalysis mechanism of bacterial cellulose synthase
Kairen ZHANG, Renjie LI, Jingying KE, Junzhuo LI, Shijing SUN*
Affiliations
  • School of Materials Science and Engineering, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing 210037, Jiangsu, China
出版时间: 2024-07-04 doi: 10.13343/j.cnki.wsxb.20230676
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细菌纤维素是一种天然的生物质高分子聚合物。相较于植物纤维素,其具有更高的纯度和优异的力学性能。有望作为一种绿色的新型高分子材料被广泛应用。细菌纤维素合酶作为合成细菌纤维素的关键酶,其主导细菌纤维素的合成过程。因此,对其合成机理的探索有助于实现细菌纤维素大量生产和广泛应用。本文从细菌纤维素合酶的基本特性出发,综述了菌种筛选、提升产量和合酶的细胞定位等内容;围绕纤维素合酶的作用机理阐述了体外合成方法的影响因素,以及利用该方法探究各亚基相关作用的现状。以此探究细菌纤维素合酶的合成机制,并提出了当前研究中存在的问题。同时,展望了该领域未来的研究方向,以期通过对合成机理的探讨为细菌纤维素的大规模应用提供理论基础。

细菌纤维素  /  纤维素合酶  /  合成机理  /  亚基结构

Bacterial cellulose, a natural biopolymer with higher purity and better mechanical properties than plant cellulose, is expected to be widely used as a new green polymer material. A variety of bacteria have now been proven to have the ability to produce cellulose, in which bacterial cellulose synthase plays a crucial role. Therefore, understanding the catalysis mechanism of bacterial cellulose synthase is a key to the mass production and broad utilization of bacterial cellulose. This paper reviews the basic properties of bacterial cellulose synthase, including the screening of strains, the enhancement of yield, and the cellular localization of the synthase, aiming to promote the research on the catalysis mechanism of cellulose synthase. Further, based on the mechanism of cellulose synthase, this paper detail the influencing factors ofin vitro synthesis and review the research progress in the roles of each subunit of this synthesis method. We explore the catalysis mechanism of bacterial cellulose synthase, point out the problems in the current research, and envision the future research directions in this field, with a view to providing a theoretical basis for the large-scale application of bacterial cellulose by deciphering the synthesis mechanism.

