Article(id=1226460578416341906, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, issueId=1226460576751206672, articleNumber=null, orderNo=null, doi=10.13343/j.cnki.wsxb.20250111, pmid=null, cstr=null, oa=null, hot=null, price=null, onlineType=0, articleFormat=0, articleType=null, articleTypeStr=research-article, receivedDate=1739721600000, receivedDateStr=2025-02-17, revisedDate=null, revisedDateStr=null, acceptedDate=1747065600000, acceptedDateStr=2025-05-13, onlineDate=1770340588429, onlineDateStr=2026-02-06, pubDate=1754236800000, pubDateStr=2025-08-04, doiRegisterDate=null, doiRegisterDateStr=null, onlineIssueDate=1770340588429, onlineIssueDateStr=2026-02-06, onlineJustAcceptDate=null, onlineJustAcceptDateStr=null, onlineFirstDate=null, onlineFirstDateStr=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, createTime=1770340588429, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1770340588429, updator=13701087609, issue=Issue{id=1226460576751206672, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, year='2025', volume='65', issue='8', pageStart='1', pageEnd='3812', issueExtLink='null', onlineDate='null', pubDate='null', beforeIssueId=null, nextIssueId=null, price=null, status=1, issueComplete=1, articleOrder=1, issueType=-1, specialIssue=null, createTime=1770340588033, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1770363610188, updator=13701087609, preIssue=null, nextIssue=null, ext={EN=IssueExt(id=1226557138735117113, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, issueId=1226460576751206672, language=EN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=), CN=IssueExt(id=1226557138735117114, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, issueId=1226460576751206672, language=CN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=)}, issueFiles=null}, startPage=3317, endPage=3330, ext={EN=ArticleExt(id=1226460578709943192, articleId=1226460578416341906, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, language=EN, title=Screening, identification, and plant growth-promoting effect evaluation of saline-alkali tolerant strains of endophytic bacteria in alfalfa, columnId=1226460577816559897, journalTitle=Acta Microbiologica Sinica, columnName=Microbiome in Black Soils, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

Saline-alkali stress is one of the main abiotic constraints limiting plant growth and development. Endophytic bacteria can enhance the stress tolerance of host plants by increasing osmotic adjustment substances and boosting antioxidant enzyme activities. [Objective] To isolate and identify saline-alkali tolerant endophytic bacteria from the roots of alfalfa grown in saline-alkali soil and evaluate them regarding the saline-alkali tolerance, plant growth-promoting traits, effects on alfalfa growth under saline-alkali stress, and colonization. [Methods] Saline-alkali tolerant endophytes were isolated by the tissue homogenization method from alfalfa roots. Strains were identified by morphological observation, 16S rRNA gene-based phylogenetic analysis, and physiological and biochemical assays. Multiple plant growth-promoting traits were assayed in vitro. A greenhouse pot experiment was conducted to assess the effect of the selected strain on alfalfa growth under saline-alkali conditions. Colonization of strain Z-1 in alfalfa roots was visualized by green fluorescent protein tagging and laser scanning confocal microscopy. [Results] Pseudomonas moraviensis Z-1 was successfully isolated from the roots of alfalfa growing in saline-alkali soil. The endophytic bacterial strain tolerated 4% NaCl and pH 9.0 and displayed the ability to produce 1-aminocyclopropane-l-carboxylate deaminase, siderophores, indole-3-acetic acid, and soluble phosphorus. Under saline-alkali conditions, inoculation with Z-1 significantly increased the dry weights of the aboveground parts, root vigor, and soluble protein content of alfalfa. Moreover, the strain significantly increased catalase, peroxidase, and superoxide dismutase activities and decreased the hydrogen peroxide, superoxide anion, and malondialdehyde content (P<0.05). Confocal microscopy confirmed successful colonization of Z-1 in alfalfa roots at 7.57×104 CFU/g. [Conclusion] The saline-alkali tolerant endophytic bacterium Z-1 plays a vital role in promoting alfalfa growth and enhancing its tolerance to saline-alkali stress. It represents a promising candidate for developing microbial preparations to ameliorate saline-alkali soil.

