Article(id=1238813316987015737, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, issueId=1238813307784712441, articleNumber=null, orderNo=null, doi=10.13343/j.cnki.wsxb.20250563, pmid=null, cstr=null, oa=null, hot=null, price=null, onlineType=0, articleFormat=0, articleType=null, articleTypeStr=research-article, receivedDate=1753113600000, receivedDateStr=2025-07-22, revisedDate=null, revisedDateStr=null, acceptedDate=1764864000000, acceptedDateStr=2025-12-05, onlineDate=1773285710807, onlineDateStr=2026-03-12, pubDate=1772553600000, pubDateStr=2026-03-04, doiRegisterDate=null, doiRegisterDateStr=null, onlineIssueDate=1773285710807, onlineIssueDateStr=2026-03-12, onlineJustAcceptDate=null, onlineJustAcceptDateStr=null, onlineFirstDate=null, onlineFirstDateStr=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, createTime=1773285710807, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1773285710807, updator=13701087609, issue=Issue{id=1238813307784712441, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, year='2026', volume='66', issue='3', pageStart='961', pageEnd='1466', issueExtLink='null', onlineDate='null', pubDate='null', beforeIssueId=null, nextIssueId=null, price=null, status=1, issueComplete=1, articleOrder=1, issueType=-1, specialIssue=null, createTime=1773285708614, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1773291912509, updator=13701087609, preIssue=null, nextIssue=null, ext={EN=IssueExt(id=1238839328915378858, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, issueId=1238813307784712441, language=EN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=), CN=IssueExt(id=1238839328915378859, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, issueId=1238813307784712441, language=CN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=)}, issueFiles=null}, startPage=961, endPage=974, ext={EN=ArticleExt(id=1238813317498720871, articleId=1238813316987015737, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, language=EN, title=Role of arginine in the progression of Staphylococcus aureus infection in macrophages through the lens of bacterial metabolism, columnId=1192149543727808575, journalTitle=Acta Microbiologica Sinica, columnName=Review, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

Staphylococcus aureus, a common foodborne pathogen causing hospital-acquired infection, poses a grave threat to public health and safety, resulting in a substantial economic burden on the society. As a conditionally essential amino acid, arginine exhibits a dual role in the infection of S. aureus and the immune response of the host. On the one hand, arginine synthesis and catabolism are involved in pathogenic processes such as the biofilm formation and antibiotic resistance of S. aureus. On the other hand, arginine metabolites play an important role in anti-infective immunity, tissue repair, and wound healing through the modulation of macrophage polarization, immune modulation, metabolic reprogramming, and signaling. Recent studies suggest that arginine metabolism constitutes a regulatory hub for S. aureus-macrophage interactions, and its metabolic balance affects the progression and regression of infection and anti-infection. Consequently, targeting the arginine metabolic pathway to impede S. aureus infection by regulating host-pathogen metabolic interactions has emerged as a novel anti-S. aureus therapeutic strategy with significant translational medical relevance. In this review, we focus on the metabolic utilization of arginine to describe how S. aureus and macrophages exert their respective biological functions by competing for the utilization of arginine. In addition, we summarize the changes of arginine levels in macrophages during S. aureus infection to explore the feasible research directions and challenges of regulating arginine metabolism as a potential antimicrobial strategy in the future.

, correspAuthors=Lili ZOU, Jun WANG, authorNote=null, correspAuthorsNote=
*E-mail: WANG Jun,
ZOU Lili,
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#These authors contributed equally to this work.

, authorsList=Lisha GE, Yuhuang WU, Wenjun HE, Yalan WANG, Yueqing WANG, Lili ZOU, Jun WANG), CN=ArticleExt(id=1238813319503598369, articleId=1238813316987015737, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, language=CN, title=基于细菌代谢探讨精氨酸在金黄色葡萄球菌感染巨噬细胞进程中的作用, columnId=1192149543882997826, journalTitle=微生物学报, columnName=综述, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

金黄色葡萄球菌(Staphylococcus aureus)作为常见的医院获得性感染病原菌,长期严重威胁公共卫生安全,造成了巨大的社会经济负担。精氨酸作为条件必需氨基酸,在S. aureus感染致病与宿主免疫应答中发挥着双重调控作用:一方面,精氨酸的合成与分解参与S. aureus生物被膜形成和耐药性建立;另一方面,精氨酸代谢通过影响巨噬细胞极化、免疫调节、代谢重编程以及信号转导等途径,在宿主抗感染免疫、组织修复和伤口愈合中发挥重要作用。鉴于精氨酸的合成与分解是S. aureus-巨噬细胞互作的关键调控枢纽,其代谢平衡影响感染与抗感染的进程和转归。因此,通过靶向调控精氨酸代谢来控制S. aureus感染是具有重要转化医学价值的新策略。本文以精氨酸代谢为核心,分别阐述S. aureus和巨噬细胞如何通过竞争与利用精氨酸来发挥各自的生物学功能,并深入剖析精氨酸水平变化在S. aureus-巨噬细胞互作中的关键作用,探讨调节精氨酸代谢这一潜在抗菌策略可进一步开展的研究方向与可能面临的挑战。