bacterial cellulose  /  cellulose synthase  /  synthesis mechanism  /  subunit structure
张凯仁, 李任杰, 柯晶滢, 李骏卓, 孙世静. 细菌纤维素合酶的基本特性及作用机理. 微生物学报, 2024 , 64 (7) : 2194 -2208 . DOI: 10.13343/j.cnki.wsxb.20230676
Kairen ZHANG, Renjie LI, Jingying KE, Junzhuo LI, Shijing SUN. Basic characteristics and catalysis mechanism of bacterial cellulose synthase[J]. Acta Microbiologica Sinica, 2024 , 64 (7) : 2194 -2208 . DOI: 10.13343/j.cnki.wsxb.20230676
纤维素是地球上最丰富的生物聚合物[1-2]。天然纤维素主要来源于植物,同时也有少量细菌能够产生纤维素[3]。细菌纤维素(bacterial cellulose, BC)是一种由微生物生产的纳米级胞外多糖[4]。相较于植物纤维素,细菌纤维素不含其他植物细胞壁成分,如木质素、半纤维素等,因此具有更高的纯度[5]。同时,细菌纤维素具有结晶度高、拉伸强度高、弹性模量大等优点[6],在复合材料制备方面也表现出优良性能[7-8]。另外,由于细菌纤维素具有高生物相容性[9],并能够促进伤口愈合[10],在生物医疗领域[11]同样具有重要的研究价值。不仅如此,因为细菌生长周期短、繁殖速度快,所以合成纤维素的效率也较高[12-13],在食品、纺织等行业也具有潜在应用价值[14]。综上所述,细菌纤维素是一种性能优良的天然有机高分子材料,具有广阔的应用前景[15-16]。然而,受制于细菌合成过程难以操控、合成成本高、环境要求严格等因素,目前细菌纤维素难以实现大规模生产[3,17]。因此,理解细菌纤维素合成机制对于实现细菌纤维素的大规模合成和应用具有重要的意义[18]
探究纤维素合酶的作用机制是解析细菌纤维素合成机制的关键。然而,现有研究尚不能完全解析合酶各亚基的功能,以及它们之间的相互作用关系等。因此,本文综述了近年来关于细菌纤维素合酶(bacterial cellulose synthase, Bcs)基本特性与其作用机理的研究。首先,从合成菌种筛选、产量提高方法以及合酶位置3个方面总结了细菌纤维素合酶的基本特性。随后,总结了通过体外合成的方法解析合酶作用机制与相互作用关系的进展。通过对目前研究的综述与归纳,为未来深入探讨细菌纤维素合成机制提供必要的基础和知识储备。
为探究细菌纤维素合酶的合成机理,需要首先了解该类酶的基本特性。除了解基础信息外,对纤维素合酶基本特性的研究还包括筛选携带该酶的菌种、寻找提高细菌纤维素产量的方法、探索该酶在细胞中的存在位置等。
细菌纤维素合酶是细菌纤维素合成过程的众多酶组分中作用最为关键的一种特征酶[19]。自1886年Brown首次观察到部分细菌可有效合成纤维素以来[20],对细菌纤维素的研究从未间断。截至目前,研究者围绕细菌纤维素的形态表征、性能优化和合成应用等方面开展了大量研究[21-22]。其中,对合成机制的探究可分为宏观形貌和微观分子2个层面。在宏观层面,研究人员在细菌纤维素原纤丝末端细胞膜上发现了排列成直线[23]的蛋白颗粒阵列,这被称为终端复合体(terminal complexes, TCs),也称纤维素合酶复合体(cellulose synthase complex, CSC)[24]。CSC在细菌纤维素的合成过程中发挥重要作用,催化纤维素分子链的形成并使其分泌至细胞外膜[25]。在微观层面,分子生物学相关研究表明,CSC由多种纤维素合酶(cellulose synthase, Ces)亚基构成,在细菌中被称为细菌纤维素合酶亚基[26]
