Article(id=1226554097130717322, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, issueId=1226554095926952065, articleNumber=null, orderNo=null, doi=10.13343/j.cnki.wsxb.20240858, pmid=null, cstr=null, oa=null, hot=null, price=null, onlineType=0, articleFormat=0, articleType=null, articleTypeStr=research-article, receivedDate=1735574400000, receivedDateStr=2024-12-31, revisedDate=null, revisedDateStr=null, acceptedDate=1741622400000, acceptedDateStr=2025-03-11, onlineDate=1770362885029, onlineDateStr=2026-02-06, pubDate=1751558400000, pubDateStr=2025-07-04, doiRegisterDate=null, doiRegisterDateStr=null, onlineIssueDate=1770362885029, onlineIssueDateStr=2026-02-06, onlineJustAcceptDate=null, onlineJustAcceptDateStr=null, onlineFirstDate=null, onlineFirstDateStr=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, createTime=1770362885029, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1770362885029, updator=13701087609, issue=Issue{id=1226554095926952065, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, year='2025', volume='65', issue='7', pageStart='2771', pageEnd='3233', issueExtLink='null', onlineDate='null', pubDate='null', beforeIssueId=null, nextIssueId=null, price=null, status=1, issueComplete=1, articleOrder=1, issueType=-1, specialIssue=null, createTime=1770362884741, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1770363575040, updator=13701087609, preIssue=null, nextIssue=null, ext={EN=IssueExt(id=1226556991309529548, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, issueId=1226554095926952065, language=EN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=), CN=IssueExt(id=1226556991309529549, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, issueId=1226554095926952065, language=CN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=)}, issueFiles=null}, startPage=2841, endPage=2853, ext={EN=ArticleExt(id=1226554097386569870, articleId=1226554097130717322, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, language=EN, title=Research progress in the role of hydroxylamine in the nitrogen cycle and its impact on N2O emissions, columnId=1192149543727808575, journalTitle=Acta Microbiologica Sinica, columnName=Review, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

Hydroxylamine, as an important intermediate product in the nitrogen cycle, connects ammonia oxidation and nitrite oxidation, influencing the velocities and directions of processes like ammonia oxidation, nitrite oxidation, and denitrification. Because of the close associations with the generation of N2O through enzymatic reactions and self-decomposition or reactions with other substances, hydroxylamine has become a focus and hotspot of research. This paper summarized the generation and transformation of hydroxylamine in autotrophic and heterotrophic ammonia