, correspAuthors=Jiaxin CHEN, Changhong GUO, authorNote=null, correspAuthorsNote=
*E-mail: GUO Changhong,
CHEN Jiaxin,
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These authors contributed equally to this work.

, authorsList=Huiying ZHENG, Lu TANG, Jing ZHANG, Yimeng SHI, Lin YAO, Jiansheng LIU, Jiaxin CHEN, Changhong GUO), CN=ArticleExt(id=1226460580630934480, articleId=1226460578416341906, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, language=CN, title=耐盐碱紫花苜蓿内生细菌的筛选鉴定及促生能力分析, columnId=1226460578038858012, journalTitle=微生物学报, columnName=黑土地微生物组, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

盐碱胁迫是制约植物生长发育的主要非生物胁迫之一。植物内生细菌可通过提高渗透调节物质含量及抗氧化酶活性,增强植物的抗逆性。 【目的】 从盐碱地生长的紫花苜蓿根系中筛选并鉴定耐盐碱内生细菌,评价其耐盐碱能力、促生特性以及在盐碱环境下对紫花苜蓿生长的影响和定殖情况。 【方法】 采用组织匀浆法分离紫花苜蓿根系耐盐碱内生菌,通过形态学观察、16S rRNA基因序列系统发育树分析和生理生化实验对菌株进行鉴定;分析菌株的多种促生特性,并通过温室盆栽试验评价其对盐碱环境下紫花苜蓿生长的影响;利用绿色荧光蛋白(green fluorescent protein, GFP)标记内生菌,结合激光扫描共聚焦显微镜观察,评价菌株Z-1在紫花苜蓿根内的定殖情况。 【结果】 从盐碱地生长的紫花苜蓿根系中分离出1株摩拉维亚假单胞菌(Pseudomonas moraviensis) Z-1,其耐盐碱能力可达NaCl 4%、pH 9.0,并具有产1-氨基环丙烷-l-羧酸(1-aminocyclopropane-l-carboxylic acid, ACC)脱氨酶、嗜铁素、吲哚-3-乙酸(indole-3-acetic acid, IAA)和溶磷能力;在盐碱环境下,接种Z-1能够显著提高紫花苜蓿地上部分的干重、根系活力和可溶性蛋白含量;显著提高过氧化氢酶(catalase, CAT)、过氧化物酶(peroxidase, POD)和超氧化物歧化酶(superoxide dismutase, SOD)活性,使过氧化氢(hydrogen peroxide, H2O2)、超氧阴离子(superoxide anion, O2-)和丙二醛(malondialdehyde, MDA)含量显著降低(P<0.05);Z-1在紫花苜蓿根内具有良好的定殖能力,定殖量可达7.57×104 CFU/g。 【结论】 耐盐碱内生细菌Z-1在促进紫花苜蓿生长以及提高其抗盐碱能力方面发挥了重要作用,是开发紫花苜蓿耐盐碱微生物制剂的优质菌株资源。

, correspAuthors=陈佳欣, 郭长虹, authorNote=null, correspAuthorsNote=null, copyrightStatement=null, copyrightOwner=null, extLink=null, articleAbsUrl=null, sourceXml=WBduyI5fAVY8igvWShGkQg==, magXml=Wac2uodZAo6bGT6V5MmbvQ==, pdfUrl=null, pdf=rcis/lNsS2Ry3TzEiJgGng==, pdfFileSize=2759035, pdfExtLink=null, richHtmlUrl=null, mobilePdfUrl=null, reviewReport=null, pdfFirstPage=null, abstractGraph=nS7KvFQd6sEdlRwd0jrj2Q==, abstractGraphContent=null, abstractVideo=null, citation=null, cebUrl=null, magXmlContent=oH9QHtOn1N6jZxA3e8oBGg==, mapNumber=null, authorCompany=null, fund=null, authors=