细菌纤维素的合成有赖于以该酶为主构成的复合体合成系统。目前,研究最深入的细菌纤维素合成系统是1991年Mayer等[27]提出的环二鸟苷酸(cyclic diguanosine monophosphate, c-di-GMP)系统,该系统基本阐明了细菌纤维素合酶的位置关系和作用机制,并将细菌纤维素的生物合成分为4个密切连续的步骤:聚合、分泌、组装和结晶[28],在该系统中,碳源底物首先在细胞内经系列酶学转化成为纤维素合成的单元底物尿苷二磷酸葡萄糖(uridine diphospho-glucose, UDP-Glc),该单元底物的合成和降解分别受二鸟苷酸环化酶(diguanylate cyclase, DGC)和磷酸二酯酶(phosphodiesterase, PDE)影响,未在变构位点上结合c-di-GMP的合酶将不具有活性,即c-di-GMP起着活化纤维素合酶的关键作用。Morgan等[29]在研究c-di-GMP激活细菌纤维素合酶的机理的过程中提出,c-di-GMP可以改变门控环构象,打开BcsA上的活性点位,从而使底物更容易与BcsA接触并发生聚合。后续Liu等[30]对木糖驹形氏杆菌(Komagataeibacter xylinus)的基因组分析进一步解释了合成过程,c-di-GMP通过GinI/GinR基因的群体感应(quorum sensing, QS)系统调控BcsA-BcsB亚基的激活机制,并通过QS系统抑制木糖驹形氏杆菌氧化发酵的作用。虽然细菌纤维素合成中的酶学调控过程尚未完全解析,但这一系统至今仍在不断完善。
在自然界中,这类以纤维素合酶为主的复合体合成系统存在于多种微生物中,探究这些微生物中纤维素的合成过程是进一步认识纤维素合酶基础特性的重要方法。
探究能稳定生产细菌纤维素的微生物,是对细菌纤维素合酶研究的原始出发点[31]。目前多个菌属都被证实可以稳定产生细菌纤维素,如醋杆菌属(Acetobacter)、土壤杆菌属(Agrobacterium)、无色杆菌属(Achromobacter)、气杆菌属(Aerobacter)、固氮菌属(Azotobacter)、八叠球菌属(Sarcina)、根瘤菌属(Rhizobium)、假单胞菌属(Pseudomonas)等18个属[32-33]
这些已被确认具有生产纤维素能力的菌属中,醋杆菌具有更为突出的纤维素生产效率,因此围绕醋杆菌属的研究较为深入。随着分类学研究的不断深入,许多菌株经历了重新命名和分类,例如,1997年Yamada等将醋杆菌属部分菌种(典型菌种Acetobacter xylinus)分离出来并升级为同科的葡糖醋杆菌属(Gluconacetobacter)[34],以及2013年从葡糖醋酸杆菌属中进一步分离并建立的驹形氏杆菌属(Komagataeibacter)[35],对这些属的研究也在不断深化。Aydın等[36]筛选了醋杆菌科的典型生态位以分离具有纤维素合成功能的菌属,他们使用Hestrin-Schramm (HS)培养基对该菌科进行培养,发现300余种被筛菌中只有9种能在培养液表面形成生物膜,所筛选的各纤维素合成菌在生化特性上表现为氧化酶阴性、过氧化氢酶阳性,符合驹形氏杆菌属特征;探究该9种菌株中产量最高的分离株P2A的16S rRNA基因序列,得出其与汉森氏驹形氏杆菌(Komagataeibacter hansenii) NBRC 14820相似性为99.8%,推测所筛选菌种为相应亚种,命名为汉森氏驹形氏杆菌P2A,该研究为后续纤维素合成菌菌种筛选提供了一个高效可行的方法。Nie等[37]对比各醋杆菌的发酵过程与所得细菌纤维素生产动力学发现,经葡萄糖淀粉酶处理的醋杆菌往往有着更高的细菌纤维素产量、产率,这可能为细菌纤维素的高效生产提供了一种新思路。
目前,各菌属中能稳定生产纤维素的新菌种仍在不断被发现,如巴氏醋杆菌(Acetobacter pasteurianus) MGC-N8819、木糖驹形氏杆菌(Komagataeibacter xylinus) LKN6等[38]
增大细菌纤维素产量是工业生产研究的重点,不仅有助于纤维素合酶合成机理的探究,也是细菌纤维素的大量合成及广泛应用的基础。de Wulf等[39]采用紫外诱变木糖驹形氏杆菌,通过限制细菌中酮葡萄糖酸盐合成,从而使更多碳源用于细菌纤维素的合成,结果显示该菌的纤维素合成产量达到原本的183%,取得了较高水平的增长。Bae等[40]构建了破坏DGC1基因的木糖驹形氏杆菌突变体,该突变菌株在5 L罐式发酵罐中有氧搅拌条件下纤维素产量较野生木糖驹形氏杆菌增加了36%,而证明该纤维素合成菌突变体宜在有氧条件培养。Wu等[41]利用高静水压处理诱导木糖驹形氏杆菌构建突变体,同样提高了细菌纤维素的产量,但未能解析突变机理。Lu等[42]通过分析驹形氏杆菌属的全基因组,确定甘油更适合作为该菌属碳源,使单一碳源下的细菌纤维素产量大幅提高。这些研究均有助于提高细菌纤维素的合成产量。