oxidation, the key role of hydroxylamine in the nitrogen cycle, and the promoting effect of hydroxylamine on N2O emissions. It analyzed the processes of autotrophic and heterotrophic ammonia oxidation and their enzymatic differences, aiming to provide a theoretical reference for in-depth research on the role of hydroxylamine in the microbial nitrogen cycle and for the research and development of measures to reduce N2O emissions and protect the atmospheric environment.

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*Tel: +86-23-68251249, E-mail:
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羟胺作为氮循环的重要中间产物,连接氨氧化和亚硝态氮氧化过程,影响着氨氧化、亚硝态氮氧化、反硝化等过程的速度与方向,并通过相关酶促反应、自身分解或与其他物质反应与氧化亚氮(nitrous oxide, N2O)的产生密切相关,已成为研究的重点和热点。本文总结了羟胺在自养和异养氨氧化过程中的生成与转化、在氮循环中的关键作用以及对N2O排放的促进作用,分析了自养和异养氨氧化过程及其酶学差异,为深入研究羟胺在微生物氮循环中的作用机制、研发N2O减排措施和保护大气环境提供了理论参考。

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作者贡献声明

刘拓宏:查询文献,撰写文章并修改;杨裕然:文章修改;杨圆圆:图片、文章修改;李振轮:文章选题与设计,撰写文章,指导并修改文章,校稿、指导回答编辑部问题,课题支撑;陈益:文章修改。

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Environmental Science & Technology, 2023, 57(7): 2970-2980., articleTitle=Contribution of ammonium-induced nitrifier denitrification to N2O in paddy fields, refAbstract=null)], funds=[Fund(id=1227681723299853309, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, articleId=1226554097130717322, awardId=42077217, language=EN, fundingSource=National Natural Science Foundation of China(42077217), fundOrder=null, country=null), Fund(id=1227681723417292812, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, articleId=1226554097130717322, awardId=42077217, language=CN, fundingSource=国家自然科学基金(42077217), fundOrder=null, country=null)], companyList=[AuthorCompany(id=1227681717754983010, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, articleId=1226554097130717322, xref=null, ext=[AuthorCompanyExt(id=1227681717775954532, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, articleId=1226554097130717322, companyId=1227681717754983010, language=EN, country=null, province=null, city=null, postcode=null, companyName=null, departmentName=null, remark=Chongqing Key Laboratory of Interface Process and Soil Health, College of Resources and Environment, Southwest University, Chongqing, China), AuthorCompanyExt(id=1227681717780148838, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, articleId=1226554097130717322, companyId=1227681717754983010, language=CN, country=null, province=null, city=null, postcode=null, companyName=null, departmentName=null, remark=西南大学 资源环境学院,重庆市界面过程与土壤健康重点实验室,重庆)])], figs=[ArticleFig(id=1227681722272248726, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, articleId=1226554097130717322, language=EN, label=Figure 1, caption=Schematic diagram of AMO of autotrophic ammonia oxidizing bacteria. figures A, B, and C