作者贡献声明

郑慧颖:数据收集、数据分析、初稿撰写、论文修改;唐璐:实验指导、审阅、论文修改;张静:数据收集;史怡梦:样品采集、数据收集;姚琳:审阅、论文修改;刘建生:提供资源;陈佳欣:方法论、实验指导、论文修改;郭长虹:提出概念、试验设计、实验指导、审阅、论文修改。

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PLoS One, 2018, 13(11): e0200181., articleTitle=Root colonization and growth promotion of soybean, wheat and Chinese cabbage by Bacillus cereus YL6, refAbstract=null), Reference(id=1226596310841737240, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, articleId=1226460578416341906, doi=null, pmid=null, pmcid=null, year=2024, volume=25, issue=20, pageStart=10870, pageEnd=null, url=null, language=null, rfNumber=[54], rfOrder=70, authorNames=LI GL, SHI MX, WAN WH, WANG ZY, JI SW, YANG FS, JIN SM, ZHANG JG, journalName=International Journal of Molecular Sciences, refType=null, unstructuredReference=LI GL, SHI MX, WAN WH, WANG ZY, JI SW, YANG FS, JIN SM, ZHANG JG. Maize endophytic plant growth-promoting bacteria Peribacillus simplex can alleviate plant saline and alkaline stress[J]. 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Strains are followed by their GenBank accession numbers for 16S rRNA gene sequences; Bootstrap values based on 1 000 replications are shown at the branching nodes; The scale bar indicates a 2% sequence (or nucleotide) difference; T: Type strain; Z-1: The strain studied in this paper., figureFileSmall=l7PWkGU3ZoKXfbCbdTEnhw==, figureFileBig=G1gfn/r8kpCgyzUFet6kIw==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1226596295410893039, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, articleId=1226460578416341906, language=CN, label=图1, caption=菌株Z-1基于16S rRNA基因序列构建的系统发育树。菌株后括号内为其16S rRNA基因序列的GenBank登录号;每个分支节点的自展值为基于1 000次重复计算的比例;标尺表示序列(或核苷酸)的差异为2%;T:模式菌株;Z-1:本研究菌株。, figureFileSmall=l7PWkGU3ZoKXfbCbdTEnhw==, figureFileBig=G1gfn/r8kpCgyzUFet6kIw==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1226596295587053830, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, articleId=1226460578416341906, language=EN, label=Figure 2, caption=Effects of different NaCl (A) and pH (B) concentrations on the growth of strain Z-1. The values represent the average of three independent experiments; Error bars represent the standard deviations of the average; ***: Indicates significant differences (P<0.001)., figureFileSmall=bfPVjqgnoJPt6HhievrKXQ==, figureFileBig=DngqUUDBxfePKdM9GdBZyg==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1226596295729660178, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, articleId=1226460578416341906, language=CN, label=图2, caption=不同NaCl浓度(A)和不同pH (B)对菌株Z-1生长的影响。显示的值为3个独立试验的平均值;误差线表示平均值的标准差;***:P<0.001,差异显著。, figureFileSmall=bfPVjqgnoJPt6HhievrKXQ==, figureFileBig=DngqUUDBxfePKdM9GdBZyg==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1226596295838712091, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, articleId=1226460578416341906, language=EN, label=Figure 3, caption=The effects of inoculating strain Z-1 on the physiological characteristics of alfalfa under saline-alkali conditions. A: Root vitality; B: Free proline content; C: Soluble protein content; D: CAT activity; E: POD activity; F: SOD activity; G: H2O2 content; H: O2- content; I: MDA content. *, **, and ***: Indicate significant differences at P<0.05, P<0.01, and P<0.001 levels, respectively., figureFileSmall=IY5uE/EeiDycZhZeAmSviQ==, figureFileBig=NsTvhDagB58BvauMVT5nug==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1226596295926792488, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, articleId=1226460578416341906, language=CN, label=图3, caption=盐碱环境下接种菌株Z-1对紫花苜蓿生理特性的影响。