Article(id=1241379086086501333, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, issueId=1241379085109219745, articleNumber=null, orderNo=null, doi=10.13343/j.cnki.wsxb.20230735, pmid=null, cstr=null, oa=null, hot=null, price=null, onlineType=0, articleFormat=0, articleType=null, articleTypeStr=research-article, receivedDate=1701273600000, receivedDateStr=2023-11-30, revisedDate=null, revisedDateStr=null, acceptedDate=1709136000000, acceptedDateStr=2024-02-29, onlineDate=1773897437830, onlineDateStr=2026-03-19, pubDate=1720022400000, pubDateStr=2024-07-04, doiRegisterDate=null, doiRegisterDateStr=null, onlineIssueDate=1773897437830, onlineIssueDateStr=2026-03-19, onlineJustAcceptDate=null, onlineJustAcceptDateStr=null, onlineFirstDate=null, onlineFirstDateStr=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, createTime=1773897437830, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1773897437830, updator=13701087609, issue=Issue{id=1241379085109219745, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, year='2024', volume='64', issue='7', pageStart='2151', pageEnd='2582', issueExtLink='null', onlineDate='null', pubDate='null', beforeIssueId=null, nextIssueId=null, price=null, status=1, issueComplete=1, articleOrder=1, issueType=-1, specialIssue=0, createTime=1773897437598, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1773897688675, updator=13701087609, preIssue=null, nextIssue=null, ext={EN=IssueExt(id=1241380138257010733, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, issueId=1241379085109219745, language=EN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=), CN=IssueExt(id=1241380138257010734, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, issueId=1241379085109219745, language=CN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=)}, issueFiles=null}, startPage=2209, endPage=2223, ext={EN=ArticleExt(id=1241379086396879831, articleId=1241379086086501333, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, language=EN, title=Progress in the mechanism of microbiota promoting the development and progression of urothelial carcinoma of bladder, columnId=1239895164987175635, journalTitle=Acta Microbiologica Sinica, columnName=Reviews, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

Urothelial carcinoma of bladder (UCB) is a common malignant tumor of the urinary system and a common pathological type of bladder cancer (BC). With high morbidity, high mortality, and easy recurrence, UCB poses a serious threat to human health. The occurrence of UCB may be associated with smoking and exposure to toxic chemicals. With the deepening of research, researchers have discovered unique microbiota related to the occurrence and development of UCB in the bladder. This review focuses on the involvement of microbiota in the occurrence and development of UCB through urinary tract infection (UTI), affecting epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT), and up-regulating the expression of programmed cell death 1 ligand 1 (PD-L1). At the same time, this paper introduces the microbiota characteristics of healthy people and UCB patients as well as the prevention and treatment of UCB. By reviewing the relationship between microbiota and UCB, this paper provides new ideas for further clarifying the promoting effect of microbiota on UCB and developing drugs for treating UCB.

, correspAuthors=Xiaoran LI, authorNote=null, correspAuthorsNote=
*LI Xiaoran, E-mail:
, copyrightStatement=Copyright ©2024 Acta Microbiologica Sinica. All rights reserved., copyrightOwner=null, extLink=null, articleAbsUrl=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, pdfUrl=null, pdf=null, pdfFileSize=null, pdfExtLink=null, richHtmlUrl=null, mobilePdfUrl=null, reviewReport=null, pdfFirstPage=null, abstractGraph=null, abstractGraphContent=null, abstractVideo=null, citation=null, cebUrl=null, magXmlContent=null, mapNumber=null, authorCompany=null, fund=null, authors=null, authorsList=Zhen LIU, Ningnan ZHANG, Min YANG, Chenjian LIU, Xiaoran LI), CN=ArticleExt(id=1241379087252517866, articleId=1241379086086501333, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, language=CN, title=微生物促进膀胱尿路上皮细胞癌发生和发展分子机制的研究进展, columnId=1192149543882997826, journalTitle=微生物学报, columnName=综述, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

膀胱尿路上皮细胞癌(urothelial carcinoma of bladder, UCB)是泌尿系统常见的恶性肿瘤,是膀胱癌(bladder cancer, BC)最常见的病理类型。UCB具有高发病率、高死亡率和易复发等特点,对人类健康构成巨大威胁。引发UCB的原因可能与吸烟和接触有毒化学物质有关,但是随着研究的不断深入,人们发现膀胱内存在独特的微生物群,它与UCB的发生和发展密切相关。本文着重综述微生物通过尿路感染(urinary tract infection, UTI)、影响上皮-间充质转化(epithelial-mesenchymal transition, EMT)以及上调细胞程序性死亡-配体1 (programmed cell death 1 ligand 1, PD-L1)的表达来参与UCB的发生和发展,同时也对健康人群与UCB患者微生物群特征以及UCB的预防和治疗等方面作了相应阐述。通过综述微生物与UCB之间的关系,为进一步明确微生物对UCB的促进作用以及研发治疗UCB的药物提供新思路。

, correspAuthors=李晓然, authorNote=null, correspAuthorsNote=null, copyrightStatement=版权所有©《微生物学报》编辑部2024, copyrightOwner=null, extLink=null, articleAbsUrl=null, sourceXml=AhYPKz80Yq1kkmvSt9Bqsw==, magXml=dkKXbeI1j16cte8QGGYrYw==, pdfUrl=null, pdf=o+L83lnqfVDKKdt2a7ur1w==, pdfFileSize=718483, pdfExtLink=null, richHtmlUrl=null, mobilePdfUrl=null, reviewReport=null, pdfFirstPage=null, abstractGraph=Jh8ExKvLPVdI9jr8y2lIAQ==, abstractGraphContent=null, abstractVideo=null, citation=null, cebUrl=null, magXmlContent=hs13i85Cx1AuXijLVmCscQ==, mapNumber=null, authorCompany=null, fund=null, authors=

#These authors contributed equally to this work.