respectively show the schematic diagrams of the AMO structures of AOA, AOB, and complete ammonia oxidizers (Comammox). AmoA, AmoB, and AmoC (yellow) are conserved and form a trimer (AmoABC). AmoB and AmoC contain copper ion-binding sites, which are conserved in ammonia-oxidizing archaea (AOA) and ammonia-oxidizing bacteria (AOB). A: AmoX (in red), AmoY (in green), and AmoZ (in purple) are the putative auxiliary proteins of archaeal AMO, respectively. B: AmoD (in blue) and AmoE (in purple) are the auxiliary proteins found in AOB, respectively. C: AmoD′ (in dark blue), and AmoE′ (in dark purple) are the homologues of AmoD and AmoE found in Comammox, respectively., figureFileSmall=OPgH8dqVX2DB5dL/asDBfg==, figureFileBig=jUlQR6HgCUKmswna7dPmDA==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1227681722385494948, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, articleId=1226554097130717322, language=CN, label=图1, caption=自养氨氧化菌AMO结构示意图。A、B、C分别表示AOA、AOB、Comammox的AMO结构示意图。AmoA、AmoB和AmoC (黄色)保守,形成三聚体(AmoABC)。AmoB和AmoC含有铜离子结合位点,在AOA和AOB中是保守的。A:AmoX (红色)、AmoY (绿色)和AmoZ (紫色)是推测的古菌AMO辅助蛋白;B:AmoD (蓝色)和AmoE (紫色)是AOB中发现的辅助蛋白;C:AmoD′ (深蓝色)和AmoE′ (深紫色)是Comammox中发现的AmoD和AmoE的同系物。, figureFileSmall=OPgH8dqVX2DB5dL/asDBfg==, figureFileBig=jUlQR6HgCUKmswna7dPmDA==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1227681722515518383, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, articleId=1226554097130717322, language=EN, label=Figure 2, caption=The generation and transformation processes of hydroxylamine in the aerobic ammonia oxidation by AOA and the related enzymes[8]., figureFileSmall=D2M/9qJu3xZwaDG4zZbJTA==, figureFileBig=jZPfdLaxo33qL//1LMoGvw==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1227681722645541820, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, articleId=1226554097130717322, language=CN, label=图2, caption=羟胺在AOA好氧氨氧化中的生成与转化过程及相关酶[8], figureFileSmall=D2M/9qJu3xZwaDG4zZbJTA==, figureFileBig=jZPfdLaxo33qL//1LMoGvw==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1227681722758788036, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, articleId=1226554097130717322, language=EN, label=Figure 3, caption=The generation and transformation of hydroxylamine in ammonia oxidation by AOB and Comammox and the related enzymes., figureFileSmall=HxFVCrVjAT3TKz3KabnGGg==, figureFileBig=J+nSxiiioEcl/Kk7thZIRg==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1227681722880422864, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, articleId=1226554097130717322, language=CN, label=图3, caption=羟胺在AOBComammox氨氧化中的生成与转化及相关酶, figureFileSmall=HxFVCrVjAT3TKz3KabnGGg==, figureFileBig=J+nSxiiioEcl/Kk7thZIRg==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1227681722981086170, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, articleId=1226554097130717322, language=EN, label=Table 1, caption=