以上宏观层面对于细菌纤维素合成的研究不仅为其大规模应用提供了有效方法,也为我们理解细菌纤维素合酶在纤维素合成中的作用奠定了基础。然而,若要更深入地探究细菌纤维素合酶的作用机制,需从微观层面探索其在细菌中的存在形式以及位置信息等,此类研究对于解析纤维素合酶的具体作用机制至关重要。
在1987年之前,人们普遍认为细菌纤维素合酶存在于细胞外膜[43-45]。直到Bureau等[46]发现具有活性的纤维素合酶主要位于细胞质膜上,在这项研究中研究者利用溶菌酶和胰蛋白酶降解木糖驹形氏杆菌的细胞质膜与外膜之间的连接层,根据膜上蔗糖密度不同,用超离心法分离粗膜,最终检测细胞质膜和外膜上引入的标记物,确定了纤维素合酶主要存在于细胞质膜上;通过酶解、甲基化分析以及气相色谱等对产物定性,并利用凝胶过滤色谱法测定其聚合度,经X射线衍射(X-ray diffraction, XRD)分析表明体外产物是纤维素II。该研究不仅提出了纤维素合酶的存在部位,同时提出,在体外合成纯化过程中,葡萄糖链聚集可能被破坏,使其有可能进行反向平行结晶,即形成Ⅱ型纤维素,为后续研究提供了改进的方向。
21世纪初,一系列基于冷冻断裂技术以及电子显微镜技术的精细结构研究,使CSC的结构与细胞定位进一步明确。CSC在细胞中被具体定位到TCs,TCs中除包含纤维素合酶外,还有多种其他蛋白质[47],该复合体沿木糖驹形氏杆菌细胞的纵轴存在,而且蛋白间具有多种排列方式[23]。不同于植物、藻类等生物体中的纤维素合成TCs,细菌的TCs由纤维素合酶亚基组成,固定在膜上并穿过细胞膜、周质空间和外膜。2001年,Kimura等[24]通过十二烷基硫酸钠(sodium dodecyl sulfate, SDS)-冷冻断裂标记法在TCs中直接定位特定亚基,首先确定了BcsB在细胞中的存在,该研究为后续亚基定位相关研究提供了有效方法。Sunagawa等[48]研究表明,除纤维素合酶外,纤维素合成的TCs中含有的纤维素互补因子(cellulose complementing factor, Ccp)同样参与合成细菌纤维素,并证实BcsD和Ccp位于膜上的TCs中。此后,Sun等[49]同时使用溶酶菌和洗涤剂剥离木糖驹形氏杆菌的细胞膜,使目的蛋白暴露并采用荧光抗体标记后,在原同属醋杆菌属的ATCC 53524、ATCC 53264、JCM 9730三株菌株中都观察到BcsA和BcsD,并且亚基位于呈线性阵列排列的TCs中,关于以上TCs示意图如图1 (右侧部分)所示。
随着冷冻电镜、免疫荧光标记等技术的应用,关于纤维素合酶的精细结构研究深入到亚基层面,各Bcs亚基间相对位置关系以及蛋白质结构研究趋于完善。现有研究对以类球红细菌(Rhodobacter sphaeroides)、醋杆菌属、大肠埃希氏菌(Escherichia coli)等为代表的革兰氏阴性菌亚基结构解析较为完全,其中BcsA由8个跨膜(transmembrane, TM)片段和2个细胞质结构域组成:一个位于中间的糖基转移酶结构域和一个包含c-di-GMP结合PilZ结构域的C端片段;BcsB位于外周质中,通过单个跨膜螺旋固定在膜上[50];BcsC中既含有周质蛋白,也有膜蛋白部分,该蛋白由19个四肽重复序列(tetratricopeptide repeat, TPR)结构域形成的N端α螺旋部分和结构类似于外膜蛋白β桶形结构的C端部分组成;而BcsD是周质蛋白,结构为由5个α螺旋和4个β链组成的八聚体,通过4个内部通道调节葡聚糖链的聚集[47,51-53]。各Bcs蛋白质结构与相对位置如图1所示。
在同样具备纤维素合成功能的大肠杆菌及其他肠杆菌科中,磷酸乙醇胺(phosphoethanolamine, pEtN)起到修饰周质中纤维素的作用,该作用可能依赖于BcsB、BcsG等亚基[54]。为深入了解pEtN在纤维素生物合成中的作用机理,Acheson等[54]确定了BcsA、BcsB以及其他几个亚基(BcsG、BcsE、BcsR、BcsQ等)的冷冻电镜结构,推理出其微观上存在的位置关系,并提出BcsB具有促进pEtN修饰后纤维素向外膜迁移的作用,以及BcsG对pEtN的催化作用,进一步为亚基结构的解析提供了直接的证据。总体而言,关于纤维素合酶亚基的定位探究仍以BcsA−D等关键亚基为主,其他部分亚基的位置信息尚未完全解析。
现有研究在宏观层面集中于对含有细菌纤维素合酶的微生物的筛选以及产量优化方面,在微观层面则深入到各亚基的定位和结构。现已证实细菌纤维素合酶位于终端复合体跨膜结构中,在外膜质膜上均有分布。此外,各主要亚基的相对位置和精细结构也被解析。以上研究成果有助于揭示细菌纤维素合酶内部的结构特征,进而深入理解细菌纤维素合成过程中纤维素合酶的作用机制。