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A bladder urothelial cell model is displayed. Graphical description of microorganisms promoting tumor cell growth and metastasis.E.coli:Escherichia coli; ROS: Reactive oxygen species; UCP2: Uncoupling protein 2; PDK1: Pyruvate dehydrogenase kinase 1; PDH: Pyruvate dehyrogenase phosphatase; AMPK: Protein kinase AMP-activated; MCT1: Malonyl-CoA-acyl carrier protein transacylase; CK19: Cytokeratin 19; ECM1: Extracellular matrix protein 1; ERK1/2: Extracellular regulated protein kinases 1/2; MMP9: Matrix metalloproteinase 9; ECM: Extracellular matrix; EC: Extracellular; IC: Intracellular., figureFileSmall=sIHblcQBuOboMjirYYpj4A==, figureFileBig=o5PEP+eqZKbes0VlVB+8sA==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1241445809997279801, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, articleId=1241379086086501333, language=CN, label=图2, caption=微生物影响EMT促进UCB发展的分子机制, figureFileSmall=sIHblcQBuOboMjirYYpj4A==, figureFileBig=o5PEP+eqZKbes0VlVB+8sA==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1241445810089554504, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, articleId=1241379086086501333, language=EN, label=Figure 3, caption=Molecular mechanism of tumor cell immune escape caused by microbial up-regulation of PD-L1 expression. 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微生物促进膀胱尿路上皮细胞癌发生和发展分子机制的研究进展
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刘振 1, # , 张宁南 2, 3, # , 杨敏 2, 3 , 柳陈坚 1 , 李晓然 1, *
微生物学报 | 综述 2024,64(7): 2209-2223
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微生物学报 | 综述 2024, 64(7): 2209-2223
微生物促进膀胱尿路上皮细胞癌发生和发展分子机制的研究进展
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刘振1, #, 张宁南2, 3, #, 杨敏2, 3, 柳陈坚1, 李晓然1, *
作者信息
  • 1 昆明理工大学生命科学与技术学院, 云南 昆明 650500
  • 2 云南省第一人民医院泌尿外科, 云南 昆明 650032
  • 3 昆明理工大学附属医院泌尿外科, 云南 昆明 650032
Progress in the mechanism of microbiota promoting the development and progression of urothelial carcinoma of bladder
Zhen LIU1, Ningnan ZHANG2, 3, Min YANG2, 3, Chenjian LIU1, Xiaoran LI1, *
Affiliations
  • 1 Faculty of Life Science and Technology, Kunming University of Science and Technology, Kunming 650500, Yunnan, China
  • 2 Department of Urology, the First People's Hospital of Yunnan Province, Kunming 650032, Yunnan, China
  • 3 Department of Urology, the Affiliated Hospital of Kunming University of Science and Technology, Kunming 650032, Yunnan, China
出版时间: 2024-07-04 doi: 10.13343/j.cnki.wsxb.20230735
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膀胱尿路上皮细胞癌(urothelial carcinoma of bladder, UCB)是泌尿系统常见的恶性肿瘤,是膀胱癌(bladder cancer, BC)最常见的病理类型。UCB具有高发病率、高死亡率和易复发等特点,对人类健康构成巨大威胁。引发UCB的原因可能与吸烟和接触有毒化学物质有关,但是随着研究的不断深入,人们发现膀胱内存在独特的微生物群,它与UCB的发生和发展密切相关。本文着重综述微生物通过尿路感染(urinary tract infection, UTI)、影响上皮-间充质转化(epithelial-mesenchymal transition, EMT)以及上调细胞程序性死亡-配体1 (programmed cell death 1 ligand 1, PD-L1)的表达来参与UCB的发生和发展,同时也对健康人群与UCB患者微生物群特征以及UCB的预防和治疗等方面作了相应阐述。通过综述微生物与UCB之间的关系,为进一步明确微生物对UCB的促进作用以及研发治疗UCB的药物提供新思路。

微生物  /  膀胱尿路上皮细胞癌  /  分子机制  /  膀胱癌

Urothelial carcinoma of bladder (UCB) is a common malignant tumor of the urinary system and a common pathological type of bladder cancer (BC). With high morbidity, high mortality, and easy recurrence, UCB poses a serious threat to human health. The occurrence of UCB may be associated with smoking and exposure to toxic chemicals. With the deepening of research, researchers have discovered unique microbiota related to the occurrence and development of UCB in the bladder. This review focuses on the involvement of microbiota in the occurrence and development of UCB through urinary tract infection (UTI), affecting epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT), and up-regulating the expression of programmed cell death 1 ligand 1 (PD-L1). At the same time, this paper introduces the microbiota characteristics of healthy people and UCB patients as well as the prevention and treatment of UCB. By reviewing the relationship between microbiota and UCB, this paper provides new ideas for further clarifying the promoting effect of microbiota on UCB and developing drugs for treating UCB.

