Article(id=1241053874275021372, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, issueId=1241053870428844598, articleNumber=null, orderNo=null, doi=10.13343/j.cnki.wsxb.20230485, pmid=null, cstr=null, oa=null, hot=null, price=null, onlineType=0, articleFormat=0, articleType=null, articleTypeStr=research-article, receivedDate=1689696000000, receivedDateStr=2023-07-19, revisedDate=null, revisedDateStr=null, acceptedDate=1696780800000, acceptedDateStr=2023-10-09, onlineDate=1773819901293, onlineDateStr=2026-03-18, pubDate=1706976000000, pubDateStr=2024-02-04, doiRegisterDate=null, doiRegisterDateStr=null, onlineIssueDate=1773819901293, onlineIssueDateStr=2026-03-18, onlineJustAcceptDate=null, onlineJustAcceptDateStr=null, onlineFirstDate=null, onlineFirstDateStr=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, createTime=1773819901293, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1773819901293, updator=13701087609, issue=Issue{id=1241053870428844598, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, year='2024', volume='64', issue='2', pageStart='331', pageEnd='632', issueExtLink='null', onlineDate='null', pubDate='null', beforeIssueId=null, nextIssueId=null, price=null, status=1, issueComplete=1, articleOrder=1, issueType=-1, specialIssue=0, createTime=1773819900376, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1773820055293, updator=13701087609, preIssue=null, nextIssue=null, ext={EN=IssueExt(id=1241054520269140366, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, issueId=1241053870428844598, language=EN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=), CN=IssueExt(id=1241054520269140367, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, issueId=1241053870428844598, language=CN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=)}, issueFiles=null}, startPage=378, endPage=390, ext={EN=ArticleExt(id=1241053875042579012, articleId=1241053874275021372, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, language=EN, title=(p)ppGpp—"magic point" nucleotide in bacteria, columnId=1239895164987175635, journalTitle=Acta Microbiologica Sinica, columnName=Reviews, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

Guanosine tetraphosphate (ppGpp)/guanosine pentaphosphate (pppGpp) is a signaling molecule in the bacterial stringent response, whose synthesis and hydrolysis are controlled by the synthesis and hydrolysis activities of proteins in the RelA/SpoT homologue (RSH) family. The (p)ppGpp-mediated stringent response enhanced bacterial adaptation to nutrient deprivation and antibiotic resistance. In recent years, (p)ppGpp has been found to associate with bacterial growth, cell division, and antibiotic synthesis, which was an important global regulator in the bacteria. (p)ppGpp has many target sites in the cell, which allow it to regulate DNA replication, transcription, cell cycle, ribosome biosynthesis, and the expression of antibiotic synthesis gene clusters. However, how (p)ppGpp controls transcription and other metabolic processes depends on the bacterial species, and (p)ppGpp regulates the same processes in different bacteria species through different mechanisms. Therefore, this manuscript reviewed the types of (p)ppGpp synthetic and hydrolytic enzymes, the mechanisms of (p)ppGpp regulation on microbial metabolism and the cell cycle, as well as the regulation mechanisms of antibiotic synthesis and tolerance, which lays the foundation for bacterial resistance and cell physiology researches.

, correspAuthors=Xuping SHENTU, authorNote=null, correspAuthorsNote=
*SHENTU Xuping, Tel: +86-571-86876237, E-mail:
, copyrightStatement=Copyright ©2024 Acta Microbiologica Sinica. All rights reserved., copyrightOwner=null, extLink=null, articleAbsUrl=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, pdfUrl=null, pdf=null, pdfFileSize=null, pdfExtLink=null, richHtmlUrl=null, mobilePdfUrl=null, reviewReport=null, pdfFirstPage=null, abstractGraph=null, abstractGraphContent=null, abstractVideo=null, citation=null, cebUrl=null, magXmlContent=null, mapNumber=null, authorCompany=null, fund=null, authors=null, authorsList=Yang SONG, Yijie WANG, Rui WANG, Xuping SHENTU, Xiaoping YU), CN=ArticleExt(id=1241053879727616648, articleId=1241053874275021372, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, language=CN, title=(p)ppGpp——“魔斑”核苷酸在细菌中的研究进展, columnId=1192149543882997826, journalTitle=微生物学报, columnName=综述, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