Hydroxylamine in HAOB and the genes and enzymes related to its generation and transformation

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
MicroorganismsamoAAMONH2OHhaoHAOReference
Alcaligenes faecalis strain NR-++[33]
Arthrobacter arilaitensis++[34]
Arthrobacter sp. HHEP5++[35]
Acinetobacter sp. ND7-+[36]
Acinetobacter junii YB++[37]
Pseudomonas aeruginosa P-1+++[38]
Sphingomonas sp. YY2++[39]
Klebsiella sp. KSND--[40-41]
Bacillus sp. K5+[42]
Thauera sp. SND5---[43]
Sporidiobolus pararoseus Y1+[44]
Streptomyces mediolani EM-B2+-+[45]
Pseudomonas sp. JQ-H3++++[46]
), ArticleFig(id=1227681723115303913, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, articleId=1226554097130717322, language=CN, label=表1, caption=

HAOB中的羟胺及其生成和转化有关的基因和酶

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
MicroorganismsamoAAMONH2OHhaoHAOReference
Alcaligenes faecalis strain NR-++[33]
Arthrobacter arilaitensis++[34]
Arthrobacter sp. HHEP5++[35]
Acinetobacter sp. ND7-+[36]
Acinetobacter junii YB++[37]
Pseudomonas aeruginosa P-1+++[38]
Sphingomonas sp. YY2++[39]
Klebsiella sp. KSND--[40-41]
Bacillus sp. K5+[42]
Thauera sp. SND5---[43]
Sporidiobolus pararoseus Y1+[44]
Streptomyces mediolani EM-B2+-+[45]
Pseudomonas sp. JQ-H3++++[46]
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羟胺在氮循环中的作用及其影响N2O排放的研究进展
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刘拓宏 , 杨裕然 , 杨圆圆 , 李振轮 , 陈益
微生物学报 | 综述 2025,65(7): 2841-2853
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微生物学报 | 综述 2025, 65(7): 2841-2853
羟胺在氮循环中的作用及其影响N2O排放的研究进展
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刘拓宏, 杨裕然, 杨圆圆, 李振轮 , 陈益
作者信息
  • 西南大学 资源环境学院,重庆市界面过程与土壤健康重点实验室,重庆
Research progress in the role of hydroxylamine in the nitrogen cycle and its impact on N2O emissions
Tuohong LIU, Yuran YANG, Yuanyuan YANG, Zhenlun LI , Yi CHEN
Affiliations
  • Chongqing Key Laboratory of Interface Process and Soil Health, College of Resources and Environment, Southwest University, Chongqing, China
出版时间: 2025-07-04 doi: 10.13343/j.cnki.wsxb.20240858
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羟胺作为氮循环的重要中间产物,连接氨氧化和亚硝态氮氧化过程,影响着氨氧化、亚硝态氮氧化、反硝化等过程的速度与方向,并通过相关酶促反应、自身分解或与其他物质反应与氧化亚氮(nitrous oxide, N2O)的产生密切相关,已成为研究的重点和热点。本文总结了羟胺在自养和异养氨氧化过程中的生成与转化、在氮循环中的关键作用以及对N2O排放的促进作用,分析了自养和异养氨氧化过程及其酶学差异,为深入研究羟胺在微生物氮循环中的作用机制、研发N2O减排措施和保护大气环境提供了理论参考。

羟胺  /  酶学  /  氮循环  /  氧化亚氮