microbiota  /  urothelial carcinoma of bladder  /  molecular mechanism  /  bladder cancer
刘振, 张宁南, 杨敏, 柳陈坚, 李晓然. 微生物促进膀胱尿路上皮细胞癌发生和发展分子机制的研究进展. 微生物学报, 2024 , 64 (7) : 2209 -2223 . DOI: 10.13343/j.cnki.wsxb.20230735
Zhen LIU, Ningnan ZHANG, Min YANG, Chenjian LIU, Xiaoran LI. Progress in the mechanism of microbiota promoting the development and progression of urothelial carcinoma of bladder[J]. Acta Microbiologica Sinica, 2024 , 64 (7) : 2209 -2223 . DOI: 10.13343/j.cnki.wsxb.20230735
膀胱癌(bladder cancer, BC)是全球第十大常见恶性肿瘤[1],2020年全球新发病例约57.3万例,死亡病例约21.3万例[2],约90%的患者确诊时是膀胱尿路上皮细胞癌(urothelial carcinoma of bladder, UCB)[3]。UCB是我国发病率最高的泌尿生殖系肿瘤[4]。据统计,2014年我国UCB新发病例约7.81万例,发病率约5.71/10万,死亡病例约3.21万例,死亡率约2.35/10万[5-6]。同时,男性UCB的发病率高于女性,是导致男性癌症死亡的第九大原因[2]。大多数UCB患者以无痛性肉眼血尿首发症状[7],晚期肿瘤侵犯邻近器官并产生严重血尿[8]。一直以来,人们认为引发UCB的主要原因是吸烟和接触有毒化学物质等[8],但随着下一代测序技术的发展[9]和增强量化尿液培养技术的广泛应用[10],人们发现膀胱并不是无菌环境,其中也存在微生物,并且微生物群会影响膀胱疾病的发生[11]。本综述根据已有的研究论文,阐明微生物促进UCB发生和发展的分子机制,为进一步明确微生物对UCB的促进作用和研发治疗UCB的微生物药物提供新思路。
人体微生态的微生物群失调对人类健康造成很大影响,微生物群被认为是人体“被遗忘且不可见的器官”[3]。微生物群保持宿主体内微生态平衡,防止病原微生物入侵并协助代谢过程[12]。研究显示,微生物群的宏基因组比整个宿主基因组大100倍[3]。每个微生物群与其宿主之间都有一个特定的环境[3]
研究表明,健康人群与BC患者的膀胱、尿液微生物群具有个体差异[13],其主要受抗生素使用、饮食、遗传、年龄[14]、性别[15-16]和取样方式[17]等因素影响。值得注意的是,与取中段尿分析微生物群相比,使用导尿管收集的尿液微生物群更能代表膀胱微生物群[18-20]
健康人膀胱、尿液微生物群属的组成在个体间差异显著[21]。健康男性中段尿中韦荣氏球菌属(Veillonella)、链球菌属(Streptococcus)和棒杆菌属(Corynebacterium)更丰富[13],并且男性尿液中存在的菌属数量随着年龄的增长而增加[22]。与男性相比,健康女性中段尿中特有的是放线菌门(Actinobacteria)和拟杆菌门(Bacteroidetes)[22],而且女性的年龄与细菌属的数量无显著相关性[23]。20−29岁女性中段尿含有的细菌属最多,绝经后妇女中段尿中细菌属的数量减少[23]。绝经前女性中段尿中乳杆菌属(Lactobacillus)明显多于绝经后女性,动弯杆菌属(Mobiluncus)在绝经后女性中更常见[23]。男性和女性70岁以上年龄组特有的属是容凯氏菌属(Jonquetella)、小单胞菌属(Parvimonas)、嗜蛋白质菌属(Proteiniphilum)和糖发酵菌属(Saccharofermentans)[22]
由于女性尿液样本中特有放线菌门[22],其中包括分枝杆菌属(Mycobacterium)。UCB治疗药物卡介苗(Bacillus Calmette-Guérin vaccine, BCG)属于分枝杆菌属的一种,所以可能在预防女性UCB方面发挥重要作用[9,24]
健康人群与UCB患者的尿液微生物群[14,20,25-26]和膀胱微生物群[20]存在显著差异。尿液微生物群的改变与许多泌尿系统疾病密切相关[9]
与健康对照组相比,UCB患者中段尿中放线菌属(Actinomyces)、无色杆菌属(Achromobacter)、短杆菌属(Brevibacterium)、布鲁氏菌属(Brucella)[26]、多环芳烃(polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon, PAH)降解细菌鞘氨醇单胞菌属(Sphingomonas)、不动杆菌属(Acinetobacter)、微球菌属(Micrococcus)、假单胞菌属(Pseudomonas)和罗尔斯通氏菌属(Ralstonia)[27]显著富集。非肌层浸润性膀胱癌(non-muscle-invasive bladder cancer, NMIBC)是最常见的UCB[28-29],在NMIBC患者尿液中贪铜菌属(Cupriavidus)的丰度高,肌层浸润性膀胱癌(muscle-invasive bladder cancer, MIBC)患者尿液中嗜血杆菌属(Haemophilus)和韦荣氏球菌属的丰度高[26]