鸟苷四磷酸(guanosine tetraphosphate, ppGpp)/鸟苷五磷酸(guanosine pentaphosphate, pppGpp)是细菌严谨反应的信号分子,其合成和水解由Rel/SpoT同系物(RelA/SpoT homologue, RSH)家族的蛋白质合成和水解活性控制。(p)ppGpp介导的严谨反应能够提高细菌对营养匮乏的适应能力和抗生素抗性。近年来发现(p)ppGpp与细菌生长和细胞分裂、抗生素合成等都密切相关,是细胞内重要的全局调控因子。(p)ppGpp在细菌细胞中有许多靶点,使其可以调节DNA复制、转录、细胞周期、核糖体生物合成以及抗生素合成基因簇的表达。然而,(p)ppGpp如何控制转录和其他代谢过程取决于细菌种类,并在不同的微生物中通过不同的机制调节相同的过程。因此,本文通过综述(p)ppGpp的合成/水解酶的种类和调节机制,(p)ppGpp对微生物代谢调控机制、对细胞周期的影响机制,以及(p)ppGpp对抗生素合成和耐受性的调控机制,为细菌耐药性研究和细胞生理学研究奠定基础。

, correspAuthors=申屠旭萍, authorNote=null, correspAuthorsNote=null, copyrightStatement=版权所有©《微生物学报》编辑部2024, copyrightOwner=null, extLink=null, articleAbsUrl=null, sourceXml=XZvD3MnmPAzAO1QI17T4Lg==, magXml=0ZPgsewddwO/Ngo14GgiTw==, pdfUrl=null, pdf=2Mu2XPLdI+ldKz5W4PHN6w==, pdfFileSize=757372, pdfExtLink=null, richHtmlUrl=null, mobilePdfUrl=null, reviewReport=null, pdfFirstPage=null, abstractGraph=SEUEB8JVc3vaq3ow3k8nRQ==, abstractGraphContent=null, abstractVideo=null, citation=null, cebUrl=null, magXmlContent=0yTOakQzAKfYl4NyVjWzAQ==, mapNumber=null, authorCompany=null, fund=null, authors=

#These authors contributed equally to this work.

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(p)ppGpp——“魔斑”核苷酸在细菌中的研究进展
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宋阳 # , 王译婕 # , 王瑞 , 申屠旭萍 * , 俞晓平
微生物学报 | 综述 2024,64(2): 378-390
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微生物学报 | 综述 2024, 64(2): 378-390
(p)ppGpp——“魔斑”核苷酸在细菌中的研究进展
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宋阳#, 王译婕#, 王瑞, 申屠旭萍* , 俞晓平
作者信息
  • 中国计量大学生命科学学院 浙江省生物计量及检验检疫技术重点实验室, 浙江 杭州 310018
(p)ppGpp—"magic point" nucleotide in bacteria
Yang SONG, Yijie WANG, Rui WANG, Xuping SHENTU* , Xiaoping YU
Affiliations
  • Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Biometrology and Inspection and Quarantine, College of Life Sciences, China Jiliang University, Hangzhou 310018, Zhejiang, China
出版时间: 2024-02-04 doi: 10.13343/j.cnki.wsxb.20230485
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鸟苷四磷酸(guanosine tetraphosphate, ppGpp)/鸟苷五磷酸(guanosine pentaphosphate, pppGpp)是细菌严谨反应的信号分子,其合成和水解由Rel/SpoT同系物(RelA/SpoT homologue, RSH)家族的蛋白质合成和水解活性控制。(p)ppGpp介导的严谨反应能够提高细菌对营养匮乏的适应能力和抗生素抗性。近年来发现(p)ppGpp与细菌生长和细胞分裂、抗生素合成等都密切相关,是细胞内重要的全局调控因子。(p)ppGpp在细菌细胞中有许多靶点,使其可以调节DNA复制、转录、细胞周期、核糖体生物合成以及抗生素合成基因簇的表达。然而,(p)ppGpp如何控制转录和其他代谢过程取决于细菌种类,并在不同的微生物中通过不同的机制调节相同的过程。因此,本文通过综述(p)ppGpp的合成/水解酶的种类和调节机制,(p)ppGpp对微生物代谢调控机制、对细胞周期的影响机制,以及(p)ppGpp对抗生素合成和耐受性的调控机制,为细菌耐药性研究和细胞生理学研究奠定基础。

(p)ppGpp  /  细菌细胞周期  /  代谢调控  /  严谨反应  /  抗生素耐药性

Guanosine tetraphosphate (ppGpp)/guanosine pentaphosphate (pppGpp) is a signaling molecule in the bacterial stringent response, whose synthesis and hydrolysis are controlled by the synthesis and hydrolysis activities of proteins in the RelA/SpoT homologue (RSH) family. The (p)ppGpp-mediated stringent response enhanced bacterial adaptation to nutrient deprivation and antibiotic resistance. In recent years, (p)ppGpp has been found to associate with bacterial growth, cell division, and antibiotic synthesis, which was an important global regulator in the bacteria. (p)ppGpp has many target sites in the cell, which allow it to regulate DNA replication, transcription, cell cycle, ribosome biosynthesis, and the expression of antibiotic synthesis gene clusters. However, how (p)ppGpp controls transcription and other metabolic processes depends on the bacterial species, and (p)ppGpp regulates the same processes in different bacteria species through different mechanisms. Therefore, this manuscript reviewed the types of (p)ppGpp synthetic and hydrolytic enzymes, the mechanisms of (p)ppGpp regulation on microbial metabolism and the cell cycle, as well as the regulation mechanisms of antibiotic synthesis and tolerance, which lays the foundation for bacterial resistance and cell physiology researches.