, correspAuthors=邹黎黎, 王君, authorNote=null, correspAuthorsNote=null, copyrightStatement=null, copyrightOwner=null, extLink=null, articleAbsUrl=null, sourceXml=wZ1hL9AQ+X1y6jmDrwZoQA==, magXml=jn2lpbPqpTZda7hbq8UdPA==, pdfUrl=null, pdf=X6Nse3Ge9k5h4pX4Esx09g==, pdfFileSize=1382717, pdfExtLink=null, richHtmlUrl=null, mobilePdfUrl=null, reviewReport=null, pdfFirstPage=null, abstractGraph=NnxDDb3pD/pvlJYsG+rpSg==, abstractGraphContent=null, abstractVideo=null, citation=null, cebUrl=null, magXmlContent=tfjQl9wqcpJZ5S+eeVXaEQ==, mapNumber=null, authorCompany=null, fund=null, authors=

作者贡献声明

戈丽莎:撰写文章与完成呈现;吴钰煌:撰写文章;贺文俊、王亚兰:文献收集与提供资源;王栎清:监督管理;邹黎黎:提出概念与获取基金;王君:监督管理与获取基金。

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Design and synthesis of novel anti-multidrug-resistant Staphylococcus aureus derivatives of glycyrrhetinic acid by blocking arginine biosynthesis, metabolic and H2S biogenesis[J]. 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基于细菌代谢探讨精氨酸在金黄色葡萄球菌感染巨噬细胞进程中的作用
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戈丽莎 1, 2 , 吴钰煌 2 , 贺文俊 3 , 王亚兰 3 , 王栎清 2 , 邹黎黎 2, * , 王君 1, *
微生物学报 | 综述 2026,66(3): 961-974
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微生物学报 | 综述 2026, 66(3): 961-974
基于细菌代谢探讨精氨酸在金黄色葡萄球菌感染巨噬细胞进程中的作用
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戈丽莎1, 2, 吴钰煌2, 贺文俊3, 王亚兰3, 王栎清2, 邹黎黎2, * , 王君1, *
作者信息
  • 1.三峡大学附属第二人民医院&宜昌市第二人民医院,湖北省老年胃肠癌精准防治临床医学研究中心,湖北 宜昌
  • 2.三峡大学 基础医学院,肿瘤微环境与免疫治疗湖北省重点实验室,宜昌市感染与炎症损伤重点实验室,湖北 宜昌
  • 3.三峡大学附属夷陵医院&宜昌市夷陵人民医院,湖北 宜昌
Role of arginine in the progression of Staphylococcus aureus infection in macrophages through the lens of bacterial metabolism
Lisha GE1, 2, Yuhuang WU2, Wenjun HE3, Yalan WANG3, Yueqing WANG2, Lili ZOU2, * , Jun WANG1, *
Affiliations
  • 1.Hubei Provincial Clinical Research Center for Precise Prevention and Treatment of Gastrointestinal Cancer in the Elderly, The Second People’s Hospital of China Three Gorges University & The Second People’s Hospital of Yichang, Yichang, Hubei, China
  • 2.Hubei Key Laboratory of Tumor Microenvironment and Immunotherapy, Yichang Key Laboratory of Infection and Inflammation, College of Basic Medical Sciences, China Three Gorges University, Yichang, Hubei, China
  • 3.Affiliated Yiling Hospital of China Three Gorges University & Yiling People’s Hospital, Yichang, Hubei, China
出版时间: 2026-03-04 doi: 10.13343/j.cnki.wsxb.20250563
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金黄色葡萄球菌(Staphylococcus aureus)作为常见的医院获得性感染病原菌,长期严重威胁公共卫生安全,造成了巨大的社会经济负担。精氨酸作为条件必需氨基酸,在S. aureus感染致病与宿主免疫应答中发挥着双重调控作用:一方面,精氨酸的合成与分解参与S. aureus生物被膜形成和耐药性建立;另一方面,精氨酸代谢通过影响巨噬细胞极化、免疫调节、代谢重编程以及信号转导等途径,在宿主抗感染免疫、组织修复和伤口愈合中发挥重要作用。鉴于精氨酸的合成与分解是S. aureus-巨噬细胞互作的关键调控枢纽,其代谢平衡影响感染与抗感染的进程和转归。因此,通过靶向调控精氨酸代谢来控制S. aureus感染是具有重要转化医学价值的新策略。本文以精氨酸代谢为核心,分别阐述S. aureus和巨噬细胞如何通过竞争与利用精氨酸来发挥各自的生物学功能,并深入剖析精氨酸水平变化在S. aureus-巨噬细胞互作中的关键作用,探讨调节精氨酸代谢这一潜在抗菌策略可进一步开展的研究方向与可能面临的挑战。

金黄色葡萄球菌  /  细菌代谢  /  精氨酸  /  巨噬细胞  /  生物被膜

Staphylococcus aureus, a common foodborne pathogen causing hospital-acquired infection, poses a grave threat to public health and safety, resulting in a substantial economic burden on the society. As a conditionally essential amino acid, arginine exhibits a dual role in the infection of S. aureus and the immune response of the host. On the one hand, arginine synthesis and catabolism are involved in pathogenic processes such as the biofilm formation and antibiotic resistance of S. aureus. On the other hand, arginine metabolites play an important role in anti-infective immunity, tissue repair, and wound healing through the modulation of macrophage polarization, immune modulation, metabolic reprogramming, and signaling. Recent studies suggest that arginine metabolism constitutes a regulatory hub for S. aureus-macrophage interactions, and its metabolic balance affects the progression and regression of infection and anti-infection. Consequently, targeting the arginine metabolic pathway to impede S. aureus infection by regulating host-pathogen metabolic interactions has emerged as a novel anti-S. aureus therapeutic strategy with significant translational medical relevance. In this review, we focus on the metabolic utilization of arginine to describe how S. aureus and macrophages exert their respective biological functions by competing for the utilization of arginine. In addition, we summarize the changes of arginine levels in macrophages during S. aureus infection to explore the feasible research directions and challenges of regulating arginine metabolism as a potential antimicrobial strategy in the future.