在UCB患者肿瘤组织内部,阿克曼氏菌属(Akkermansia)、拟杆菌属(Bacteroides)、狭义梭菌属(Clostridium sensu stricto)、肠杆菌属(Enterobacter)、克雷伯氏菌属(Klebsiella)[20]、疮疱表皮杆状菌(Cutibacterium acnes)、铜绿假单胞菌(Pseudomonas aeruginosa)和恶臭假单胞菌(Pseudomonas putida)[30]等细菌最为丰富。NMIBC和MIBC患者肿瘤组织内部的微生物群存在显著差异,NMIBC肿瘤组织内部的微生物多样性显著高于MIBC肿瘤组织内部[31]
男性UCB患者尿液中棒杆菌属、芬沟德氏菌属(Finegoldia)[26]、韦荣氏球菌属和小弯杆菌属(Varibaculum)[32]等细菌更丰富,男性UCB复发患者中段尿中假单胞菌属、葡萄球菌属(Staphylococcus)、棒杆菌属和不动杆菌属显著富集[33],而且尿液微生物多样性较低的患者无复发生存期长[33]。女性UCB患者尿液中乳杆菌属、放线棒状菌属(Actinotignum)、普雷沃氏菌属(Prevotella)、弯曲杆菌属(Campylobacter)和肠球菌属(Enterococcus)等细菌丰度较高[26]
UTI能够增加患UCB的风险[34]。大多数UTI是由尿路致病性大肠埃希氏菌(uropathogenicEscherichia coli, UPEC)引起的[35],UPEC UT189菌株会使周期素依赖性激酶抑制因子2A [cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor 2A,CDKN2A (p16INK4A)]甲基化,导致其表达减少,加快尿路上皮细胞增殖,增加病原体感染的持久性,增加UTI的复发风险,促进UCB发展[36]。同时,该菌株也会下调尿路上皮细胞中O6-甲基鸟嘌呤-DNA-甲基转移酶(O6-methylguanine-DNA-methyltransferase, MGMT)基因的表达,增加DNA复制出错的概率,导致抑癌基因突变,促进UCB发展[36]。UPEC UTI89菌株会产生基因毒素Colibactin损伤尿路上皮细胞的DNA,促进基因突变的积累,在长期UTI中增加患UCB的风险[37]。尿路致病性无乳链球菌(uropathogenicStreptococcus agalactiae, UPSA) 807菌株会产生β-溶血素/溶细胞素(β-hemolysin/cytolysin, β-H/C)溶解尿路上皮细胞,并产生大量细胞因子诱导促炎反应,影响UCB的发展[38](图1)。
UPEC通过增加UTI的复发风险以及导致抑癌基因突变来促进UCB的发展[36]。Tolg等[36]将UPEC UT189菌株在体外与人UCB 5637细胞系共培养,将未接种细菌的细胞系作为对照组。在共培养6 d后检测细胞系中基因的相对表达量和DNA甲基化程度[36]。结果表明,UPEC UT189菌株在尿路上皮细胞内增殖,并且细胞系内de novo DNA甲基转移酶(de novo methyltransferase, DNMT)的活性是对照组的12.5倍,DNMT1 mRNA的水平是对照组的6倍,CDKN2A (p16INK4A) mRNA水平比对照组低3.3倍,MGMT mRNA水平比对照组显著下调[36]。焦磷酸测序显示CDKN2A (p16INK4A)基因外显子1的甲基化增加,是对照组的3.8倍[36]。DNMT与DNA的甲基化相关,DNMT1表达上调会增强DNMT的活性,使CDKN2A (p16INK4A)基因甲基化增加,导致该基因表达减少,进而促进细胞周期素依赖性激酶4 (cyclin-dependent kinase 4, CDK4)和CDK6对Rb蛋白的磷酸化,从而促进尿路上皮增殖,增强病原体感染的持久性,增加UTI的复发风险,促进UCB发展[36]。MGMT是一种DNA修复关键酶,其可以修复鸟嘌呤O6位的烷基化损伤,防止抑癌基因突变[36]。MGMT表达减少则增加了DNA复制出错的概率,导致抑癌基因突变,增加UTI的复发风险,促进UCB的发展[36]