A:根系活力;B:游离脯氨酸含量;C:可溶性蛋白含量;D:CAT活性;E:POD活性;F:SOD活性;G:H2O2含量;H:O2-含量;I:MDA含量。*、**和***:P<0.05、P<0.01和P<0.001水平下差异显著。, figureFileSmall=IY5uE/EeiDycZhZeAmSviQ==, figureFileBig=NsTvhDagB58BvauMVT5nug==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1226596296056815925, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, articleId=1226460578416341906, language=EN, label=Figure 4, caption=Growth curves of strains Z-1 and Z-1-gfp. The values represent the average of three independent experiments; Error bars represent the standard deviations of the average., figureFileSmall=TMmSgwqcrnfd3SNJYZZ+Gw==, figureFileBig=FLyzCnoMLEHDOQ7c86BhDg==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1226596296165867842, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, articleId=1226460578416341906, language=CN, label=图4, caption=菌株Z-1Z-1-gfp 的生长曲线。显示的值是3个独立试验的平均值;误差线表示平均值的标准差。, figureFileSmall=TMmSgwqcrnfd3SNJYZZ+Gw==, figureFileBig=FLyzCnoMLEHDOQ7c86BhDg==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1226596296262336845, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, articleId=1226460578416341906, language=EN, label=Figure 5, caption=Strains of alfalfa roots inoculated with the endophyte Z-1-gfp. Roots ofalfalfa were homogenized and plated onto LB agar containing 30 µg/mL gentamicin sulfate, and observed after culturing at 28 ℃ for 24 hours. A: Roots of unvaccinated alfalfa; B: Roots of alfalfa inoculated with the strain Z-1-gfp., figureFileSmall=uy6fCWO1spuKaEOAP2aMlg==, figureFileBig=mqqijCBq/lErytW0UWRq5w==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1226596296367194461, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, articleId=1226460578416341906, language=CN, label=图5, caption=接种内生菌Z-1-gfp 的紫花苜蓿根系中的菌株。将紫花苜蓿根系研磨涂布到含有30 µg/mL硫酸庆大霉素的LB平板上,28 ℃培养24 h后观察。A:未接种的苜蓿根系;B:接种菌株Z-1-gfp的苜蓿根系。, figureFileSmall=uy6fCWO1spuKaEOAP2aMlg==, figureFileBig=mqqijCBq/lErytW0UWRq5w==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1226596296472052067, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, articleId=1226460578416341906, language=EN, label=Figure 6, caption=Colonization of strain Z-1-gfp in alfalfa roots. A-C: The cross sections of alfalfa roots uninoculated control; D-F: The cross sections of alfalfa roots inoculated with strain Z-1-gfp; G-I: The longitudinal sections of alfalfa roots uninoculated control; J-L: The longitudinal section of alfalfa roots inoculated with strain Z-1-gfp; A-J: Dark field images; B-K: Bright field images; C-L: Merged dark and bright field images., figureFileSmall=XVoS1m1XJhsbm5HIuv5YqA==, figureFileBig=nH4ZKZkWZNgo4l85ZXXomA==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1226596296564326767, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, articleId=1226460578416341906, language=CN, label=图6, caption=菌株Z-1-gfp 在紫花苜蓿根内的定殖情况。A-C:未接种处理的紫花苜蓿根系横切面;D-F:接种菌株Z-1-gfp后紫花苜蓿根系横切面;G-I:未接种处理的紫花苜蓿根系纵切面;J-L:接种菌株Z-1-gfp后紫花苜蓿根系纵切面;A-J:暗场视野;B-K:明场视野;C-L:合并视野。, figureFileSmall=XVoS1m1XJhsbm5HIuv5YqA==, figureFileBig=nH4ZKZkWZNgo4l85ZXXomA==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1226596296673378678, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, articleId=1226460578416341906, language=EN, label=Table 1, caption=