(p)ppGpp  /  bacterial cell cycle  /  metabiotic regulation  /  stringent response  /  antibiotic resistance
宋阳, 王译婕, 王瑞, 申屠旭萍, 俞晓平. (p)ppGpp——“魔斑”核苷酸在细菌中的研究进展. 微生物学报, 2024 , 64 (2) : 378 -390 . DOI: 10.13343/j.cnki.wsxb.20230485
Yang SONG, Yijie WANG, Rui WANG, Xuping SHENTU, Xiaoping YU. (p)ppGpp—"magic point" nucleotide in bacteria[J]. Acta Microbiologica Sinica, 2024 , 64 (2) : 378 -390 . DOI: 10.13343/j.cnki.wsxb.20230485
在细菌中普遍存在4种核苷类信号分子——环腺苷酸(cyclic adenosine monophosphate, c-AMP)、环二腺苷酸(cyclic di-adenosine monophosphate, c-di-AMP)、环二鸟苷酸(cyclic di-guanosine monophosphate, c-di-GMP)、五磷酸鸟苷和四磷酸鸟苷[guanosine tetraphosphate and guanosine pentaphosphate,统称为(p)ppGpp],这些多效性信号分子在细菌中发挥全局调控作用[1]。细菌在面对营养缺乏、氨基酸匮乏等环境压力时会产生(p)ppGpp,它能够抑制DNA、RNA、核糖体蛋白质和膜成分的合成,激活应激、糖酵解和氨基酸合成的全局调控信号分子,实现对细胞资源的重新分配和利用,促进细菌适应不利环境。(p)ppGpp主要由(p)ppGpp合成水解酶(RelA/SpoT homolog, RSH)家族,催化GTP/GDP/GMP和ATP为底物合成(图1)[2-3]
(p) ppGpp调节细胞内的物质合成和能量分配主要依赖2种不同的调节方式。一种是“分级”调节,通过改变基因表达(与RNA聚合酶结合、与核糖开关结合等)以及蛋白质和/或mRNA分子的共价修饰(乙酰化、磷酸化、甲基化等)来改变活性蛋白质的丰度;而另一种“代谢”调节,则是通过对蛋白质活性的直接影响来改变代谢物如底物、产物和效应物(激活剂、抑制剂、变构调节剂)的浓度[4],2种调节以独立或协同的方式进行。此外,(p)ppGpp在不同微生物中通过不同的调节方式调控次级代谢。例如在革兰氏阴性菌中(p)ppGpp通过与RNA聚合酶(RNA polymerase, RNAP)相互作用以及与转录调节因子DnaK抑制蛋白(DnaK suppressor protein, DksA)配对来控制全局基因转录[5];而在革兰氏阳性菌中,(p)ppGpp通过调节细胞内嘌呤浓度从而改变转录起始核苷酸的可用性,间接影响革兰氏阳性菌中的基因转录[6]。然而,关于(p)ppGpp的合成与水解、(p)ppGpp调节微生物生理生化特征[特别是(p)ppGpp在细菌中对抗生素耐受性以及细胞周期的影响]等方面的综述较少。本综述将具体阐述调控(p)ppGpp合成和水解的酶,(p)ppGpp对微生物功能的影响机制,以及(p)ppGpp与抗生素合成和耐受的关系。
细胞中(p)ppGpp含量决定细菌是否对环境胁迫产生应激反应,(p)ppGpp水平的高低受到其合成酶和水解酶RelA/SpoT同源蛋白(RelA/ SpoT homologue, RSH)合成和水解催化活性的调节。发生营养胁迫时,RSH催化ATP的焦磷酸根基团转移到GTP或GDP核糖的3′羟基合成pppGpp或ppGpp[7];反之,在有Mn2+存在时,RSH水解(p)ppGpp 3′位置的二磷酸基团,具有(p)ppGpp水解酶活性和微弱的合成酶活性(图1)[8]