细菌纤维素合酶由细菌纤维素合酶亚基构成。因此,想要进一步解析细菌纤维素合酶作用机理需要从亚基出发,明确各亚基在合成中的具体作用。然而,直接在菌体内原位研究亚基功能会受到其他酶的干扰,研究者们常采用体外合成的方法解决该问题。体外合成的首要条件是保持酶的活性,但常受到各种因素的影响,本文综述部分外部影响因素,并提供参考方法,为体外合成条件设定提供指导。总结通过采用体外合成来探究细菌纤维素合酶主要亚基以及其他亚基作用机制的研究进展,以进一步解析细菌纤维素的合成机制。
自1886年细菌纤维素被首次报道以来,生物合成细菌纤维素的方法以传统静态培养为主,该方法存在生产率低以及培养时间长等问题[55-56],因此体外合成细菌纤维素逐渐进入研究者们的视野。另外,因为体外合成可以排除胞体内其他酶与蛋白的干扰[57],探究体外合成过程与产物也是解析纤维素合成机制的重要方法,其中涉及亚基层面的体外合成研究更是对解析Bcs亚基结构与功能有着不可或缺的价值。
早在20世纪50年代,关于细菌纤维素体外合成的尝试就已开始。1958年,Glaser[58]使用木糖驹形氏杆菌部分破碎细胞以UDP-Glc作为糖基受体,实现了首次体外合成细菌纤维素,但是该体系产率较低,产物结构脆弱,较天然纤维素有很大差异。随着对纤维素合成机制理解的逐渐加深,研究者开始重视纤维素合酶在合成过程中的作用。1985年,Lin等[59]使用洋地黄皂苷透化细胞膜的方法提取出木糖驹形氏杆菌中的纤维素合酶,并将其用于构建体外合成体系,以葡萄糖为底物,所得产物呈簇状,倾向于横向上链与链的相互缠结,产生小而粗的纤维素聚合体。该团队用高度纯化的纤维二糖水解酶I标记体外合成的簇状纤维,通过两者的特异性结合确定该产物为纤维素,该体系是利用纤维素合酶体外合成纤维素产物的首次尝试。
涉及亚基层面体外合成研究同样开始于20世纪80年代,基于当时相对完善的大肠杆菌纤维素合酶复合体基因研究,Kumamoto等[60]利用纯化后大肠杆菌合酶亚基SecB (后经基因组分析推测与BcsB同源[61])进行体外合成,尽管未得到结构完整的纤维素产物,但酶活性分析结果表明该亚基直接参与大肠杆菌胞外多糖合成的过程;该研究证实了利用部分细菌纤维素合酶亚基在体外合成中保留纤维素合酶活性的可能性。对于醋杆菌,随着20世纪90年代醋杆菌各Bcs亚基被发现,Bcs亚基结构、作用研究开始逐渐清晰。然而,细菌纤维素合酶中关键亚基BcsA、BcsB在体外合成中的详细作用直到2013年才被Omadjela等[62]发现,该研究通过Bcs亚基异源表达实现体外合成纤维素,首次解析了BcsA、BcsB的结晶结构,为后续通过体外合成纤维素解析亚基功能的研究提供依据。
在过去研究的基础上,Imai等[63]将木糖驹形氏杆菌中的BcsA和BcsB在大肠杆菌中重建,验证了BcsA、BcsB以及合成c-di-GMP的二鸟苷酸环化酶对于保留纤维素合酶合成活性的重要性。该体系中纤维素产物由携带木糖驹形氏杆菌BcsA、BcsB基因载体的大肠杆菌中直接获得,可以稳定合成出较为完整的微纤丝产物,因此产率较以往体外合成有较大提升;此外,以该体系体外合成出的产物结晶结构区别于天然的纤维素I晶体形式,更接近于纤维素Ⅱ型结构,这也是截至目前大部分体外合成体系的共同点。事实上,如何使体外合成产物保留完整纤维素结构,尤其是结晶结构,一直是困扰研究者们的问题之一。
为分析结晶纤维素合成的方式,2016年Du等[64]通过分别与BcsA、BcsB同源的汉森氏驹形氏杆菌的纤维素合酶AcsA、AcsB亚基构建AcsAB四聚体异源表达系统,经透射电子显微镜(transmission electron microscope, TEM)测试分析合成产物结构,发现即使在保留AcsAB活性的情况下产物也不具备完整的结晶结构,这表明完整的线性排列的末端复合物将纤维素挤压至外膜的机制可能是合成结晶纤维素的关键因素之一。同样地,为解析体外合成中结晶结构差异的原因,2019年Tajima等[65]利用原位小角X射线散射(small angle X-ray scattering, SAXS)技术对合成过程中产物变化进行拟合分析,由此得出结论,对于体外合成,纤维素Ⅱ型结晶结构的产生分为至少2个步骤,分别是所合成的纤维素分子聚集体在反应体系中分散,以及分散至临界点后的分子链重新聚集成Ⅱ型结构,目前尚无法证明该过程是体外合成产物结构差异的原因,但这是对纤维素体外合成机制的进一步解析,有重要理论价值。