此外,UPEC通过产生基因毒素Colibactin损伤DNA,导致基因突变的积累,增加患UCB的风险[37]pks+大肠埃希氏菌含有54 kb的pks基因岛,能够产生Colibactin[39]。Chagneau等[37]收集了223名肾盂肾炎、膀胱炎和无症状菌尿患者的尿样,通过LC-MS/MS在55名患者的尿样中检测到C14-Asn (Colibactin的前体物质通过ClbP酶切割后产生C14-Asn和有活性的Colibactin),这表明产Colibactin的UPEC可能在UTI中发挥重要作用。研究者使用UPEC UTI89菌株尿路感染6−8周龄的雌性C3H/HEN小鼠,分别于6 h和24 h处死小鼠,取膀胱进行组织学和免疫荧光分析以及荧光原位杂交[37]。结果表明,与UPEC UTI89 ΔclbP菌株相比,UPEC UTI89菌株在感染6 h后侵入到膀胱尿路上皮浅层伞状细胞中,并在其细胞核中检测到pH2AX蛋白,感染24 h后在小鼠的尿液中检测到C14-Asn,这表明UTI的早期阶段Colibactin就在膀胱尿路上皮浅层伞状细胞中表达[37]。Colibactin会导致DNA的2条链烷基化,产生DNA链间交联,使宿主细胞将H2AX组蛋白磷酸化为pH2AX蛋白,诱导DNA损伤,导致基因突变的积累,在长期UTI中增加患UCB的风险[37]。同时,研究者还发现在UPEC UTI89菌株感染24 h后,膀胱尿路上皮基底层角蛋白-14 (keratin-14, Krt14)阳性(Krt14+)的祖细胞增加,并检测到pH2AX蛋白[37]。因此,Colibactin能够诱导膀胱尿路上皮浅层伞状细胞和膀胱尿路上皮基底层再生细胞的DNA损伤,导致基因突变的积累[37]。长期UTI与患UCB的风险相关[37]
UPSA通过溶解尿路上皮细胞以及诱导促炎反应来影响UCB的发展[38,40]。Leclercq等[38]从女性急性无并发症膀胱炎患者的尿液中培养出UPSA 807菌株,并在体外感染人UCB 5637细胞系和从U937单核细胞成熟的单核细胞源性巨噬细胞(monocyte-derived macrophages, MDMs)。结果表明,使用UPSA 807菌株感染6 h后,β-H/C会诱导人UCB 5637细胞系产生白细胞介素-8 (interleukin-8, IL-8)、IL-1β和IL-6,诱导MDMs产生IL-8、IL-1β和肿瘤坏死因子-α (tumor necrosis factor-α, TNF-α),这表明UPSA 807菌株诱导了促炎反应[38]。使用UPSA 807菌株感染24 h后,在β-H/C的影响下,其能够黏附和侵入人UCB 5637细胞系和MDMs,造成Caspase-3激活[38]。同时β-H/C会溶解细胞,导致乳酸脱氢酶(lactic dehydrogenase, LDH)的快速释放,促进UCB的发展[38]。随后,研究者使用UPSA 807菌株尿路感染8−10周龄的雌性C57BL/6小鼠,分别于6 h和24 h采集尿液和膀胱组织进行分析[38]。结果表明,使用UPSA 807菌株感染6 h后,在β-H/C的影响下,其能够在小鼠膀胱中诱导大量的角质形成细胞衍生趋化因子(KC)、调节激活正常T-细胞表达分泌因子(rantes)、粒细胞集落刺激因子(granulocyte colony-stimulating factor, G-CSF)、巨噬细胞炎症蛋白-1α (macrophage inflammatory protein-1α, MIP-1α)和IL-6产生[38]。使用UPSA 807菌株感染24 h后,在β-H/C的影响下,其能够在小鼠膀胱中产生大量中性粒细胞浸润,诱导促炎反应,影响UCB的发展[38]
总之,UTI主要是由UPEC UT189菌株、UPEC UTI89菌株和UPSA 807菌株引起,这些微生物通过损伤尿路上皮细胞的DNA、促进基因突变、溶解尿路上皮细胞以及诱导促炎反应增加患者患UCB的风险。
EMT会增加细胞的移动性并降低细胞之间的黏附,可能导致肿瘤细胞的转移[41-42]。在EMT过程中,上皮细胞转化为间充质细胞,使它们从基底膜分离并侵袭附近的组织[43]。在云南省第一人民医院(昆明理工大学附属医院)泌尿外科前期的研究中,发现BC组织中YAP基因表达量升高[44],参与EMT进程[45-46],促进肿瘤细胞的转移[44]。目前越来越多的研究发现肿瘤细胞与其微环境之间的相互作用可能会影响UCB的发展[47]。膀胱肿瘤组织中的微生物群可能和EMT过程相关。大肠埃希氏菌会上调尿路上皮细胞中波形蛋白以及肿瘤干细胞(cancer stem cell, CSC)相关基因(CD44SOX2NANOGOCT4)的表达,下调细胞角蛋白19 (cytokeratin 19, CK19)的表达[48]。这些变化会降低尿路上皮细胞之间的黏附性,诱导肿瘤干细胞样表型,破坏尿路上皮细胞结构的完整性,促进UCB的发展[48]。大肠埃希氏菌还会通过产生活性氧(reactive oxygen species, ROS)改变尿路上皮细胞代谢,使线粒体功能畸变,并促进乳酸运送到细胞外基质(extracellular matrix, ECM)中,加快细胞增殖,改变细胞形态,促进UCB的发生和发展[48]。真杆菌属(Eubacterium sp.) CAG: 581菌株会上调NMIBC类器官中细胞外基质蛋白1 (extracellular matrix protein 1, ECM1)表达,促进细胞外调节蛋白激酶1/2 (extracellular regulated protein kinases 1/2, ERK1/2)磷酸化,进而诱导基质金属蛋白酶9 (matrix metalloproteinase 9, MMP9)的表达,最终水解ECM蛋白,促进肿瘤的生长和转移[28] (图2)。