常见的RSH家族蛋白有2种类型,一种是具有多个结构域的“长”酶(long enzyme),一种是具有单个结构域的“短”酶(short enzyme)。“长”酶由N端的催化结构域和C端的水解结构域2个结构域组成(图2),其中催化结构域又分为水解结构域和合成结构域,因此RSH同时具备合成和水解双功能,通过调节水解和合成双功能区域的活力来维持胞内(p)ppGpp水平的稳定。当胞内ATP和GTP结合到合成结构域时,RSH发挥合成功能;当(p)ppGpp结合到水解结构域时,RSH出现构象变化,发挥水解功能。C端的调控功能区域具有TGS (ThrRS、GTPase和SpoT)区域、α螺旋区、锌指结构域和保守的半胱氨酸区域(Zinc refers to the domain and conserved cysteine region, ZFD/CC)以及天冬氨酸激酶、分支域、TyrA和RNA识别区(aspartate kinases, clades, TyrA, and RNA recognition regions, ACT/RRM)4个结构域,这4个区域共同作用感知核糖体的结构变化,进而改变RSH的构象,实现(p)ppGpp含量调节[9]。“短”酶由单功能的(p)ppGpp合成结构域(small alarmone synthetases, SASs)或(p)ppGpp水解结构域(small alarmone hydrolase, SAHs)组成,发挥单一的合成或水解功能,其活性高低受到基因转录以及转录调控作用的影响[10]。因此,微生物细胞内存在多种调控方式来调节不同的(p)ppGpp合成酶和水解酶活性,使得(p)ppGpp能够适时适量地合成,诱导微生物进行营养代谢转变和形态分化。
在大肠杆菌、枯草芽孢杆菌、链霉菌等微生物中普遍存在一种或多种(p)ppGpp合成水解酶,共同调控胞内(p)ppGpp的含量。例如在大肠杆菌中存在具有合成和水解双活性的SpoT,以及只有合成活性的Rel。在枯草芽孢杆菌中存在1个长的RSH和2个短的SASs。在淀粉酶产色链霉菌中发现具有2个长酶Rel和RshA,以及1个单水解活性的PbcSpo[11-14]
RSH酶的合成酶结构域(synthase domain)催化一个焦磷酸(PPi)从ATP转移到GDP或GTP核糖的3′-OH位置,分别生成ppGpp或pppGpp[15],以及生成AMP和GMP或GDP作为副产物(图1)。在(p)ppGpp合成酶中,可以根据其大小和结构域组织分为三大类:多结构域单功能(p)ppGpp合成酶RelA、多结构域双功能(p)ppGpp合成酶SpoT[16]以及单结构域单功能(p)ppGpp合成酶(small alarmone synthetases, SASs)[15]。多结构域单功能(p)ppGpp合成酶RelA只能合成(p)ppGpp[17],而多结构域双功能(p)ppGpp合成酶SpoT同时具有合成和水解活性,并能感知许多其他环境压力,如碳、铁、磷酸盐和脂肪酸饥饿反应[18-20]。RelA和SpoT在蛋白质结构域上存在明显不同(图2),虽然RelA保留了水解结构域(hydrolase domain)的痕迹,但它与SpoT的结构域高度不同,并且缺乏水解活性[21]。单结构域单功能(p)ppGpp合成酶SAS与多结构域RSHs相比,缺乏多结构域RSHs中存在的C端调节结构域和依赖Mn2+的水解酶结构域[10]。迄今为止的证据表明,β-和γ-变形菌门中的一些革兰氏阴性菌通常利用2种同源的“长”酶RelA和SpoT来合成(p)ppGpp[14],而革兰氏阳性细菌,包括金黄色葡萄球、枯草芽孢杆菌、粪肠球菌、变异链球菌和谷氨酸棒杆菌中,含有SAS类型的单功能合成酶RelP和RelQ[22],以及一个双功能酶RSH发挥(p)ppGpp的水解功能。RSH如何感知氨基酸匮乏条件合成(p)ppGpp的机制解析较为透彻,RSH是一种核糖体相关蛋白,通过直接监测细胞的翻译能力来感知氨基酸饥饿。在氨基酸充足的生长时期,氨基酸以氨基酰化tRNA分子的形式到达核糖体受体位点,并在合成新生多肽时添加到新生多肽中。在氨基酸饥饿过程中,脱酰化的tRNAs积累并进入到核糖体受体位点,被RSH的C端察觉并引起RSH的C端与核糖体结合,形成了tRNA、RelA与核糖体的三元复合物(RelA-脱酰化的tRNA-70S核糖体)[18],实现RSH构象由关闭到打开的状态,激活RSH的合成酶活性[14],从而合成(p)ppGpp。关于三元复合物结构合成(p)ppGpp的机制目前有2种模型,一种是“跳跃”模型[23],该模型认为RelA与核糖体复合物在合成(p)ppGpp的过程中被转移走,并通过在核糖体之间的一次“跳跃”,生成一个(p)ppGpp;另一个是“短跳跃时间”模型,该模型认为RelA在结合70S核糖体的同时合成(p)ppGpp[24]。综上所述,不论什么模型,都需要RelA的调控结构域感知核糖体A位点的氨基酸匮乏,进而激活RelA合成酶活性。