Hydroxylamine, as an important intermediate product in the nitrogen cycle, connects ammonia oxidation and nitrite oxidation, influencing the velocities and directions of processes like ammonia oxidation, nitrite oxidation, and denitrification. Because of the close associations with the generation of N2O through enzymatic reactions and self-decomposition or reactions with other substances, hydroxylamine has become a focus and hotspot of research. This paper summarized the generation and transformation of hydroxylamine in autotrophic and heterotrophic ammonia oxidation, the key role of hydroxylamine in the nitrogen cycle, and the promoting effect of hydroxylamine on N2O emissions. It analyzed the processes of autotrophic and heterotrophic ammonia oxidation and their enzymatic differences, aiming to provide a theoretical reference for in-depth research on the role of hydroxylamine in the microbial nitrogen cycle and for the research and development of measures to reduce N2O emissions and protect the atmospheric environment.

hydroxylamine  /  enzymology  /  nitrogen cycle  /  nitrous oxide
刘拓宏, 杨裕然, 杨圆圆, 李振轮, 陈益. 羟胺在氮循环中的作用及其影响N2O排放的研究进展. 微生物学报, 2025 , 65 (7) : 2841 -2853 . DOI: 10.13343/j.cnki.wsxb.20240858
Tuohong LIU, Yuran YANG, Yuanyuan YANG, Zhenlun LI, Yi CHEN. Research progress in the role of hydroxylamine in the nitrogen cycle and its impact on N2O emissions[J]. Acta Microbiologica Sinica, 2025 , 65 (7) : 2841 -2853 . DOI: 10.13343/j.cnki.wsxb.20240858
氮是地球上重要的生命元素,以不同形态存在于多种场景中。氮循环通过固氮、硝化、反硝化、厌氧氨氧化、硝酸盐异化还原为铵以及氮固持等多种途径,维持着地球上不同氮形态的平衡。微生物在这些过程中发挥着主导作用,例如自养硝化过程需要氨氧化细菌(ammonia-oxidizing bacteria, AOB)和亚硝酸盐氧化细菌(nitrite-oxidizing bacteria, NOB)共同参与。
羟胺(NH2OH)作为氮循环中非常重要的中间产物[1],早在20世纪50年代就被发现,但早期研究主要集中在它能否为微生物提供生长能量。最近的研究发现,羟胺能够促进微生物氮循环中N2O的排放[2],并且羟胺可以通过自身分解或与其他物质反应生成N2O[3],从而受到广泛关注。
N2O虽然在大气中的含量较低,但其寿命较长(110-125年),且增温潜势分别约为CO2的273倍和CH4的10倍,因此N2O是继CO2和CH4之后的第三大重要温室气体[4-5]。目前全球N2O排放量约为11 Tg/年(8.1-30.7 Tg/年),在过去40年中,N2O排放量增加了约30%[6]。农业活动、工业生产以及废物处理等是N2O排放的主要来源,其中农业土壤N2O排放占比最大,估算占全球N2O排放总量的50%-60%[7],而微生物硝化作用是N2O排放的主要来源之一。因此,研究微生物氮循环过程中的N2O排放,对于人为调控N2O减排、减缓温室效应、保护大气环境健康具有重要意义。
本文从羟胺转化及相关酶、羟胺在氮循环中的重要作用、羟胺促进N2O排放等3个方面,综合分析了羟胺的生成与转化及其在N2O形成中的作用,以期为进一步理解羟胺在氮循环中的地位、研发N2O减排的调控技术措施提供理论参考。
在自养氨氧化过程中,AOB、氨氧化古菌(ammonia-oxidizing archaea, AOA)和全程氨氧化细菌(complete ammonia oxidizing, Comammox)均利用氨单加氧酶(ammonia monooxygenase, AMO)将氨氧化为羟胺[8-10]。例如,AOB菌株欧洲亚硝化单胞菌(Nitrosomonas europaea) ATCC 19718在好氧条件下利用AMO将氨氧化为羟胺[11]。AOA中的Candidatus Nitrosocosmicus franklandus C13菌株同样利用AMO将氨氧化为羟胺[9]Nitrospira inopinata作为最早发现的Comammox菌株,同样是利用AMO将氨氧化为羟胺[12]。因此,羟胺是自养氨氧化过程中的必经中间产物。氨氧化为羟胺的过程中消耗2个电子和2个氢离子,生成1个水分子,如公式(1)所示。
NH3+O2+2e-+2H+NH2OH+H2O
AMO是一种铜依赖性多聚体跨膜酶,属于铜依赖性膜单加氧酶超家族[13]。虽然AOB、AOA和Comammox均利用AMO将氨氧化为羟胺,但不同自养氨氧化菌的AMO结构并不完全相同。尽管在3类自养氨氧化菌的AMO蛋白中均发现有amoCamoAamoB 3个亚基,且都是按照amoCAB的顺序排列在同一操纵子中[12,14-15],但Comammox的AmoA不同于AOB和AOA,而属于一个新型分支“comammox AmoA clade A”,与AOB的同源物相关[12]。此外,不同种类的氨氧化菌还存在其他相关亚基。例如,在AOB中存在AmoD和AmoE[16];AOA的AMO中存在特异性的AmoX、AmoY、AmoZ[17-18] (图1),AOA与AOB的AMO亚基仅有约40%的相似性[19];而最早发现的Comammox中N. inopinata的AMO亚基更为复杂,仅含有与AmoD和AmoE膜蛋白相似的同系物[12]。不同的特异性亚基导致不同AMO的结构也不同。同样地,在AMO活性位点方面,有研究表明其位于AmoB和AmoC亚基上[20],然而AmoX等特异性亚基是否同样具有活性位点及其对AMO活性的影响还有待进一步探究。