大肠埃希氏菌通过促进EMT过程以及加快肿瘤细胞的增殖来促进UCB的发生和发展[48]。Abd-El-Raouf等[48]从UCB患者尿液中分离出大肠埃希氏菌,使用该细菌在体外感染人UCB T24细胞系,检测细胞系中EMT相关蛋白的含量和表达量、CSC相关基因的表达量、ROS的含量以及代谢重编程相关基因的表达量。结果表明,在大肠埃希氏菌感染4 d后,人UCB T24细胞系中波形蛋白阳性染色平均百分比从36%增加至65%,CK19的表达量从79%减少至51%,CSC相关基因(CD44SOX2NANOGOCT4)的表达显著上调[48]。波形蛋白的表达增加使人UCB T24细胞系变得细长,细胞与细胞之间的黏附性降低,运动性增加,促进肿瘤细胞的转移[48]。CK19表达下调表明上皮细胞结构的完整性丧失,会促进EMT过程[48]。CSC相关基因的表达显著上调,表明大肠埃希氏菌的感染会诱导肿瘤干细胞样表型[48]。同时,人UCB T24细胞系中ROS含量升高,导致解偶联蛋白2 (uncoupling protein 2, UCP2)表达上调,进而导致丙酮酸脱氢酶激酶1 (pyruvate dehydrogenase kinase 1, PDK1)表达上调,从而导致丙酮酸脱氢酶磷酸酶(pyruvate dehyrogenase phosphatase, PDH)表达下调,最终使人UCB T24细胞系的代谢发生变化[48]。该代谢变化能够阻止丙酮酸进入三羧酸循环,减少丙酮酸转化为乙酰辅酶A,进而抑制氧化磷酸化,促进糖酵解,加快肿瘤细胞的增殖[48]。该代谢变化也会导致线粒体功能畸变和AMP活化蛋白激酶(protein kinase AMP-activated, AMPK)表达下调,进而减弱肿瘤细胞对能量状态的感知,帮助肿瘤细胞通过糖酵解生成能量,加快肿瘤细胞的增殖[48]。该代谢变化还会导致肿瘤细胞中丙二酰辅酶A-酰基载体蛋白转酰基酶(malonyl-CoA-acyl carrier protein transacylase, MCT1)表达上调,该蛋白质能够将乳酸运送到ECM中,进而改变细胞形态,促进EMT过程[48]
研究表明,真杆菌属CAG: 581菌株通过上调ECM1和MMP9的表达促进NMIBC类器官的发展[28]。Zhang等[28]分析比较了51名NMIBC患者和47名健康人中段尿微生物群差异,发现NMIBC患者中段尿中真杆菌属CAG: 581菌株丰度高。研究者进一步模拟NMIBC类器官与真杆菌属CAG: 581菌株共培养,并分析组织的差异基因表达,结果表明真杆菌属CAG: 581菌株上调ECM1的表达,促进ERK1/2磷酸化,并显著上调MMP9的表达[28]。ECM1可以促进肿瘤生长[28]。ERK1/2信号的磷酸化可以调节许多转录因子,这些转录因子可以激活大量MMPs的转录[28]。MMP9对ECM蛋白具有水解活性,能够增强肿瘤的生长和转移[28]。此外,该研究还表明真杆菌属CAG: 581菌株可用于NMIBC的早期诊断和预后[28]
总之,大肠埃希氏菌和真杆菌属CAG: 581菌株会通过降低尿路上皮细胞之间的黏附、破坏尿路上皮细胞的结构以及加快尿路上皮细胞的增殖来促进UCB的发生和发展。此外,在EMT过程中,微生物自身的代谢通路还值得进一步深入研究。
PD-L1主要通过与T细胞和B细胞表面的程序性死亡受体(programmed cell death protein 1, PD-1)结合来促进细胞凋亡,进而抑制宿主免疫功能,实现肿瘤免疫逃逸[49]。微生物群可能上调PD-L1在肿瘤组织中的表达来影响UCB的发展[49](图3)。
Chen等[49]收集了28名男性NMIBC患者的中段尿和肿瘤组织。将肿瘤组织固定和包埋后,使用小鼠单克隆抗PD-L1抗体进行免疫组织化学染色[49]。同时分析PD-L1阳性和阴性患者中段尿微生物群的差异[49]。结果表明,在9例肿瘤组织PD-L1阳性患者的中段尿中,纤毛菌属(Leptotrichia)、棒杆菌属、丙酸杆菌属(Propionibacterium)、皮杆菌科(Dermabacteraceae)、小短杆菌属(Brachybacterium)、玫瑰单胞菌属(Roseomonas)、红螺菌科(Rhodospirillaceae)和噬染料菌属(Pigmentiphaga)的丰度较高,提示可能与肿瘤组织中PD-L1表达上调有关[49]
总之,微生物可能通过上调肿瘤组织中PD-L1的表达导致免疫细胞凋亡,从而促进NMIBC的复发和发展。此外,微生物上调肿瘤组织PD-L1表达的分子机制以及在上调肿瘤组织PD-L1的表达中,微生物自身的代谢通路还值得进一步深入研究。