Determination of the growth-promoting characteristics of strain Z-1

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
Growth-promoting substancesResults
ACC deaminase (µmol α-KA/(mg·h))15.94±1.59
Siderophore (A/Ar)1.42±0.06
Phosphorus (μg/mL)243.81±7.16
IAA (without l-tryptophan)4.27±0.19c
IAA (add 100 μg/mL l-tryptophan)5.50±0.02b
IAA (add 200 μg/mL l-tryptophan)6.85±0.08a
IAA (add 500 μg/mL l-tryptophan)7.03±0.17a
), ArticleFig(id=1226596296761459076, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, articleId=1226460578416341906, language=CN, label=表1, caption=

菌株Z-1促生特性的测定

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
Growth-promoting substancesResults
ACC deaminase (µmol α-KA/(mg·h))15.94±1.59
Siderophore (A/Ar)1.42±0.06
Phosphorus (μg/mL)243.81±7.16
IAA (without l-tryptophan)4.27±0.19c
IAA (add 100 μg/mL l-tryptophan)5.50±0.02b
IAA (add 200 μg/mL l-tryptophan)6.85±0.08a
IAA (add 500 μg/mL l-tryptophan)7.03±0.17a
), ArticleFig(id=1226596296912454028, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, articleId=1226460578416341906, language=EN, label=Table 2, caption=

Effects of inoculation with strain Z-1 on alfalfa biomass under saline-alkali conditions

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
Alfalfa biomassCKZ-1
Plant height (cm)15.25±0.6816.12±1.38
Root length (cm)14.82±0.6916.25±0.80
Fresh weight of shoots (g/5 plants)1.08±0.111.27±0.09
Dry weight of shoots (g/5 plants)0.27±0.030.32±0.01*
Fresh weight of roots (g/5 plants)0.88±0.120.98±0.04
Dry weight of roots (g/5 plants)0.18±0.030.22±0.03
), ArticleFig(id=1226596297017311636, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, articleId=1226460578416341906, language=CN, label=表2, caption=