在自养氨氧化过程中,通常认为第二步是羟胺在羟胺氧化还原酶(hydroxylamine oxidoreductase, HAO)的作用下转化为NO2-,并产生4个电子,如公式(2)所示[21]。然而,最新研究发现HAO的直接产物是NO而非NO2-,羟胺在HAO和细胞色素P460的共同作用下被氧化为NO,并生成3个电子,如公式(3)所示[22]。随后,NO在一氧化氮氧化还原酶(nitric oxide oxidoreductase, NOO)作用或非生物歧化作用下转化为NO2-,并产生1个电子,如公式(4)所示。尽管如此,在AOB中尚未直接发现NOO,因此研究者提出了2种可能行使NOO功能的酶:由ncyA编码的亚硝基蓝蛋白(nitrosocyanin, NcyA)和由nirK编码的反向操作的含铜异化亚硝酸还原酶(copper nitrite reductase, Cu-NirK)[19]ncyA是AOB特有的,与氨氧化过程中的其他酶共同高表达[23],表明其可能是除AMO和HAO之外的另一种重要的氨氧化相关酶。nirK在一些AOB中并非生长必需基因,例如敲除了nirK基因的N. europaea仍能正常生长[24]。因此,对于AOB中行使NO氧化至NO2-功能的酶,仍需进一步探究。
NH2OH+H2ONO2-+4e-+5H+
NH2OHNO+3H++3e-
NO+H2ONO2-+2H++1e-
AMO在所有已知的AOA中都是保守的,但目前尚未鉴定出HAO或其同源物[21],且AOA不具备完全合成C型血红素的基因库。因此,AOA对羟胺的氧化具有独特的酶学特性。目前有2种可能的中心氮代谢模式:(1) 铜基金属酶复合物(the copper-based metalloenzyme complex, Cu-ME)利用NO和羟胺形成2个分子的亚硝酸盐,随后由NirK酶参与亚硝酸盐向NO的转化;(2) 由Cu-ME和NirK 2种酶连续将羟胺氧化为亚硝酸盐,NO作为中间产物(图2)[8]。研究者已在AOA基因组中鉴定出大量含铜结构域蛋白[17],因此基于铜的电子传递系统的假设是合理的。此外,铜依赖的NirK酶能够催化羟胺转化为NO,并且同时具有将NO2-转化为NO的能力[25]。然而,AOA与AOB的NirK酶相似度较低,其在AOA氧化羟胺过程中的具体作用尚不清楚。因此,AOA氧化羟胺的具体过程及酶学特性仍需进一步研究。
通过全基因组以及宏基因组的组装基因组分析发现,Comammox基因组包含氨和亚硝酸盐氧化所需的全部基因[26]。据此推断羟胺在HAO的作用下被氧化为NO。然而,其HAO的结构与酶学特征尚不明确,其活性位点是否与AOB相似仍有待验证。此外,Comammox氨氧化过程中的NO氧化也是一个关键问题,目前尚未发现行使NOO酶功能的基因,但在全基因组中发现了nirK基因[27],或许在NO氧化为NO2-的过程中发挥了作用。Comammox生物N. inopinata产生NO作为氨氧化的中间体。总之,Comammox具有利用HAO和NirK酶氧化羟胺的能力(图3),但其具体结构和转化过程尚不明确。
异养氨氧化菌(heterotrophic ammonium oxidizing bacteria, HAOB)早在100多年前就有报道。近年来,由于其在酸性土壤氨氧化及N2O排放中具有重要贡献,受到广泛关注[28]。大量HAOB在水田、废水处理厂、养殖场等环境中被分离出[29-31]。尽管有些HAOB的氮转化途径与传统自养氨氧化菌相似,但大多数HAOB的氮转化途径与自养菌不同[29,32]。异养氨氧化的底物广泛且常与反硝化过程耦合,使其氮代谢过程更为复杂。目前对其氨氧化途径的研究多基于不同底物、代谢产物、功能酶活性以及相关基因的综合分析。
羟胺并不是所有HAOB氨氧化过程的中间产物(表1),例如米兰链霉菌(Streptomyces mediolani) EM-B2[45]、恶臭假单胞菌(Pseudomonas putida) Y-9[47]和不动杆菌(Acinetobacter sp.) ND7[48]的氨氧化过程中均未检测到羟胺。在由羟胺生成的HAOB中,并不确定是否由AMO催化氨产生羟胺。早在20世纪末就有研究发现用于检测自养氨氧化菌AMO的PCR引物并不适用于HAOB[48],表明HAOB的氨氧化催化酶基因存在较大差异。例如,编码P. denitrificans的AMO的基因与编码AOB的AMO的基因差异很大[32]。目前在部分HAOB中发现了AMO的amoA亚基[39,46] (表1),但其他亚基与AOB并不相同。总体而言,大多数HAOB的氨氧化酶具有与传统AMO不同的结构与特性,相关基因也有所不同。因此,异养氨氧化过程并非都由AMO催化,而大部分是AMO的同源物。HAOB利用AMO的同源物将氨氧化为羟胺,与AOB类似,HAOB以氨为底物,在好氧条件下将氨氧化为羟胺,消耗2个电子。不少HAOB并无amoA基因,但确实检测到了羟胺的存在[33],目前尚不清楚起催化作用的具体的功能蛋白。综上所述,羟胺是部分异养氨氧化过程的中间产物,但并不是所有HAOB都能产生羟胺,此外,羟胺的产生并非都由AMO而是其同源物催化的。HAOB与AOB的氨氧化酶基因及其结构的差异性还有待进一步探究。
目前,在以羟胺作为好氧氨氧化过程中间体的大多数HAOB中,均检测出HAO酶活性(表1),据此可确定HAO在HAOB中是存在的。对于大部分HAOB,羟胺被HAO或其同源酶转化为NO2-,这一过程已经被证实[49-51]。在多种HAOB中检测到了hao基因或者HAO的同源物,但具体作用过程并不清楚。部分HAOB中检测到了羟胺氧化酶活性,但并未发现有hao基因,因此编码其羟胺氧化酶的基因仍不清楚。总体而言,部分HAOB是利用HAO或其同源物将羟胺氧化的。至于HAOB的HAO在结构方面存在哪些异同点,它们的酶活位点是否一致,以及是否存在其他能够促进羟胺氧化的酶类,这些问题尚有待研究,从而更为全面、准确地阐释HAOB中氨氧化的酶学机制及路径。
羟胺是硝化作用的中间产物,连接了氨氧化和亚硝酸盐氧化这2个过程,无羟胺的生成与转化,硝化作用也就无法正常进行。此外,羟胺氧化为亚硝酸盐的过程是放能过程,这对于硝化细菌获取能量、维持正常生命活动以及进行后续反应都至关重要。