NMIBC复发风险为50%−70%,约15%发展为MIBC[50]。高危NMIBC患者5年复发风险高达80%[51]。对于低危NMIBC患者,经尿道膀胱肿瘤切除术(transurethral resection of bladder tumor, TUR-BT)和术后化疗就可以治愈[52],对于中高危NMIBC患者,在术后还需要膀胱内免疫治疗(BCG)或膀胱内化疗[14,29]。TUR-BT术后进行BCG灌注治疗可降低约50%复发的概率[53],使用BCG的膀胱内免疫疗法是中高风险NMIBC辅助治疗的金标准[21,54]。同时,在云南省第一人民医院(昆明理工大学附属医院)泌尿外科的临床实践中发现,与电切术相比,1 470 nm半导体激光手术治疗NMIBC安全性高,复发率低[55]
BCG是由结核分枝杆菌(Mycobacterium tuberculosis)通过减毒后制成的活菌疫苗,1976年Morales等首次报道BCG作为免疫制剂用于治疗UCB[56]。研究表明[57],30%−50%的NMIBC患者对BCG无应答。膀胱内的共生微生物会影响BCG发挥作用[58]。奶酪乳酪杆菌(Lacticaseibacillus casei) BL23菌株[59]、罗伊特氏黏液乳杆菌(Limosilactobacillus reuteri) 1063菌株[60]和懒惰乳杆菌(Lactobacillus iners) AB-1菌株[61]等乳杆菌能够和尿路上皮细胞中的纤连蛋白黏附,可能会饱和BCG使用的位点,导致BCG无法通过纤连蛋白进入尿路上皮细胞中,从而降低BCG的疗效[14]
此外,在NMIBC患者膀胱中使用BCG和其他化疗药物会降低导尿管尿液中的细菌丰度,该变化可能会影响NMIBC患者的预后[62]。使用BCG和其他化疗药物后,复发患者导尿管尿液中气球菌属(Aerococcus)相对丰度较高,未复发患者脲支原体属(Ureaplasma)、埃希氏菌/志贺氏菌属(Escherichia/Shigella)相对丰度较高[62]
P53基因功能的恢复是一种潜在的UCB抗癌策略[63]。Pérez等[63]将野生型P53基因与真核表达载体pYA4545相连接,构建pYA4545P53载体,电击转化至鼠伤寒沙门氏菌χ11218菌株,获得重组鼠伤寒沙门氏菌χ11218 pYA4545P53菌株。将该重组菌株在体外转移至人UCB 5637细胞系(表达突变且无功能的P53蛋白)中,用来恢复野生型P53蛋白的功能[63]。结果表明,将该重组菌株导入至人UCB 5637细胞系后其存活率下降14%−64%,存活率显著降低,具有抗癌的功能[63]。此外,鼠伤寒沙门氏菌χ11218菌株表现为阿拉伯糖调节的延迟衰减表型,在接种时其表现出免疫原性,但由于在细胞内缺乏阿拉伯糖,所以细菌会自动裂解,这就解决治疗后细菌清除的问题,表明该细菌治疗是安全的,并为UCB的治疗提供新思路[63]
鸡盲肠丁酸球菌(Butyricicoccus pullicaecorum)及其代谢产物具有抗UCB作用[64]。Wang等[64]将鸡盲肠丁酸球菌通过肛门注射到4−6周龄的雄性C3H/He小鼠肠道中,结果表明,小鼠膀胱尿路上皮细胞中短链脂肪酸(short-chain fatty acid, SCFA)相关基因(Gpr43Gpr109bFabp4等)表达上调。Gpr43能够被SCFA激活,从而提高各种组织的抗炎活性[64]。GPR109B蛋白是抑制脂解的受体,能够保护膀胱尿路上皮细胞[64]。脂肪酸结合蛋白4 (fatty acid binding protein 4, FABP4)过度表达能够抑制肿瘤细胞的生长和侵袭[64]。因此,补充鸡盲肠丁酸球菌具有抗癌作用[64]。研究认为,鸡盲肠丁酸球菌可能通过产生丁酸盐而发挥抗癌作用[64]。研究者将丁酸钠(sodium butyrate, NaB)在体外处理人UCB HT1376细胞系,结果表明,Gpr43Gpr109bFabp4的mRNA水平显著上调,分别是未经NaB处理的11.4、2.8和107.7倍,表明NaB具有抗癌作用[64]。同时,BC相关蛋白(bladder cancer-associated protein, BLCAP)和Fas配体(Fas Ligand, FasL)的表达量显著上调,分别是未经NaB处理的29.2倍和2.9倍,从而促进细胞凋亡[64]。此外,周期蛋白依赖性激酶1 (cyclin-dependent kinase 1, CDK1)的表达量显著下调,是未经NaB处理的0.5倍,表明经NaB处理阻碍了细胞的增殖[64]。因此,鸡盲肠丁酸球菌通过产生丁酸盐介导对UCB的抗癌作用[64]
习惯性摄入乳杆菌属能降低罹患UCB的风险[65-66],而且奶酪乳酪杆菌制剂能够预防NMIBC复发[67-68]。Naito等[69]研究发现,对TUR-BT术后患者膀胱内灌注表阿霉素同时配合口服奶酪乳酪杆菌制剂,3年无复发率高达74.6%,表明这是一种新型、有前景的治疗方法。Miyake等[70]在患UCB的5周龄的雄性C3H小鼠腹腔中注射化疗药物并口服补充奶酪乳酪杆菌Shirota YIT 9029菌株和短双歧杆菌(Bifidobacterium breve) Yakult菌株能明显减缓肿瘤生长。Kandasamy等[71]使用基因工程改造鼠李糖乳酪杆菌(Lacticaseibacillus rhamnosus) GG菌株,使其能够分泌前列腺特异性抗原(prostate specific antigen, PSA)和IL-15。结果表明,在体外能够激活抗原特异性免疫反应,能够用于治疗BC[71]。Kitagawa等[72]研究发现口服双歧杆菌属(Bifidobacterium)为载体的癌症疫苗能够抑制患UCB的雌性C3H/He小鼠膀胱肿瘤的生长。