Staphylococcus aureus  /  bacterial metabolism  /  arginine  /  macrophages  /  biofilm
戈丽莎, 吴钰煌, 贺文俊, 王亚兰, 王栎清, 邹黎黎, 王君. 基于细菌代谢探讨精氨酸在金黄色葡萄球菌感染巨噬细胞进程中的作用. 微生物学报, 2026 , 66 (3) : 961 -974 . DOI: 10.13343/j.cnki.wsxb.20250563
Lisha GE, Yuhuang WU, Wenjun HE, Yalan WANG, Yueqing WANG, Lili ZOU, Jun WANG. Role of arginine in the progression of Staphylococcus aureus infection in macrophages through the lens of bacterial metabolism[J]. Acta Microbiologica Sinica, 2026 , 66 (3) : 961 -974 . DOI: 10.13343/j.cnki.wsxb.20250563
金黄色葡萄球菌(Staphylococcus aureus)作为临床常见致病菌,其耐药性与生物被膜形成能力密切相关。S. aureus可通过分泌胞外多糖、蛋白质等基质形成致密生物被膜,将菌体包裹其中以躲避抗生素渗透和宿主免疫清除,进而逐步形成对β-内酰胺类、万古霉素等多种临床常用抗生素的耐药表型[1]。这种多重耐药特性导致在S. aureus引发的脑膜炎、肺脓肿、骨髓炎等严重感染疾病的治疗中常面临抗生素选择受限、疗效不佳、病程延长等问题,给临床抗感染治疗带来了极大挑战[1]
传统观点认为,细菌的增殖活性是决定其对抗生素敏感性的核心因素,增殖活跃的细菌因细胞壁合成、核酸复制等代谢过程旺盛,更易被靶向这类通路的抗生素抑制或杀灭。近年来,随着微生物代谢组学与抗菌药理研究的深入,越来越多的证据表明,相较于单纯的生长状态,细菌的代谢状态比生长状态更能决定其对抗生素的耐受性,甚至在某些场景下(如持留菌形成、生物膜内细菌存活)成为主导因素[2]。细菌代谢能够动态适应营养环境的变化,糖类、有机酸和氨基酸等关键代谢物会显著影响生物被膜的形成与持续存在。Zhu等[3]研究表明S. aureus生物被膜的形成与精氨酸代谢密切相关,且Freiberg等[4]的研究发现精氨酸代谢与生物被膜的抗生素耐受性相关,证实S. aureus群落中精氨酸的耗竭可诱导抗生素耐受性。此外,精氨酸不仅是合成蛋白质的重要原料,还可作为免疫调节因子参与宿主免疫系统的建立与调控,尤其是巨噬细胞的极化调节[4]。巨噬细胞不仅是机体感染S. aureus时率先被激活的免疫细胞,还在吞噬S. aureus和启动下游免疫环节中发挥重要作用,尤其在骨髓炎感染的发生和发展过程中,S. aureus在巨噬细胞内生存的能力还是其免疫逃避的关键策略[5]
本文以精氨酸代谢为核心,简述其在S. aureus和巨噬细胞中的重要功能以及最新研究成果;剖析S. aureus与巨噬细胞对精氨酸的竞争关系;最后基于近年来细菌代谢在抗菌作用的研究报道,探讨精氨酸代谢的潜在抗菌策略以及未来可能的研究方向与面临的挑战。
S. aureus可通过外源性和内源性两大途径获取精氨酸[6]S. aureus存在精氨酸营养缺陷型,可完全依赖外源性途径获取精氨酸以完成生理活动,但摄取胞外精氨酸的方式尚不明确[6]。同时,S. aureus可通过谷氨酸途径和精氨酸-脯氨酸转换途径(图1)生成内源性精氨酸,帮助自身适应胞内外环境变化。
谷氨酸途径是枯草芽孢杆菌、大肠杆菌等细菌合成精氨酸的保守途径,依赖乙酰鸟氨酸转氨酶(acetylornithine aminotransferase, argD)、N-乙酰-γ-谷氨酰磷酸还原酶(N-acetyl-γ-glutamyl-phosphate reductase, argC)、双功能谷氨酸N-乙酰转移酶/氨基酸乙酰转移酶(bifunctional glutamate N-acetyltransferase/amino-acid acetyltransferase, argJ)、乙酰谷氨酸激酶(acetylglutamate kinase, argB) 4个基因编码的酶催化谷氨酸转化为精氨酸,这4个串联基因组成操纵子argDCJB[7]S. aureus可在该操纵子的作用下将谷氨酸转化成鸟氨酸,进而通过鸟氨酸循环合成精氨酸[7]。此外,谷氨酸还可在谷氨酸脱氢酶的作用下转化为酮戊二酸,进入三羧酸循环(tricarboxylic acid cycle, TCA)[7]。在谷氨酸代谢途径中操纵子argDCJB受到精氨酸阻遏与激活蛋白C (arginine repressor and activator protein C, AhrC)的抑制性调控,且AhrC对argDCJB的抑制呈精氨酸浓度依赖性[8]。另外,当S. aureus的外源性谷氨酸摄取出现障碍时,谷氨酸池的恢复主要依赖于谷氨酸合成酶(glutamine oxoglutarate aminotransferase, GOGAT)的激活[7-9]