与(p)ppGpp的水解过程相关的酶分为三大类,多结构域双功能(p)ppGpp水解酶SpoT、单结构域单功能(p)ppGpp水解酶(small alarmone hydrolases, SAHs)和非特异性水解酶,如Nudix水解酶[10]。SpoT和SAHs能水解pppGpp和ppGpp的3′-OH位焦磷酸部分,分别生成PPi、GTP和GDP[25-27] (图1)。SpoT作为一种具有(p)ppGpp合成酶(S)和水解酶(H)活性的双功能蛋白,其蛋白结构与细长结构的RelA/Rel的活性调节机制不同,该过程不依赖核糖体而进行[28-30]。目前关于水解酶活性变化的研究较少,通过蛋白结构解析发现,鲍曼不动杆菌的水解酶SpoT (SpoTab)具有紧凑的τ型结构,调控结构域位于控制酶构象状态的核心结构域周围,C端调控结构域(C-terminal domain, CTD)通过核心结构域自动激活水解酶(hydrolase, HD)活性,CTD通过控制τ型HD活性和HD非活性松弛构象之间的平衡来控制SpoTab的水解活性,从而调节(p)ppGpp水解活力高低[31],但该τ型结构在其他菌种中尚未被证实。同时非特异性水解酶对于维持细胞内(p)ppGpp平衡生长水平也很重要,在某些细菌物种中,尽管缺少RSHs水解酶,但是非特异性水解酶也能保证菌体正常生长。在大肠杆菌的研究中发现,缺乏SpoT水解酶活性的菌株在过表达非特异性水解酶Nudix后,能够在氨基酸匮乏的条件下生长,但是会降低严谨反应的强度[30]
(p) ppGpp在革兰氏阳性菌和革兰氏阴性菌中存在不同的调控机制。在革兰氏阴性菌中,(p)ppGpp的2种焦磷酸与RNA聚合酶(RNA polymerase, RNAP)的ω亚基相互作用,鸟苷碱基与β′亚基相互作用,引起RNAP的构象变化,改变RNAP与DNA的结合效率,促进或抑制了转录的开始[32]。此外,细胞内的转录调控因子DksA也参与到(p)ppGpp的调控过程,它能够作为“助手”协助(p)ppGpp控制基因转录过程。在革兰氏阳性菌中,(p)ppGpp不通过和DksA协同作用来控制全局基因转录[11],而是通过调节细胞内嘌呤浓度改变转录起始核苷酸的可用性,从而间接影响革兰阳性基因转录[6]
例如在革兰氏阴性菌大肠杆菌中,(p)ppGpp可以调节7个σ因子对RNAP的竞争性结合。正常情况下,大肠杆菌细胞中的(p)ppGpp浓度维持在较低水平,RNAP与σ70结合进行稳定的转录。当细菌处于营养缺乏条件时,(p)ppGpp水平不断积累,抑制了RNAP与σ70结合,游离的RANP将与其他σ因子σ32和σ38结合[14],激活适应热休克和营养缺乏的基因,(p)ppGpp和DksA促进了细菌对环境的适应(图3)。许多学者认为RNAP是大肠杆菌中(p)ppGpp的主要靶点,但有学者表明(p)ppGpp也会直接结合并调节其他蛋白靶点。例如,在肠道沙门氏菌中,(p)ppGpp与SlyA相互作用,SlyA是肠道沙门氏菌细胞内毒力程序的转录激活因子,促进其与目标启动子结合[33]。(p)ppGpp结合的蛋白靶点中也有一些是GTP结合蛋白,它们在复制和翻译中担任核心角色,(p)ppGpp通过与GTP竞争而抑制酶的功能[18],随着(p)ppGpp的产生,GTP池在不断减少,影响GTP结合蛋白的活性。例如rRNA合成基因(rrn操纵子)的启动过程受到GTP的调控,当(p)ppGpp累积时导致GTP含量下降间接抑制rRNA合成基因的转录[18,34]
在革兰氏阳性菌中,(p)ppGpp可能影响嘌呤生物合成的多个成分来调节GTP水平,从而间接调控转录[6]。在枯草芽孢杆菌的研究中,(p)ppGpp通过与嘌呤代谢途径的蛋白(如PurF、Gmk、GuaB等)相互作用抑制GTP的合成,导致与GTP结合的蛋白活性改变,例如间接抑制rRNA的产生[35] (图3)。此外,CodY是一种营养敏感的转录调节因子,也是GTP响应调节器,随着(p)ppGpp的产生,GTP池在不断减少,这直接影响了CodY的活性,因此(p)ppGpp和CodY之间存在反比关系[36]。在金黄色葡萄球菌中,(p)ppGpp的积累通常导致CodY活性降低进而增加细菌毒力[37]
在缓慢生长条件下,细菌细胞周期至少可以分为3个不同的阶段:B阶段是新细胞的诞生到染色体复制开始之间的时期,类似于真核细胞的G1期;C阶段为染色体复制所需的周期,类似于真核细胞S期;D阶段则是染色体复制完成到细胞分裂完成之间的周期[38-39]。C阶段(染色体复制所需的周期)和D阶段(复制结束到分裂完成之间的周期)是细菌细胞周期中的2个关键阶段[40]。有研究发现细菌细胞大小与生长速率和细胞周期进展(C+D周期)密切相关,(p)ppGpp对细菌细胞大小及生长速率的作用间接调控了细菌细胞周期[41] (图4)。