在体外合成的过程中,外界条件同样会对合成效果产生显著影响。有研究者从其他可能对合成体系产生的影响因素入手,如纤维素合酶的提取方法、培养环境、外部因子等,尝试通过改变体外合成条件的方式提升体外合成产物的产量、优化产物结构。
从菌体中提取所需蛋白的方法差异会直接影响提取细菌纤维素合酶的纯度和活性[66],进而影响体外合成效率与产物。为探究提高合酶活性的提取方式,Hashimoto等[67]利用烷基麦芽糖苷作为洗涤剂提取木糖驹形氏杆菌细胞膜上的纤维素合酶,发现该洗涤剂提取的纤维素合酶合成活性明显高于膜上的纤维素合酶。对在洗涤剂提取液中直接进行合成后的产物进行XRD分析后发现,体外产物的平面晶体尺寸大于一般的丝光纤维素,而且具有更高的结晶度,结晶结构为纤维素Ⅱ型;测定该产物聚合度大于45,这表明在不影响纤维素合酶功能的前提下,该提取方法可能会改变纤维素产物的结晶结构,这可能是由于洗涤剂的存在使主导纤维素结晶的亚基BcsC、BcsD的机制改变,导致产物表现为纤维素Ⅱ型。
此外,温度、离心、pH等培养环境对体外合成也有着不可忽视的影响。Penttilä等[57]从木糖驹形氏杆菌中成功提取出纤维素合酶,进行了纤维素的体外合成研究,得出了细菌培养过程和纤维素合成过程的最佳温度;通过对合成体系差速离心发现,引入足够强度的外力会显著影响纤维素合酶的作用,降低纤维素的产量,并且差速离心会使得合成纤维素的平均聚合度比静态条件小;同时,电镜结果也表明,超速离心后,合成的纤维素在形态上明显更加松散,这可能是由于超速离心过程中纤维素合酶复合体结构发生改变,与预期结果一致。所得纤维素产物的结晶型检测结果表明这2种反应条件并不会导致纤维素结晶型变化,产物均为纤维素Ⅱ型。Li等[68]通过加入不同缓冲液调节汉森木糖驹形氏杆菌静态培养的初始pH,对比各组产量,得出pH为5.0时细菌纤维素的产率有明显提高,并且该条件下产物的力学性能较高。
外界条件的改变会对细菌内纤维素的原位合成过程及产物产生影响,该影响可能也会作用于体外合成,分析环境条件与产物的关系也可推导细菌纤维素合成机理,但这些条件是否直接作用于细菌纤维素合酶还有待进一步研究。Kouda等[69]探究了二氧化碳/氧气压力对细菌纤维素生产的影响,发现氧气分压对于细菌纤维素的产量影响不大,但氧气浓度降低带来的二氧化碳的分压增大却会抑制细菌纤维素的生成速率。Zhou等[70]探究了添加海藻酸钠对木糖驹形氏杆菌生产细菌纤维素的影响,发现海藻酸钠的加入会提升细菌纤维素的产率和产量,但XRD结果表明加入海草酸钠后细菌纤维素的结晶度和晶体尺寸有所下降。这可能是由于海草酸钠会缩短细胞的滞后期,并且阻止纤维素发生团聚,改变纤维素的结晶结构。此外,烟草胺、乙醇和有机酸等物质的浓度也会对合成产物造成影响[71-72]。这些外界因子对细菌纤维素合酶生产纤维素过程的作用机制仍需进一步探究。
上述体外合成技术的发展,为纤维素合酶亚基的研究提供了便利,各亚基在纤维素合成过程中所发挥的作用具有一定差异。其中BcsA和BcsB是保留纤维素合成活性所需的最基本亚基。因此围绕BcsA和BcsB这2个关键亚基的相关研究较为完善[73-74]
现有研究认为,BcsA可以调整合成后纤维素分子链的聚合度,并在细菌内膜上形成跨膜孔隙的一个合成亚基;BcsB是一种大型膜外蛋白,通过C端产生跨膜的螺旋并镶嵌于内膜上,BcsB不仅能参与纤维素链的跨质膜转运,还能调控纤维素合酶的活性,它通过两端的纤维素结合结构域(cellulose-binding domain, CBD)进而引导合成的纤维素分子穿过外膜[50]。此外,在某些特殊的纤维素合成菌中,BcsA和BcsB还能融合成一条单一的多肽链[75]
在Omadjela等[62]的研究中,研究者使用从类球红细菌中提取的BcsA和BcsB复合物,在体外构建了纤维素合酶异源表达系统;发现只有当2个亚基位于同一细胞膜上时,所构建出的表达体系才能保留纤维素合酶活性,具有合成纤维素的功能;另外在该研究中,研究者截短了BcsB的N端,并将其继续与BcsA引入倒置膜囊(inverted membrane vesicles, IMV)中协同表达,分析复合物的活性,发现大部分被截短的BcsB能继续与BcsA协同催化合成纤维素。虽然BcsA也需要BcsB进行活化,但只有BcsB的跨膜螺旋对于整个合酶的催化活性是必要的,被截取的N端复合体和BcsA的作用可能是稳定了BcsB的跨膜区域,促使纤维素合酶保持了催化活性。这项研究除了清晰地表明了BcsA和BcsB两者在合成纤维素中不可或缺的作用以外,还发现了BcsA与BcsB这2个亚基间的协同作用。