精氨酸-脯氨酸转换途径是S. aureus特有的精氨酸合成代谢途径,S. aureus一般依赖从外界获取精氨酸,而一旦环境中缺乏碳源和/或精氨酸时就会激活表达碳分解代谢物阻遏蛋白A (catabolite control protein A, CcpA),通过分解脯氨酸合成精氨酸,从而在宿主细胞中存活并致病,且S. aureus更倾向于将脯氨酸通过精氨酸-脯氨酸转换途径作为合成精氨酸的底物[10-11]。脯氨酸可通过多功能脯氨酸利用A酶(proline utilization A, PutA)将脯氨酸转化为吡咯啉-5-羧酸盐(pyrroline-5-carboxylate, P5C),进而转换成鸟氨酸,最终合成精氨酸[12]。P5C作为该过程的重要中间产物,不仅可以被P5C还原酶(pyrroline-5-carboxylate reductase, ProC)还原成脯氨酸,还可转换成谷氨酸,进而关联谷氨酸途径和三羧酸循环[12]。因此,在正常生理条件下,S. aureus并不会利用脯氨酸合成精氨酸;当过表达putA或缺失proC时,S. aureus才会将脯氨酸用于合成精氨酸[12-13]。CcpA还可以抑制除P5C转化为脯氨酸外的其余转化合成过程[13]。目前,对于S. aureus在何种条件下会优先选择精氨酸-脯氨酸转换途径还有待进一步探究。
精氨酸抑制子(arginine repressor, ArgR)和AhrC可通过抑制鸟氨酸循环的代谢过程来抑制精氨酸的生物合成。在缺乏精氨酸的培养基中,S. aureus会通过抑制CcpA、AhrC与ArgR的表达来促进精氨酸的生物合成[11]。Manna等[14]的研究还发现,可溶性RNA (soluble RNA, sRNA) teg58也在调节S. aureus精氨酸生物合成和生物被膜形成中发挥重要作用,其突变可导致精氨酸合成代谢失效。
S. aureus精氨酸的分解代谢途径包括精氨酸脱亚胺酶(arginine deiminase, ADI)途径、精氨酸酶(arginase, ARG)途径和鸟氨酸的进一步代谢等(图2)。精氨酸首先被ADI途径催化生成尿素和鸟氨酸,随后进一步转化为瓜氨酸[7,15]
现有研究发现,S. aureus的重要基因组岛精氨酸分解代谢移动元件(arginine catabolic mobile element, ACME)包含了精氨酸脱亚胺酶操纵子(arginine deiminase operon, arc)、寡肽通透酶3操纵子(oligopeptide permease 3 operon, opp-3)和亚精胺合成酶G (spermidine synthase G, speG),ACME-arc操纵子通过精氨酸脱氨酶途径将精氨酸转化为二氧化碳(carbon dioxide, CO2)、三磷酸腺苷(adenosine triphosphate, ATP)和氨(ammonia, NH3),以中和酸性环境协助细菌定殖(图3);其中ACME-arc操纵子与基因组arc表达存在差异,即基因组arc的调控依赖低氧信号触发厌氧呼吸控制蛋白A/厌氧呼吸控制传感激酶B (anaerobic respiratory control protein A/anaerobic respiratory control protein B, ArcA/ArcB)双组分系统(氧敏感型),而ACME-arc由精氨酸分解代谢调控蛋白(arginine catabolic repressor/regulator protein, ArcR) (氧不敏感型)控制,可直接响应酸性信号启动表达,无需低氧协同,这种调控机制的分化扩展了S. aureus的宿主范围[16]。操纵子opp-3编码ABC转运蛋白,参与细菌黏附、群体感应、抗生素耐药、趋化性及营养摄取,显著增强细菌在宿主体内的生存与致病能力[16]speG基因通过编码精胺/亚精胺N-乙酰转移酶解毒宿主产生的杀菌性多胺,由此促进Arg系统调控S. aureus形成生物被膜[16-17]
虽然已知精氨酸的分解代谢可为S. aureus提供能量和氮源,维持其生存,然而不同细菌精氨酸分解代谢途径的功能和作用机制不同[18-19],因而其在S. aureus中的具体机制仍需继续探索。S. aureus通过精氨酸代谢产物的转化调节胞内外的pH值以适应酸性或碱性环境,在生长和繁殖过程中起缓冲作用,增强生存能力[20]
S. aureus生物被膜由菌体和自身分泌的胞外基质组成,生物被膜的形成大大提高了其耐药性[21]。生物被膜在S. aureus对数期时快速形成,而在平台期时逐渐减少,该过程与精氨酸代谢密切相关[22]