细胞生长包括2个部分,即质量积累和数量增加[42]。质量积累指的是蛋白质、RNA、DNA和脂类等大分子的生物合成。由于蛋白质占干质量的一半以上,其合成消耗了细胞总能量的2/3,因此质量积累的核心是蛋白质和核糖体的合成[43]。在大肠杆菌的研究中,(p)ppGpp直接抑制rRNA的合成,从而影响核糖体的合成。同时(p)ppGpp还可以正向调控各种核糖体冬眠因子如Rmf、Hpf和RaiA的表达,进一步使核糖体失活。尽管(p)ppGpp通过与DksA协同作用于RNAP,激活了氨基酸的生物合成;但是由于(p)ppGpp的存在导致核糖体合成量的大幅度减少,进而减慢了细胞的质量积累[44]
细菌数量的增加主要取决于生长速率的高低,并且生长速率与细菌大小、细胞周期密切相关[45]。正常的生长条件下,大肠杆菌的复制起始发生在oriC位点,终止在ter位点,ori/ter与生长速率呈正相关[46]。大肠杆菌的ori/ter比率随着生长速度的增加而显著增加,这是由于在快速生长期间,染色体复制发生了重叠复制。在缺失(p)ppGpp的突变株(p)ppGpp0中,ori/ter与生长速率之间的正相关性基本消失,该菌株即使在缓慢生长期间ori/ter比率也维持在较高水平[38]。说明(p)ppGpp能够降低ori/ter比率(由于ppGpp的作用靶点主要在转录起始过程,即降低启动子启动速率ori)。ppGpp通过抑制复制启动蛋白DnaA的转录发挥对B阶段的调控过程[41],DnaA蛋白含量降低抑制了DNA的复制,使得起点的数目和每单位质量的DNA含量降低,起始阶段的细胞质量增加[47],进而抑制了新一轮的复制。此外,复制起始可以由除DnaA外的机制控制。例如,seqA的敲除会导致细胞增大、C周期持续时间和D周期持续时间增加,但SeqA如何对ppGpp作出反应尚不清楚[40]。这些研究表明(p)ppGpp抑制并且延迟了染色体复制的起始(延长了B阶段)。
此外,营养缺乏条件下的(p)ppGpp0菌株的C阶段比生长速率相近的野生型菌株的C阶段要长得多,说明染色体复制的延伸过程也受到(p)ppGpp的调控[48]。DNA引物酶(DnaG)是DNA复制的重要组成部分,负责合成RNA引物,启动前链和后链DNA合成。细菌DnaG的活性可由(p)ppGpp调控,有研究认为(p)ppGpp对枯草芽孢杆菌DnaG起始、扩展和保真度皆有影响。虽然(p)ppGpp只是轻微影响DnaG的起始,但会强烈抑制引物的延伸,降低DnaG的加工能力,导致延伸的终止,高浓度的(p)ppGpp与低浓度的GTP对DnaG的活性有协同抑制作用,体外分析也表明(p)ppGpp能够抑制多种细菌DnaG活性[49-50]。在金黄色葡萄球菌中,(p)ppGpp与DnaG的部分结合位点与NTP底物的位点重叠,说明(p)ppGpp模糊了DnaG的活性位点,直接阻碍了NTP的结合。由于DnaG活性与复制解旋酶活性、复制叉稳定性密切相关[51],(p)ppGpp对DnaG的调控也间接地影响了细菌细胞复制周期。
(p) ppGpp通过调节细胞分裂蛋白FtsZ含量调节细菌的分裂过程(D阶段)。缺乏(p)ppGpp的大肠杆菌ppGpp0在营养下降的过程中形成丝状,表明(p)ppGpp在细胞分裂过程中发挥作用[19]。随后发现(p)ppGpp可以直接或间接调控FtsZ操纵子的转录。与野生型相比,ppGpp0的细胞直径明显增大,单位细胞质量的FtsZ含量减少,表明在正常生长条件下,基础(p)ppGpp对FtsZ有正调控作用[32,52-53] (图4)。这些结果表明(p)ppGpp在调节细菌细胞大小的同时间接调控了细胞周期。
(p) ppGpp是严谨反应的效应分子,许多研究表明,(p)ppGpp与抗生素耐药性密切相关[3]。相比于激活严谨反应所需的(p)ppGpp水平,(p)ppGpp的基础水平(低于激活严谨反应所需的水平)除了与细菌毒力相关外,还有助于抗生素耐受[54]。Rodionov和Ishiguro早在1995年报道了(p)ppGpp在诱导β-内酰胺类抗生素即青霉素耐药中的重要性[55]。Koskiniemi等将肠道沙门氏菌细胞用氨基糖苷类抗生素处理时,(p)ppGpp介导的氨基糖苷腺苷转移酶基因aadA表达上调,从而表现出对链霉素的耐药性[56]。(p)ppGpp基础水平的增加后,可以直接调节编码青霉素结合蛋白PBPs或外排泵的基因表达谱来促进抗生素耐药[57]。在干扰(p)ppGpp的合成基因后,例如敲除单结构域单功能(p)ppGpp合成酶基因relQsa后,干扰了mecA基因表达,从而降低了耐甲氧西林金黄色葡萄球菌(methicillin-resistantStaphylococcus aureus, MRSA)对β-内酰胺类抗生素的耐受[58]。c-di-AMP和(p)ppGpp也能够同时调控mecA/青霉素结合蛋白PBP2a介导的β-内酰胺类药物的耐药性[59]。类似结果也在链霉菌中发现,在(p)ppGpp0菌株中几种抗生素的耐受性急剧降低[60]。研究表明,细菌细胞内(p)ppGpp基础水平较高时,对通过干扰核酸生物合成或损伤而起作用的抗生素表现出更强的耐药性[36]。综上所述,(p)ppGpp在抗生素耐受方面发挥作用,这可能是治疗耐药菌的一个潜在靶点。