为进一步解释BcsA、BcsB这2个关键亚基的作用,Sajadi等[76]分别将木糖驹形氏杆菌的BcsA、BcsB和BcsAB这3种基因扩增克隆到大肠杆菌中进行了异源表达,并在重组大肠杆菌细胞外合成出纤维素纤丝产物,通过定量分析比较各组体外合成产物与野生型大肠杆菌自身合成纤维素量的差异,测得重组BcsA和BcsB产物量与大肠杆菌对照组所得纤维素量大致相同,仅有重组BcsA-B产生纤维素的量与野生型相比有所增加,这表明2个亚基必须同时位于膜上才能成功合成出功能化合物,并且BcsA和BcsB可能连接至同一个多肽中;还将含BcsA、BcsB的重组体产物与野生型大肠杆菌纤维素进行红外光谱结果对比分析,结果表明,与野生型相比,重组体产生的纤维素结晶指数变化不大,这证明在体外合成的纤维素结晶过程中BcsA和BcsB亚基并未发生作用。
此后,BcsA和BcsB的协同作用生产机理逐渐明确。Su等[77]将木糖驹形氏杆菌中的细菌纤维素合酶基因BcsAB克隆到特定载体中,生成质粒pBcsAB,将该质粒引入到丝状蓝细菌中进行异源表达,利用钙荧光白染色后与异硫氰酸荧光素酯(fluorescein 5-isothiocyanate, FITC)偶耦联,标定纤维素存在的位置。对纤维素进行水解后测定水解后葡萄糖的含量,结果表明携带BcsAB基因的菌株总葡萄糖含量明显高于对照组,而且光合速率和生长速率均有所提高,证明BcsA、BcsB基因在纤维素合成中起到调节作用。
总之,在细菌纤维素合酶各亚基中,BcsA、BcsB这2个主要亚基在纤维素合成中具有不可替代的关键作用,并且两者之间可以产生协同作用。BcsA调整纤维素分子链聚合度,形成跨膜孔隙,而BcsB参与纤维素链的跨质膜转运,并调控合酶活性。尽管这2个亚基可能不直接参与纤维素结晶,但它们在体外合成过程中是必需的。这些研究深化了对细菌纤维素合酶亚基在纤维素合成中作用的理解。
尽管BcsA、BcsB的作用不可或缺,但其他亚基同样在细菌纤维素合成过程中发挥着差异性作用,并且不同菌株来源的细菌纤维素合酶基因组以及操纵子类型也存在差异。综合已有报道可知,操纵子类型可以分为4类:以BcsA−D这4种基因为主的I型,代表菌株为醋杆菌;以BcsA−C为主不含有BcsD的Ⅱ型,常见于大肠杆菌等菌种内;仅含有BcsA、BcsB、BcsZ的Ⅲ型,多存在于蚕豆农杆菌属(Agrobacterium fabrum)等菌体内;以及仅含有BcsA的Ⅳ型,存在于部分藻类中[78]。在研究比较深入的Ⅰ型BcsA−D操纵子类型中,BcsA聚合葡萄糖为链状分子,BcsB、BcsC、BcsD与分泌、组装、结晶过程相关[78]。理解其他亚基的作用机制也是理解与掌握天然细菌纤维素合成中所必须关注的研究内容。
为探究BcsD亚基的具体作用,Sajadi等[79]将木糖驹形氏杆菌中的BcsD基因进行PCR扩增并插入表达载体,生成质粒后在大肠杆菌细胞内进行异源表达,将大肠杆菌培养24 h后测定吸光度,结果显示重组菌与野生型无显著差异,两者所生产纤维素的量大致相同;另外该研究中重组体和野生型生产的纤维素的红外光谱以及X射线衍射结果表明,重组体产物的结晶指数高于野生菌株产物;这表明BcsD基因的作用是参与纤维素的结晶,而不过多参与纤维素合成。Kondo等[80]研究了BcsD和BcsAB核心复合物的相互作用,结果表明二者存在蛋白质-蛋白质的直接相互作用(基态)和通过产物纤维素的间接相互作用(活性态)的转化,这种动态转化的行为可用于调节纤维素链的结晶过程。Hu等[53]也曾经构建了所测的BcsD的三维八聚体模型。在Acheson等[54]通过冷冻电镜构建纤维素合酶各个亚基结构的研究结果表明,BcsA与BcsB六聚体可能与2个BcsG拷贝相关;BcsA可通过其C端Pilz结构域与BcsE和BcsQ-R复合物这2种复合体相互作用,并且它们都可以刺激生物体外纤维素的合成。此外,Sun等[81]对纤维素合酶不同基因位点突变并对其异源表达产物进行分析,进而判断各突变基因的功能,发现半胱氨酸(cysteine, Cys) 308周围的巯基和芳香烃之间的相互作用是保证纤维素体外合成活性的关键,进一步揭示了纤维素合酶部分基因在活细胞中的作用。其余相关纤维素合酶亚基的作用见表1[82-86]