一方面,S. aureus生物被膜的形成需要精氨酸[22]。Shibamura-Fujiogi等[23]的研究发现负责控制外源谷氨酸摄入的谷氨酸转运蛋白(glutamate synthase, GltS)一旦被抑制,S. aureus将因缺乏精氨酸转化来源而失去形成生物被膜的能力。当S. aureus缺失ArgR时会使得胞内精氨酸水平异常,从而导致S. aureus无法完成从浮游状态到生物膜状态的转变,最终表现为生物被膜形成能力显著受损[24]
另一方面,精氨酸分解代谢产物也可直接或间接为生物被膜的形成提供有利条件[25]。如亚精胺和精胺等多胺可增加编码纤连蛋白结合蛋白A (fibronectin-binding protein A, FnbA)、纤连蛋白结合蛋白B (fibronectin-binding protein B, FnbB)编码基因的表达水平,帮助S. aureus生物被膜形成[17,25]。这有赖于speG基因编码精胺/亚精胺N-乙酰转移酶将多胺乙酰化,助力S. aureus生物被膜续存[17]。同时,乙酰化多胺又可作为信号分子,激活S. aureusica操纵子,合成多糖胞间黏附素、纤维蛋白原结合蛋白等胞外基质,增强细菌间黏附性,减少生物被膜被机械力(如体液冲刷)或宿主免疫细胞破坏的概率[17]。此外,一氧化氮(nitric oxide, NO)可增强S. aureus对外源氧化应激的抵抗力[26],其代谢产物也参与细胞的信号传导以完成环境适应[27]。尿素、CO2、NH3等均有助于S. aureus在酸性环境中生存[23]。因此,精氨酸的代谢产物为S. aureus生物被膜的形成提供了物质和功能基础,也有利于其耐药性的建立。
随着代谢调控在细菌耐药中的深入研究,精氨酸代谢在S. aureus抗生素耐药中的作用日益凸显。Reslane等[12]发现限制S. aureus的精氨酸供应可使精氨酸琥珀酸裂解酶(argininosuccinate lyase, ArgH)失活,导致生物被膜中S. aureus群体的精氨酸耗竭,最终减弱S. aureus对抗生素(如万古霉素)的耐受性。此外,在抑制ArgR活性后,S. aureus也会因无法形成生物被膜而丧失耐药性[12]。在螺旋霉素诱导的耐药突变株中arcAarcCargF表达上调,而argHargG则表达下调,说明S. aureus可通过减少精氨酸的内源性合成来建立耐药性[7,12]。此外,S. aureus还可形成小菌落变异体(small colony variants, SCV),通过上调精氨酸脱氨酶途径产生ATP而维持生长活性和耐药能力[28-29];同时也使胞壁增厚,最终对万古霉素产生耐受性[30]
综上所述,精氨酸代谢在S. aureus建立抗生素耐药性中具有重要作用,即限制精氨酸合成有助于S. aureus形成抗生素耐药性[8,12,21]。然而,关于精氨酸代谢促进抗生素耐药性产生这一机制的相关研究还需更多的研究数据来佐证。
在感染或先天免疫信号的驱动下巨噬细胞会发生极化[31],该过程对精氨酸的需求会显著增加[32]。巨噬细胞存在2种精氨酸代谢途径:一氧化氮合酶(nitric oxide synthase, NOS)途径和精氨酸酶途径,分别对应着巨噬细胞的2种极化状态:M1型和M2型(图4)。
M1型巨噬细胞以诱导型一氧化氮合酶(inducible nitric oxide synthase, iNOS)激活为特征,精氨酸经NOS途径被氧化分解为NO与瓜氨酸,其中NO不仅是M1型巨噬细胞的标志性分子,还可通过直接调控代谢酶活性、重塑线粒体功能及干预信号通路,驱动巨噬细胞代谢模式切换[33]
三羧酸循环是巨噬细胞能量代谢与代谢中间产物生成的核心[34]。在调控代谢酶活性方面,NO不仅可以通过精准靶向TCA中催化柠檬酸向异柠檬酸转化的关键酶乌头酸酶-2 (aconitase-2, ACO-2),导致柠檬酸盐堆积[34-35],还可以抑制丙酮酸脱氢酶(pyruvate dehydrogenase, PDH),阻断丙酮酸进入TCA[34]。NO在破坏TCA的同时,不仅可以通过修饰糖酵解关键酶磷酸果糖激酶-1 (phosphofructokinase-1, PFK1)与上调葡萄糖转运体1 (glucose transporter 1, GLUT1)的膜定位,为M1型巨噬细胞吞噬杀菌、炎症因子合成提供快速能量[34,36],还可以通过结合过氧亚硝基阴离子(ONOO-)氧化琥珀酸脱氢酶(succinate dehydrogenase, SDH)的活性位点,导致琥珀酸无法脱氢生成延胡索酸,从而增强炎症反应[35,37]。最近研究发现,线粒体不仅是能量代谢场所,也是NO调控巨噬细胞代谢重编程的核心靶点,NO对线粒体呼吸链的抑制具有浓度依赖性与靶点特异性[35]。除此之外,NO还可以通过S-亚硝基化修饰线粒体自噬关键蛋白Parkin的Cys431残基,阻断其向受损线粒体招募,以此避免线粒体被自噬体降解[34]