链霉菌是存在于土壤中的革兰氏阳性细菌,可产生多种次级代谢产物,其中许多次级代谢物作为抗生素在临床和农业中起重要作用。(p)ppGpp作为严谨反应信号分子,在核糖体工程和基因组重排后,能够激活(p)ppGpp的合成[61-62]。早在1987年就有学者发现,灰色链霉菌的(p)ppGpp合成缺陷突变菌株中,链霉素的产量降低,由此认为(p)ppGpp的合成与次级代谢之间可能存在着某些联系[63]。在后来的其他菌种研究中,也证明这种联系的确存在。例如在氮限制条件下,天蓝色链霉菌A3(2)中(p)ppGpp的合成与十一烷基灵菌红素(undecylprodigioin, Red)和放线菌紫素(actinorhodin, Act)呈正相关,当敲除了与(p)ppGpp合成所相关的relA基因时,突变株ΔrelA未能产生Red和Act[64]。当(p)ppGpp积累时,调节因子ActII-ORF4和RedD激活了编码生物合成酶的基因。与actII-ORF4启动子结构域结合的转录调节因子XdhR是(p)ppGpp的配体,(p)ppGpp的累积使得XdhR与actII-ORF4启动子分离,从而促进Act的生物合成[65]。在2008年Wang等的研究中发现,由于(p)ppGpp的积累,野生型天蓝色链霉菌中Act产量增加了180倍[66]。在淀粉酶产色链霉菌1628中,突变株ΔrelA抑制了抗生素基因簇的表达以及丰加霉素和四霉素P的产生[13]。同时,也有研究发现,(p)ppGpp对次级代谢有负调控作用,在棒状链霉菌中,突变株ΔrelA中克拉维酸和头霉素C的产量比野生型菌株显著增加,克拉维酸的产量增加了3−4倍,而头霉素C的产量增加了约2.5倍[67]。然而(p)ppGpp如何调控抗生素合成途径的机制尚未明确,而且(p)ppGpp如何选择性提高某些抗生素产量而抑制某些抗生素途径的研究尚未解析。目前仅能证实(p)ppGpp的代谢可以影响抗生素的产生,但是具体机制仍需要进一步解析。
(p) ppGpp介导的严谨反应广泛分布于大肠杆菌、枯草芽孢杆菌、链霉菌和金黄色葡萄球菌等细菌中。严谨反应赋予菌株抵抗环境应激、毒性、长期耐受性和生物膜形成能力。在严谨反应中,(p)ppGpp的合成和水解由Rel/SpoT同系物(RSH)家族的蛋白质控制。(p)ppGpp在细胞中许多靶点,使其可以重编程DNA复制、转录、核糖体生物合成和功能以及脂质代谢。但是,(p)ppGpp如何控制转录和其他代谢过程取决于细菌种类,并在不同的微生物中通过不同的机制调节相同的过程。对大肠杆菌的研究揭示了(p)ppGpp在细菌细胞周期和细胞大小的各个方面的调节作用,包括质量累积、数量增加、起始质量和DNA复制过程。(p)ppGpp可能具有多个下游靶点,这些靶点协同作用对细胞周期和细胞大小调控产生影响。然而,还需要更多的工作来确定(p)ppGpp下游的效应因子。此外,还不清楚(p)ppGpp是否能调节其他物种如丝状细菌放线菌的细胞大小以及调节机制。
近年来,直接感知翻译延伸率(elongation rate, ER)已被证明是大肠杆菌重要的营养感知机制,可调节细胞(p)ppGpp池以实现生长的速率控制。然而,ER影响(p)ppGpp池的机理仍然不完整。有研究发现在大肠杆菌中确实有relA基因后,在指数生长阶段,ΔrelA缺失既不影响(p)ppGpp水平也不影响ER水平,说明RelA蛋白的功能不需要这种传感机制[68]。因此推测SpoT可以感知ER,并在大肠杆菌指数生长过程中进一步调控(p)ppGpp的合成/水解,但其机制仍是一个有待解决的问题。
除此之外,(p)ppGpp信号通路通过控制中枢代谢调整来应对环境波动,激活应激反应,并协调经典毒力因子的表达,从而提高细胞适应性,但其机制仍然需要进一步地探究。同时,(p)ppGpp对毒力的影响也开始应用于疫苗的研究,这成为疫苗研究的新思路。更有趣的是(p)ppGpp对链霉菌抗生素产生的影响,可以利用(p)ppGpp途径提高抗生素产量,但相关研究相对较少,其机制也需要更进一步地研究。