盐碱环境下接种菌株Z-1对紫花苜蓿生物量的影响

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
Alfalfa biomassCKZ-1
Plant height (cm)15.25±0.6816.12±1.38
Root length (cm)14.82±0.6916.25±0.80
Fresh weight of shoots (g/5 plants)1.08±0.111.27±0.09
Dry weight of shoots (g/5 plants)0.27±0.030.32±0.01*
Fresh weight of roots (g/5 plants)0.88±0.120.98±0.04
Dry weight of roots (g/5 plants)0.18±0.030.22±0.03
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耐盐碱紫花苜蓿内生细菌的筛选鉴定及促生能力分析
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郑慧颖 1 , 唐璐 1 , 张静 1 , 史怡梦 1 , 姚琳 1 , 刘建生 2 , 陈佳欣 1, * , 郭长虹 1, *
微生物学报 | 黑土地微生物组 2025,65(8): 3317-3330
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微生物学报 | 黑土地微生物组 2025, 65(8): 3317-3330
耐盐碱紫花苜蓿内生细菌的筛选鉴定及促生能力分析
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郑慧颖1, 唐璐1, 张静1, 史怡梦1, 姚琳1, 刘建生2, 陈佳欣1, * , 郭长虹1, *
作者信息
  • 1.哈尔滨师范大学 生命科学与技术学院,黑龙江省分子细胞遗传与遗传育种重点实验室,黑龙江 哈尔滨
  • 2.黑龙江国宏节能环保有限公司,黑龙江 哈尔滨
Screening, identification, and plant growth-promoting effect evaluation of saline-alkali tolerant strains of endophytic bacteria in alfalfa
Huiying ZHENG1, Lu TANG1, Jing ZHANG1, Yimeng SHI1, Lin YAO1, Jiansheng LIU2, Jiaxin CHEN1, * , Changhong GUO1, *
Affiliations
  • 1.Heilongjiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Molecular Cellular Genetics and Genetic Breeding, College of Life Science and Technology, Harbin Normal University, Harbin, Heilongjiang, China
  • 2.Heilongjiang Guohong Energy Conservation and Environmental Protection Co. , Ltd. , Harbin, Heilongjiang, China
出版时间: 2025-08-04 doi: 10.13343/j.cnki.wsxb.20250111
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盐碱胁迫是制约植物生长发育的主要非生物胁迫之一。植物内生细菌可通过提高渗透调节物质含量及抗氧化酶活性,增强植物的抗逆性。 【目的】 从盐碱地生长的紫花苜蓿根系中筛选并鉴定耐盐碱内生细菌,评价其耐盐碱能力、促生特性以及在盐碱环境下对紫花苜蓿生长的影响和定殖情况。 【方法】 采用组织匀浆法分离紫花苜蓿根系耐盐碱内生菌,通过形态学观察、16S rRNA基因序列系统发育树分析和生理生化实验对菌株进行鉴定;分析菌株的多种促生特性,并通过温室盆栽试验评价其对盐碱环境下紫花苜蓿生长的影响;利用绿色荧光蛋白(green fluorescent protein, GFP)标记内生菌,结合激光扫描共聚焦显微镜观察,评价菌株Z-1在紫花苜蓿根内的定殖情况。 【结果】 从盐碱地生长的紫花苜蓿根系中分离出1株摩拉维亚假单胞菌(Pseudomonas moraviensis) Z-1,其耐盐碱能力可达NaCl 4%、pH 9.0,并具有产1-氨基环丙烷-l-羧酸(1-aminocyclopropane-l-carboxylic acid, ACC)脱氨酶、嗜铁素、吲哚-3-乙酸(indole-3-acetic acid, IAA)和溶磷能力;在盐碱环境下,接种Z-1能够显著提高紫花苜蓿地上部分的干重、根系活力和可溶性蛋白含量;显著提高过氧化氢酶(catalase, CAT)、过氧化物酶(peroxidase, POD)和超氧化物歧化酶(superoxide dismutase, SOD)活性,使过氧化氢(hydrogen peroxide, H2O2)、超氧阴离子(superoxide anion, O2-)和丙二醛(malondialdehyde, MDA)含量显著降低(P<0.05);Z-1在紫花苜蓿根内具有良好的定殖能力,定殖量可达7.57×104 CFU/g。 【结论】 耐盐碱内生细菌Z-1在促进紫花苜蓿生长以及提高其抗盐碱能力方面发挥了重要作用,是开发紫花苜蓿耐盐碱微生物制剂的优质菌株资源。

紫花苜蓿  /  盐碱环境  /  内生细菌  /  促生  /  定殖

Saline-alkali stress is one of the main abiotic constraints limiting plant growth and development. Endophytic bacteria can enhance the stress tolerance of host plants by increasing osmotic adjustment substances and boosting antioxidant enzyme activities. [Objective] To isolate and identify saline-alkali tolerant endophytic bacteria from the roots of alfalfa grown in saline-alkali soil and evaluate them regarding the saline-alkali tolerance, plant growth-promoting traits, effects on alfalfa growth under saline-alkali stress, and colonization. [Methods] Saline-alkali tolerant endophytes were isolated by the tissue homogenization method from alfalfa roots. Strains were identified by morphological observation, 16S rRNA gene-based phylogenetic analysis, and physiological and biochemical assays. Multiple plant growth-promoting traits were assayed in vitro. A greenhouse pot experiment was conducted to assess the effect of the selected strain on alfalfa growth under saline-alkali conditions. Colonization of strain Z-1 in alfalfa roots was visualized by green fluorescent protein tagging and laser scanning confocal microscopy. [Results] Pseudomonas moraviensis Z-1 was successfully isolated from the roots of alfalfa growing in saline-alkali soil. The endophytic bacterial strain tolerated 4% NaCl and pH 9.0 and displayed the ability to produce 1-aminocyclopropane-l-carboxylate deaminase, siderophores, indole-3-acetic acid, and soluble phosphorus. Under saline-alkali conditions, inoculation with Z-1 significantly increased the dry weights of the aboveground parts, root vigor, and soluble protein content of alfalfa. Moreover, the strain significantly increased catalase, peroxidase, and superoxide dismutase activities and decreased the hydrogen peroxide, superoxide anion, and malondialdehyde content (P<0.05). Confocal microscopy confirmed successful colonization of Z-1 in alfalfa roots at 7.57×104 CFU/g. [Conclusion] The saline-alkali tolerant endophytic bacterium Z-1 plays a vital role in promoting alfalfa growth and enhancing its tolerance to saline-alkali stress. It represents a promising candidate for developing microbial preparations to ameliorate saline-alkali soil.