羟胺对大多数细菌具有毒性效应,这种毒性会导致细菌活性降低[52]。然而,在1994年的一项研究中发现,不同种类的AOB能够在羟胺与铵的混合营养条件下实现生长,而且当以羟胺和铵的混合物作为基质时,AOB的实验生长产量超出了理论预期值[53],这意味着在羟胺与铵混合营养的情况下,会对AOB的生长产生促进作用。此后,又有研究者发现,从外部添加羟胺确实能够加快铵的初始吸收速率[54]。关于羟胺促进AOB活性的机制,一种推测是其毒性使细胞的原有形态发生改变,使得细胞表面积增大,从而有利于铵的吸收,此外羟胺转化为亚硝酸盐产生的电子会循环回到AMO中,从而提升该酶的活性,最终促进铵的吸收过程[55]。另一种可能源于微生物群落之间的相互作用[56]。例如,在污水脱氮研究中,当处于1.0 mg/L的羟胺水平时,NOB的活性受到抑制,而AOB的活性得以增强,由此成功实现了AOB的富集。然而,在停止添加羟胺一段时间后,氨氧化速率以及总氮去除率均出现显著下降,表明羟胺对AOB活性的促进作用具有暂时性[57]。Sui等[58]也得到了类似的研究结果。
综合来看,外加羟胺可能通过增大细胞的表面积或微生物群落效应来促进氨氧化过程。目前尚未见AOB能以羟胺为单一氮源生长的报道,但有研究发现外加羟胺(10 mg/L)能够使AOB菌落解聚,从而形成单个细胞[55],这使得细胞活性更易受羟胺抑制。这暗示单独以羟胺为氮源会抑制AOB活性,因其无法从羟胺氧化过程中获取能量且羟胺具有毒性。
羟胺对亚硝酸盐氧化进程展现出显著的抑制作用,其原因可能是羟胺通过产生NO毒性抑制NOB[59],进而抑制NOB的生长与代谢。研究发现,添加5 mg/L羟胺时能够有效抑制NOB的活性[60],且这种抑制作用是可逆的。停止添加羟胺23 d后,NOB的丰度出现一定程度的恢复[61]
羟胺对不同种类的NOB会产生不同程度的抑制性差异,这可能是由于不同种类的NOB对羟胺的敏感程度不同。硝化杆菌属(Nitrobacter)和硝化螺旋菌属(Nitrospira)这两大NOB类群对羟胺的敏感程度截然不同。在添加等量羟胺的情况下,Nitrospira受抑制作用更强,数量下降了一半以上,优势种群结构从Nitrospira转变为Nitrobacter[62]
在污水处理的实际应用场景中,羟胺在抑制NOB活性的同时,还能够促进AOB的活性,这种协同作用有助于部分硝化过程的形成。这一特性对提高污水处理的效率以及降低处理成本具有重要意义,进而表明羟胺在优化污水处理工艺流程方面具有巨大的应用潜力,有望成为一种高效且经济的污水处理调控手段。
羟胺在反硝化进程中发挥着至关重要的作用,其主要通过2种途径加速反硝化速率:一是在电子传递层面,羟胺氧化释放电子并精准地输送至硝酸盐还原体系,促进电子传递速率的提升,为反硝化反应提供电子驱动力,推动反硝化进程[63];其二是从酶活性调控角度,外加羟胺靶向作用于硝酸还原酶(nitrate reductase, NR),增强其活性。控制NR合成的napAnarG基因在不同条件下分别起主导作用。在好氧环境中,羟胺主要作用于napA基因,通过一系列复杂的分子信号传导和代谢调控机制,促进其表达和活性提升;而在厌氧或缺氧的环境条件下,羟胺则更多地作用于narG基因,激发其活性,从而优化反硝化酶系的整体效能,以适应不同环境下的反硝化需求[64]
然而,部分研究者认为,羟胺对反硝化酶的促进作用主要是通过强化电子传递链来实现的。游离羟胺容易穿透细胞膜作用于电子传递链中的关键环节,增强电子传递效率和流畅性,最终实现对NR活性的有效提升[52]。这种基于电子传递链的调控机制,为深入理解羟胺在反硝化过程中的作用模式提供了新的视角和理论支撑,也进一步凸显了羟胺在微生物氮代谢领域的重要性和复杂性。
短程反硝化(partial denitrification, PD)是一个关键的生物过程,以硝酸根离子(NO3--N)作为电子受体,并将其还原为亚硝酸根离子(NO2--N)。生成的NO2--N可进一步参与厌氧氨氧化反应从而得以去除[65],该耦合工艺在污水处理和氮循环调控等领域备受关注[66]。研究发现,外源添加2 mg/L羟胺能够有效地促进NO2--N的积累,加速短程反硝化进程[63]。当环境中的羟胺含量达到0.5 mg/L这一阈值时,羟胺会通过特异性地抑制亚硝酸还原酶(nitrite reductase, NiR)及其电子传递模块(包括复合物Ⅲ和细胞色素c)的活性,阻断NO2-进一步还原的路径,使电子流向NR,诱导NO2-积累[67]。然而,羟胺对NO2-还原的抑制作用是可逆的。在羟胺的长期暴露条件下,反硝化过程会逐渐向短程反硝化方向转变,但当羟胺被耗尽后,NO2--N便会重新开始被消耗,反硝化过程也会随之恢复到常规状态[64]。因此,羟胺在短程反硝化与厌氧氨氧化耦合过程中具有巨大的应用潜力,其介导的形成机制对生物脱氮技术的发展具有重要的应用价值,可为高效氮素去除提供技术支撑。
羟胺不仅会被微生物氧化,还能够通过非生物氧化途径转化为N2O。研究发现,当土壤的pH值小于5.9时,羟胺容易发生质子化作用,进而形成NH3OH+,即非生物羟胺衍生的N2O排放与土壤pH值呈正相关[68]。在酸性土壤中,羟胺往往表现出更为稳定的化学特性,可阻碍N2O的产生,而在碱性土壤中,羟胺更易通过非生物过程产生N2O[69]。此外,土壤湿度对N2O排放也有重要影响。向湿润土壤中添加羟胺后,N2O排放的峰值明显增加[70]。这可能是由于硝酸盐还原过程中反硝化菌和NOB参与,羟胺抑制NOB导致亚硝酸盐积累,从而促使N2O排放增加[71]。总之,高含水量土壤可能是N2O排放的重点区域,后续研究和监测应重点关注。
前文已指出,外加羟胺会抑制NOB活性,从而引发NO2-积累。进一步研究发现,NO2-能够被亚铁离子(Fe2+)通过两步反应还原为N2O (NO2-→NO→N2O),且该还原机制是导致N2O排放的重要原因之一[72]。此外,早在1991年便有研究提出,Fe2+可将NO2-直接还原为N2O (6Fe2++2NO2-+5H2O→2Fe3O4+N2O+10H+),虽然这一反应通常难以发生但仍不可忽视其对N2O排放的贡献[73]。综合来看,NO2-的积累会促进N2O的排放,而羟胺的主要作用是提高NO2-积累量,为N2O生成提供底物基础。
此外,在反硝化作用途径中,NiR和一氧化氮还原酶(nitric oxide reductase, NOR)依次作用产生N2O,在低氧浓度下该途径占据主导地位;而在羟胺氧化途径中,HAO将羟胺氧化为NO,NO再经NOR转化为N2O,高氧浓度更有利于通过这一途径产生N2O[24]。羟胺在这些不同的N2O生成途径中起着不可或缺的关键作用,深刻地影响着整个体系中N2O的生成与排放动态,为深入理解微生物氮代谢过程中的气体排放机制提供了重要的理论依据和研究线索。
羟胺的化学分解过程会产生N2O[74]。在土壤体系中,AMO首先催化氨氧化反应生成羟胺,随后羟胺经化学分解转化为N2O。值得注意的是,灭菌土壤中羟胺分解所产生的N2O量远超出了NO2-自分解所产生的N2O量[75],由此可见,土壤中由羟胺分解产生的N2O可能占据了较大的比例。