值得注意的是,NO对巨噬细胞代谢重编程的调控并非孤立,而是与关键辅因子、信号通路协同形成精准调控网络(图5)。
四氢生物蝶呤(tetrahydrobiopterin, BH4)作为iNOS的必需辅因子,是NO介导代谢重编程的关键上游因子,可以通过调控NO生成,间接调控TCA与炎症因子代谢。NO可以通过S-亚硝基化修饰核因子κB (nuclear factor kappa-B, NF-κB)的p65亚基,增强其向细胞核的转运,促进诱导型一氧化氮合酶与白细胞介素-1β (interleukin-1 beta, IL-1β)的表达,进一步放大NO生成与代谢重编程效应;同时,过量的NO可使NF-κB抑制蛋白(inhibitor of κB alpha, IκBα)半衰期延长,由此避免NF-κB过度激活导致的代谢耗竭[35]。不仅如此,NO可以抑制氧化磷酸化导致ATP生成减少,使AMP/ATP比值升高,激活AMP激活蛋白激酶(AMP-activated protein kinase, AMPK)。AMPK可通过磷酸化乙酰辅酶A羧化酶(acetyl-CoA carboxylase, ACC)抑制脂肪酸合成,同时上调葡萄糖转运体4 (glucose transporter 4, GLUT4)来增强葡萄糖摄取,在氧化磷酸化受抑状态下维持代谢稳态[38]
ARG是M2型巨噬细胞的标志物,精氨酸在ARG途径中可被水解为鸟氨酸和尿素,鸟氨酸进一步代谢为多胺后可发挥抗炎、促进细胞增殖、胞吞作用和组织再生等作用[39-40]。因此,精氨酸代谢对巨噬细胞极化尤为关键,NOS或ARG的激活很大程度上决定了巨噬细胞的极化结果和生理功能。
M2型巨噬细胞和M1型巨噬细胞之间也存在着精氨酸竞争现象[41]。M1型巨噬细胞中的产物Nω-羟基-l-精氨酸(Nω-hydroxy-l-arginine, NOHA)是ARG的强效抑制因子;而M2型巨噬细胞可通过ARG代谢途径,限制精氨酸的可用性来影响NO合成[36,39]。这种机制在一定程度上防止了M1型巨噬细胞过度激活而导致过度炎症反应。
总之,在免疫反应中M1和M2型巨噬细胞相互制约,基于精氨酸竞争在一定程度上维持免疫平衡[41],即当精氨酸充足时巨噬细胞倾向于向M2型极化;而在精氨酸缺乏时巨噬细胞极化则可能偏向M1型[20,39]。然而,M1型和M2型巨噬细胞的精氨酸竞争在应对炎症过程中的表现还有待进一步研究,这对开发新的炎症性疾病治疗策略具有重要的临床意义。
生物被膜在S. aureus感染宿主过程中发挥重要作用[42]。生物被膜是巨噬细胞精氨酸代谢的有效刺激物,能够激活氧化应激,并影响炎症相关因子的产生[43]。巨噬细胞作为宿主防御S. aureus感染的第一道防线[44],现有部分研究将工作重点集中在以精氨酸代谢为基础的宿主-病原互作上,以探究精氨酸在感染过程中的转化与转归[42,45]
Patil等[46]的研究发现,一种具有抗炎功能的TCA代谢产物衣康酸(itaconic acid, ITA)可通过重塑巨噬细胞代谢来支撑抗S. aureus的免疫效应;当巨噬细胞受到病原体刺激时被诱导高表达的iNOS以精氨酸为底物,持续催化生成大量的NO[47-48]。NO一方面发挥直接抗菌作用,另一方面作为关键信号分子参与调控细胞内多种代谢酶的活性[49]。其中就包括ITA生成的限速酶——乌头酸脱羧酶1 (aconitate decarboxylase 1, ACOD1),这为后续调控ITA生成奠定了基础[49]。ITA在线粒体基质中借助ACOD1由顺乌头酸(cis-aconitate)转化而来,竞争性结合SDH的活性位点,导致琥珀酸在胞内适度积累,使得糖酵解关键酶与iNOS的表达上调,为吞噬体成熟、生成活性氧(reactive oxygen species, ROS)提供能量;且iNOS 生成的NO可直接抑制 S. aureus的呼吸链。为了协同增强巨噬细胞的抗菌效应,ITA生成后又可通过抑制SDH稳定缺氧诱导因子-1α (hypoxia-inducible factor-1 alpha, HIF-1α)来上调iNOS的表达,进一步促进精氨酸向NO转化[49]。相关研究表明,ITA对SDH的抑制强度较NO弱,这可避免琥珀酸过度积累导致的氧化应激损伤,维持巨噬细胞代谢稳态[50-51]
ITA还可通过激活谷氨酰胺酶1 (glutaminase 1, GLS1),促进谷氨酰胺分解为谷氨酸,进而转化为α-酮戊二酸回补TCA。不仅如此,这一过程可以通过α-酮戊二酸增强iNOS催化活性以此生成大量的NO,还可以通过磷酸戊糖途径为ROS生成提供还原型烟酰胺腺嘌呤二核苷酸磷酸(nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate, NADPH),由此形成从ITA促进谷氨酸代谢增强到巨噬细胞抗S. aureus能力提升的级联效应[52]