综上所述,目前利用细菌纤维素合酶亚基层面研究中,主要探讨各亚基的结构定位及其在合成过程中的具体作用。其中,BcsA和BcsB这2个关键亚基的作用及它们之间的协同作用相关研究取得了较大进展,但关于其他亚基的结构和功能仍有探索空间[87]。随着细菌纤维素合酶各个亚基冷冻电镜结构研究的日渐完善,相信在未来各个亚基之间的相互作用可以进一步被解析。在细菌体内直接分析亚基功能难度较大,因此研究者们常使用构建异源表达体系实现体外合成的方式反推亚基的功能,而实现高效率的体外合成细菌纤维素也是研究纤维素合成机制的最终应用目的。
在当前对细菌纤维素合酶合成机理的探究中,各主要Bcs亚基的结构、相对定位已经得到确认,各Bcs亚基在合成中的作用机制也被初步发现。在可预见的一段时间内,继续研究Bcs亚基的功能进而解析细菌纤维素合成机制仍是当前该领域研究的主要重心。排除胞体其他干扰的异源表达是解析亚基作用机制的主要方法,此方面研究经过多年发展已取得较大进展,体外重构纤维素合酶活性的表达体系所必备条件(BcsA、BcsB亚基以及c-di-GMP等)被解析。尽管如此,目前Bcs亚基异源表达体外合成体系所得产物在结构上相比于天然纤维素有较大差异,具体表现在聚合度、结晶结构差异等,这方面尚未得到清晰明确的解释。通过优化方案构建更加有效的合成体系来提升产物产率、优化产物结构也是近年研究的重点方向之一。随着亚基作用机制的进一步解析,一些其他非关键亚基对合成的作用被发现。利用体外合成将多个亚基共同重构或许是一个可行的选择。相信在纤维素合酶的机理解析方面未来会取得更多有意义的进展。
  • 江苏省自然科学基金(BK20210610)
  • 中国博士后科学基金(2019M661857)
  • 江苏省博士后科研资助计划(2019K073)
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2024年第64卷第7期
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doi: 10.13343/j.cnki.wsxb.20230676
  • 接收时间:2023-11-02
  • 首发时间:2026-03-19
  • 出版时间:2024-07-04
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  • 收稿日期:2023-11-02
  • 录用日期:2024-04-07
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Natural Science Foundation of Jiangsu Province(BK20210610)
江苏省自然科学基金(BK20210610)
China Postdoctoral Science Foundation(2019M661857)
中国博士后科学基金(2019M661857)
Postdoctoral Science Foundation Program of Jiangsu Province(2019K073)
江苏省博士后科研资助计划(2019K073)
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    南京林业大学材料科学与工程学院, 江苏 南京 210037

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2种不同金属材料的力学参数

Family
属数
Number of
genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of
total species (%)

Genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of total
species (%)
鹅膏菌科Amanitaceae 2 11 5.26 鹅膏菌属 Amanita 10 4.78
小菇科 Mycenaceae 2 12 5.74 丝盖伞属 Inocybe 5 2.39
多孔菌科 Polyporaceae 8 14 6.70 蜡蘑属 Laccaria 5 2.39
红菇科 Russulaceae 3 23 11.00 小皮伞属 Marasmius 6 2.87
小菇属 Mycena 11 5.26
光柄菇属 Pluteus 5 2.39
红菇属 Russula 17 8.13
栓菌属 Trametes 5 2.39
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