本文总结了膀胱和尿液等泌尿系统微生物与UCB之间的关系。传统上,人们认为膀胱是无菌环境,但是随着下一代测序技术的发展,膀胱内的微生物逐渐被发现,人们也越来越关注微生物对UCB的致病作用。健康人群与UCB患者的尿液微生物群和膀胱微生物群存在显著差异,而且NMIBC肿瘤组织内部的微生物多样性显著高于MIBC肿瘤组织内部。本课题组正在研究UCB患者TUR-BT术前和术后尿液微生物群差异,分析复发患者尿液微生物群特征,以期找到云南地域特性生物标志物。在未来需要深入研究微生物群在健康人群和UCB患者中的差异,找到UCB的生物标志物,更快更准确地预测和诊断UCB。
部分微生物感染会引起泌尿系统炎症,并且可能最终引起癌症。UPEC UT189菌株感染人UCB 5637细胞系后会增加DNA复制出错的概率,并导致DNA甲基化,影响抑癌基因的表达,增加UTI的复发风险,促进UCB的发展。UPEC UTI89菌株会产生基因毒素Colibactin,能够诱导C3H/HEN小鼠膀胱尿路上皮浅层伞状细胞和膀胱尿路上皮基底层再生细胞的DNA损伤,导致基因突变的积累,在长期UTI中增加患UCB的风险。UPSA 807菌株感染人UCB 5637细胞系和C57BL/6小鼠后均会诱导促炎反应,影响UCB的发展。同时,大肠埃希氏菌和真杆菌属CAG: 581菌株通过影响EMT过程增加尿路上皮细胞的移动性,降低尿路上皮细胞之间的黏附,改变尿路上皮细胞的形态,促进肿瘤细胞的转移和迁移。此外,纤毛菌属、棒杆菌属、丙酸杆菌属、皮杆菌科、小短杆菌属、玫瑰单胞菌属、红螺菌科和噬染料菌属还可能通过上调肿瘤组织中PD-L1的表达使其发生免疫逃逸。在未来需要深入研究微生物群与UCB之间的关系,阐明分子致病机制,并有针对性地治疗。
中高危NMIBC患者大多是通过TUR-BT术后膀胱内灌注BCG治疗,但是BCG的副作用较大,而且有患者对BCG无应答。重组鼠伤寒沙门氏菌χ11218 pYA4545P53菌株介导的P53蛋白功能恢复能降低人UCB 5637细胞系的存活率,为UCB的治疗提供了新思路。使用基因工程改造后的鼠李糖乳酪杆菌GG菌株也表明具有治疗BC的潜力。同时,口服鸡盲肠丁酸球菌、乳杆菌属、奶酪乳酪杆菌制剂、奶酪乳酪杆菌Shirota YIT 9029菌株、短双歧杆菌Yakult菌株和以双歧杆菌属为载体的癌症疫苗具有预防及治疗UCB的作用。使用微生物治疗UCB具有副作用小、效果明显等特点,但是目前应用得较少。在未来可以根据UCB的发生和发展机制,使用基因工程的方法改造特定微生物,从而替代BCG,更有效地治疗UCB。
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doi: 10.13343/j.cnki.wsxb.20230735
  • 接收时间:2023-11-30
  • 首发时间:2026-03-19
  • 出版时间:2024-07-04
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  • 收稿日期:2023-11-30
  • 录用日期:2024-02-29
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    1 昆明理工大学生命科学与技术学院, 云南 昆明 650500
    2 云南省第一人民医院泌尿外科, 云南 昆明 650032
    3 昆明理工大学附属医院泌尿外科, 云南 昆明 650032

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2种不同金属材料的力学参数

Family
属数
Number of
genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of
total species (%)

Genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of total
species (%)
鹅膏菌科Amanitaceae 2 11 5.26 鹅膏菌属 Amanita 10 4.78
小菇科 Mycenaceae 2 12 5.74 丝盖伞属 Inocybe 5 2.39
多孔菌科 Polyporaceae 8 14 6.70 蜡蘑属 Laccaria 5 2.39
红菇科 Russulaceae 3 23 11.00 小皮伞属 Marasmius 6 2.87
小菇属 Mycena 11 5.26
光柄菇属 Pluteus 5 2.39
红菇属 Russula 17 8.13
栓菌属 Trametes 5 2.39
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