巨噬细胞并非仅通过吞噬作用杀灭细菌,还回收胞内死亡细菌的氨基酸、碳骨架等物质,作为自身免疫代谢的营养源与信号调节分子,利用胞内死亡细菌的氨基酸等物质来重塑免疫代谢,调整免疫反应[53]。这是因为死亡细菌来源的精氨酸、赖氨酸等氨基酸可快速整合入巨噬细胞自身蛋白质(如糖酵解酶、先天免疫相关蛋白);同时,细菌碳骨架还可定向掺入抗炎代谢物ITA,使ITA含量升高3倍,为后续炎症消退奠定代谢基础[54]
鉴于精氨酸代谢在S. aureus和巨噬细胞中均具有关键作用,在感染S. aureus的巨噬细胞中二者可能存在争夺利用精氨酸的现象[53]。精氨酸浓度存在明确的下限阈值,当精氨酸浓度高于约100 μmol/L时脂多糖(lipopolysaccharide, LPS)和γ干扰素(interferon-gamma, IFN-γ)等信号分子诱导NOS激活,介导具有促炎和抗感染功能的M1型巨噬细胞活化。然而,当胞外精氨酸浓度低于该阈值时,即便有LPS和IFN-γ刺激,NOS也无法正常催化NO合成,M1型巨噬细胞的促炎因子分泌、病原体杀伤等活化功能会彻底受阻,甚至因活性氧积累损伤自身功能[4,55]。M1型巨噬细胞通过利用精氨酸合成NO,进而促进TNF-α、IL-6等促炎细胞因子的分泌,协助招募更多的免疫细胞到感染部位,实现抗S. aureus的效果[56-57]。同时,巨噬细胞也可利用缬氨酸激活PI3K/Akt1通路,并通过抑制ARG活性来促进NO的产生[57]。然而,S. aureus也可通过NOS将精氨酸代谢生成NO,保护细菌细胞免受ROS的伤害[57]。一方面,NO与Fe²⁺反应生成Fe-NO复合物(如亚硝基铁复合物Fe-NO),从而减少铁离子的可用性,抑制芬顿反应的发生,降低羟基自由基的生成[56];另一方面,NO激活了细菌中超氧化物歧化酶(superoxide dismutase, SOD)、过氧化氢酶(catalase, CAT)和谷胱甘肽过氧化物酶(glutathione peroxidase, GPx)等抗氧化酶系统,对ROS进行清除,使其免受氧化损伤[57]
在有限的精氨酸条件下,S. aureus和巨噬细胞互为对手,演绎着一场精氨酸争夺战。遗憾的是,由于以精氨酸代谢为基础的S. aureus和巨噬细胞相互作用机制目前仍处于探索初期,多数研究均基于体外细胞模型,其在体内复杂微环境中的动态变化及功能还需要未来更多系统性的数据支撑(图6)。
当巨噬细胞争夺精氨酸失败时,一方面,巨噬细胞会因缺少精氨酸而偏向于M2型极化,导致NOS途径被抑制,NO、ROS的含量显著降低[57-58];另一方面,S. aureus会利用成功争夺到的外源性精氨酸来提高感染和抵抗免疫攻击的能力,并通过诱导精氨酸酶1 (arginase 1, Arg1)表达从而逃逸M1型巨噬细胞的杀伤,最终增强自身生存能力[59-61]
S. aureus争夺精氨酸失败时巨噬细胞将会获得充足的精氨酸供应,进而激活NOS途径产生更多的NO和ROS,并促进巨噬细胞向M1型极化来清除胞内菌,这对于机体的免疫应答和免疫维持更为有利。与此同时,巨噬细胞胞内的S. aureus则会难以抵抗M1型巨噬细胞的清除[62]
Lesbats等[53]基于免疫代谢的宿主-病原互作机制,揭示了巨噬细胞胞内细菌的另一种命运,即细菌胞内氨基酸被巨噬细胞回收利用,这一思路对于抗感染治疗策略具有重要价值并且精氨酸在该过程的转归也非常值得深入探究。总而言之,精氨酸作为调控免疫系统的重要物质,在S. aureus和巨噬细胞的斗争中扮演着关键的中间角色。于巨噬细胞而言,精氨酸不仅为抗菌的免疫过程提供支持,还平衡了M1型和M2型巨噬细胞的转化,避免过度的免疫应答对机体造成的伤害[57-58]。然而,S. aureus又能够通过合适的精氨酸浓度支持来形成生物被膜以及产生抗生素耐受性,以抵御环境中的危险因素[8,25-26]。因此,在巨噬细胞与S. aureus的相互作用中聚焦精氨酸的代谢平衡对于开发新的炎症性疾病治疗策略具有重要的临床意义。
近年来研究发现,细菌的代谢状态与其对药物的敏感性存在密切关联,外源添加丙氨酸、葡萄糖等代谢物可通过调控细菌代谢通路恢复多重耐药菌对卡那霉素的敏感性[63];而针对S. aureus,过量添加精氨酸不仅能有效抑制其生物膜形成,还可阻断其自身精氨酸代谢通路,进而逆转其耐药表型,恢复其对万古霉素的敏感性[64]
随着代谢重要性的日益凸显,代谢产物在病原-宿主互作中的作用也越来越受到关注[65-66]。邓凯红等[67]发现靶向ArgR可逆转S. aureus的耐药性和生物膜形成。因此,结合精氨酸代谢在S. aureus-巨噬细胞中的调节与平衡[58-61],认为靶向精氨酸代谢在抗S. aureus感染中具有巨大潜力。目前,许多研究分别在体内或体外研究中发现,针对S. aureus不仅可以通过添加大量精氨酸抑制缺氧条件下其毒力的高表达[68];还可以使用抗菌介质或将调控精氨酸合成的关键蛋白(如ArgR、ArgH)作为抑制靶点抑制精氨酸合成,使S. aureus可能因无法形成生物被膜而丧失耐药性[12,21,69-71]。