  • 国家自然科学基金(32372628)
  • 国家自然科学基金(31901930)
  • 国家自然科学基金(U21A20223)
  • 浙江省自然科学基金(LGN22C140006)
  • 浙江省属高校基本科研业务费(2022YW17)
  • 浙江省“三农九方”科技协作计划(2023SNJF034)
  • 浙江省“尖兵” “领雁”研发攻关计划(2023C02030)
  • 浙江省“尖兵” “领雁”研发攻关计划(2022C02047)
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2024年第64卷第2期
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doi: 10.13343/j.cnki.wsxb.20230485
  • 接收时间:2023-07-19
  • 首发时间:2026-03-18
  • 出版时间:2024-02-04
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  • 收稿日期:2023-07-19
  • 录用日期:2023-10-09
基金
National Natural Science Foundation of China(32372628)
国家自然科学基金(32372628)
National Natural Science Foundation of China(31901930)
国家自然科学基金(31901930)
National Natural Science Foundation of China(U21A20223)
国家自然科学基金(U21A20223)
Zhejiang Provincial Natural Science Foundation(LGN22C140006)
浙江省自然科学基金(LGN22C140006)
Basic Research Business Fund of Zhejiang Provincial Universities(2022YW17)
浙江省属高校基本科研业务费(2022YW17)
"Three Rural Nine Parties" Science and Technology Collaboration Program(2023SNJF034)
浙江省“三农九方”科技协作计划(2023SNJF034)
"Pioneer" and "Leading Goose" Research and Development Program of Zhejiang(2023C02030)
浙江省“尖兵” “领雁”研发攻关计划(2023C02030)
"Pioneer" and "Leading Goose" Research and Development Program of Zhejiang(2022C02047)
浙江省“尖兵” “领雁”研发攻关计划(2022C02047)
作者信息
    中国计量大学生命科学学院 浙江省生物计量及检验检疫技术重点实验室, 浙江 杭州 310018

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2种不同金属材料的力学参数

Family
属数
Number of
genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of
total species (%)

Genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of total
species (%)
鹅膏菌科Amanitaceae 2 11 5.26 鹅膏菌属 Amanita 10 4.78
小菇科 Mycenaceae 2 12 5.74 丝盖伞属 Inocybe 5 2.39
多孔菌科 Polyporaceae 8 14 6.70 蜡蘑属 Laccaria 5 2.39
红菇科 Russulaceae 3 23 11.00 小皮伞属 Marasmius 6 2.87
小菇属 Mycena 11 5.26
光柄菇属 Pluteus 5 2.39
红菇属 Russula 17 8.13
栓菌属 Trametes 5 2.39
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