部分研究者认为,NO2-和羟胺之间的相互作用以化学反应为主[3]。然而,也有研究发现,在无菌土壤中添加羟胺和NO2-后,N2O的产生量并未显著增加,而在无土壤的纯反应条件下N2O形成速率更快[3]。这就暗示着土壤中羟胺产生N2O的反应必然涉及其他途径。例如,羟胺与含铁化合物反应生成N2O的途径(4Fe3++2NH2OH→4Fe2++N2O+H2O+4H+)。
此外,羟胺还可被O2氧化或通过非生物歧化作用生成N2O,但该过程相较于上述羟胺与金属元素的反应生成N2O的速率要缓慢许多。然而,羟胺被O2氧化的速率还受到pH值的影响,当pH值小于3.0时,未观察到羟胺的氧化现象,仅在pH值较高时才会出现该反应[76]。总体而言,这2种反应与羟胺的分解以及金属元素的氧化相比速度较慢,羟胺的非生物反应虽然能够产生N2O,但对土壤中N2O排放的贡献相对较小[77]
目前,关于羟胺的非生物产N2O研究相对较少,主要由于土壤环境中生物和非生物途径产生的N2O难以区分,这可能导致对生物过程的高估,同时低估了非生物过程中N2O的产生及其重要性。针对这一问题,同位素标记法被应用于N2O产生途径的探究[78-80],该方法能够揭示不同来源的N2O量及其占比,对于N2O排放的来源探究具有重要意义。然而,该方法目前多在纯培养实验下进行,可能与自然条件下N2O的真实来源有较大差异。
羟胺作为微生物氮循环的关键中间体,广泛存在于自养氨氧化和部分异养氨氧化过程中。其中,AMO和HAO是参与羟胺生成与转化的关键酶。羟胺在微生物氮循环中发挥着重要作用:它能够促进氨的氧化,同时抑制亚硝酸盐的氧化;此外,羟胺还能加快反硝化速率,并促进短程反硝化的形成。然而,羟胺对N2O排放也具有一定的促进作用,这一过程主要受土壤条件、亚硝酸盐积累、羟胺自分解3个因素的影响。尽管如此,目前对羟胺在微生物氮循环中的研究仍存在一定局限性,未来可从以下 3个方面开展研究。
在不同的氨氧化菌中,羟胺的生成和转化过程存在差异。自养氨氧化菌通过AMO酶将氨氧化为羟胺,但不同自养氨氧化菌的AMO酶结构并不相同,尽管它们都含有AmoCAB亚基。与自养菌相比,HAOB的AMO在结构和功能上存在较大差异,且目前对其AMO的结构和功能的研究较少,仍需进一步探究其具体结构和功能。
羟胺的转化过程更为复杂,AOB通过HAO将羟胺氧化为NO,AOA和Comammox氧化羟胺的具体酶尚不清楚,但NO是羟胺氧化的中间产物。HAOB中也含有HAO,可能是通过HAO将羟胺氧化。然而,HAOB和自养氨氧化菌的HAO在结构和功能上的差异仍需进一步探究。
羟胺对细胞具有毒性,因此它能够通过影响微生物活性进而影响氮循环过程。低浓度的羟胺能够促进AOB的活性,同时抑制NOB的活性。在污水处理过程中,这可能导致亚硝酸盐的积累,从而促进厌氧氨氧化途径的除氮作用,有助于污水处理的高效化和经济化,其在调节污水处理过程中具有很大的潜力。此外,外加羟胺能够通过提高NR酶活性、抑制NiR酶活性来提高反硝化速率,同时促进PD过程,进而提高生物脱氮效率。然而,在实际应用中,需要精准控制羟胺的添加量,并且需要定时监测微生物硝化/反硝化进程,这对于污水脱氮处理而言是一个巨大的挑战。
羟胺能够促进N2O的产生,这一过程包括生物和非生物反应。尽管目前认为土壤环境中微生物硝化产生的N2O占比较大,但由于技术限制,生物和非生物产生N2O的量难以区分。同位素标记法已被用于相关研究,但大多在纯培养条件下进行,与自然条件差异较大,难以准确区分N2O的生物或非生物来源。此外,单一同位素标记技术本身存在缺陷,应结合多种技术以提高结果的准确性。
土壤微生物通过硝化和反硝化作用产生的N2O占比较大,这对大气环境安全构成重大威胁。然而,目前对土壤中HAOB及其参与的氮循环过程的研究较少,仅停留在HAOB对羟胺的耐受性、去除率等效能方面,其基因或酶相关研究更为稀缺。如果能够找到HAOB参与氮循环过程的关键酶以及对羟胺的耐受机制,将对研发N2O排放的土壤调控技术、保护大气环境安全发挥重要作用。
作者声明不存在任何可能会影响本文所报告工作的已知经济利益或个人关系。
  • 国家自然科学基金(42077217)
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2025年第65卷第7期
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doi: 10.13343/j.cnki.wsxb.20240858
  • 接收时间:2024-12-31
  • 首发时间:2026-02-06
  • 出版时间:2025-07-04
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  • 收稿日期:2024-12-31
  • 录用日期:2025-03-11
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National Natural Science Foundation of China(42077217)
国家自然科学基金(42077217)
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    西南大学 资源环境学院,重庆市界面过程与土壤健康重点实验室,重庆
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2种不同金属材料的力学参数

Family
属数
Number of
genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of
total species (%)

Genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of total
species (%)
鹅膏菌科Amanitaceae 2 11 5.26 鹅膏菌属 Amanita 10 4.78
小菇科 Mycenaceae 2 12 5.74 丝盖伞属 Inocybe 5 2.39
多孔菌科 Polyporaceae 8 14 6.70 蜡蘑属 Laccaria 5 2.39
红菇科 Russulaceae 3 23 11.00 小皮伞属 Marasmius 6 2.87
小菇属 Mycena 11 5.26
光柄菇属 Pluteus 5 2.39
红菇属 Russula 17 8.13
栓菌属 Trametes 5 2.39
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