具备speG基因的S. aureus对多胺的减毒也为生物被膜与耐药性的形成提供了有效基础,并通过调配精氨酸代谢系统使精氨酸向有利于S. aureus存活与感染的方向进行[16]。目前,已有学者使用明胶复合纳米系统(Arg-PCN@Gel),通过级联反应产生ROS、NO和过氧亚硝基阴离子(ONOO-)等多种活性物质,驱动精氨酸产生的NO作为信号分子用于增强宿主免疫力,协同预防和损伤生物被膜;并在小鼠皮下耐甲氧西林金黄色葡萄球菌(methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus, MRSA)生物被膜感染模型中进行了系统评价,证明精氨酸可协助机体免疫从促炎阶段转化为抗炎阶段,以促进伤口愈合[31,71]
Lesbats等[53]提出的巨噬细胞回收利用细菌氨基酸的思路对于胞内抗感染治疗策略具有重要价值,未来在巨噬细胞或其他抗S. aureus感染的治疗中有望取得突破。随着细菌精氨酸代谢机制被不断清晰阐述,调控精氨酸代谢有望成为抑制以S. aureus为代表的病原菌感染的新策略,但该策略的深入研究取决于对细菌-宿主代谢互作的深入理解。未来需要结合微生物学、免疫学和代谢组学等研究手段开展跨学科合作,探索精氨酸代谢在S. aureus感染以及在巨噬细胞极化过程中的详细机制,全面理解精氨酸在感染免疫中的复杂作用,推动这一领域从基础研究向临床转化。这一领域的发展也将进一步揭示宿主与细菌之间复杂的免疫和代谢关系,未来有望通过代谢重编程、代谢产物的直接作用、代谢状态的调控等提供以调节细菌代谢为核心的新的抗菌策略,为改善人类健康和防治疾病作出重要贡献。
  • 国家自然科学基金(32170191)
  • 湖北省自然科学基金(2025AFB789)
  • 宜昌市医疗卫生研究项目(B23-2-011)
  • 宜昌市医疗卫生研究项目(B24-2-012)
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2026年第66卷第3期
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doi: 10.13343/j.cnki.wsxb.20250563
  • 接收时间:2025-07-22
  • 首发时间:2026-03-12
  • 出版时间:2026-03-04
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  • 收稿日期:2025-07-22
  • 录用日期:2025-12-05
基金
National Natural Science Foundation of China(32170191)
国家自然科学基金(32170191)
Hubei Provincial Natural Science Foundation(2025AFB789)
湖北省自然科学基金(2025AFB789)
Yichang Healthcare Research Project(B23-2-011)
宜昌市医疗卫生研究项目(B23-2-011)
Yichang Healthcare Research Project(B24-2-012)
宜昌市医疗卫生研究项目(B24-2-012)
作者信息
    1.三峡大学附属第二人民医院&宜昌市第二人民医院,湖北省老年胃肠癌精准防治临床医学研究中心,湖北 宜昌
    2.三峡大学 基础医学院,肿瘤微环境与免疫治疗湖北省重点实验室,宜昌市感染与炎症损伤重点实验室,湖北 宜昌
    3.三峡大学附属夷陵医院&宜昌市夷陵人民医院,湖北 宜昌

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2种不同金属材料的力学参数

Family
属数
Number of
genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of
total species (%)

Genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of total
species (%)
鹅膏菌科Amanitaceae 2 11 5.26 鹅膏菌属 Amanita 10 4.78
小菇科 Mycenaceae 2 12 5.74 丝盖伞属 Inocybe 5 2.39
多孔菌科 Polyporaceae 8 14 6.70 蜡蘑属 Laccaria 5 2.39
红菇科 Russulaceae 3 23 11.00 小皮伞属 Marasmius 6 2.87
小菇属 Mycena 11 5.26
光柄菇属 Pluteus 5 2.39
红菇属 Russula 17 8.13
栓菌属 Trametes 5 2.39
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