alfalfa  /  saline-alkali conditions  /  endophytic bacteria  /  plant growth-promoting  /  colonization
郑慧颖, 唐璐, 张静, 史怡梦, 姚琳, 刘建生, 陈佳欣, 郭长虹. 耐盐碱紫花苜蓿内生细菌的筛选鉴定及促生能力分析. 微生物学报, 2025 , 65 (8) : 3317 -3330 . DOI: 10.13343/j.cnki.wsxb.20250111
Huiying ZHENG, Lu TANG, Jing ZHANG, Yimeng SHI, Lin YAO, Jiansheng LIU, Jiaxin CHEN, Changhong GUO. Screening, identification, and plant growth-promoting effect evaluation of saline-alkali tolerant strains of endophytic bacteria in alfalfa[J]. Acta Microbiologica Sinica, 2025 , 65 (8) : 3317 -3330 . DOI: 10.13343/j.cnki.wsxb.20250111
土壤盐碱化是全球面临的重大生态问题之一[1]。我国盐碱化土壤分布范围较广,主要集中在东北、西北、华北以及滨海地区,总面积超过3 600万hm2,占总耕地面积的10%以上,且每年因土壤盐碱化导致大量耕地被弃耕甚至撂荒[2]。土壤盐碱化严重制约着作物的产量和种植范围。因此,提高盐碱地的利用率对于确保我国耕地总面积动态平衡及实现农业可持续发展具有重要意义。
植物促生内生菌(plant growth promoting endophytes, PGPE)是指在宿主植物细胞间隙、组织和器官内完成其整个生命活动,且不对宿主植物造成危害的微生物类群,其作用相对稳定,不易受外界环境影响[3]。植物促生内生菌是一类极为重要的微生物资源,能够为植物提供生长所需的能量和养分,并通过代谢产物对植物产生影响[4]。研究表明,植物对胁迫的耐受性与其内生菌密切相关,促生内生菌可通过帮助植物吸收水分和养分、产生植物激素、嗜铁素、调节脯氨酸含量以及提高抗氧化酶活性等方式促进植物生长,增强植物在胁迫环境下的耐受性[5]。例如,Lu等[6]从水稻根系分离出8株耐盐内生细菌,其中接种菠萝泛菌(Pantoeaananatis) D1可显著促进盐胁迫下水稻根部和地上部分的生长,并显著提高水稻幼苗的叶绿素、可溶性蛋白和脯氨酸含量。张永志等[7]发现,接种丛枝菌根真菌(arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi, AMF)能够提高盐胁迫下紫花苜蓿的可溶性蛋白和可溶性糖含量,并增强超氧化物歧化酶(superoxide dismutase, SOD)和过氧化物酶(peroxidase, POD)的活性。
紫花苜蓿(Medicagosativa)是豆科苜蓿属多年生草本植物,具有高蛋白质含量和强适应性等优点,是禽畜的优质青饲料[8]。然而,目前关于耐盐碱紫花苜蓿内生细菌资源的筛选及其促生能力评价的研究仍较少。本研究从盐碱地种植的紫花苜蓿根系中筛选出1株内生细菌,通过形态学观察、16S rRNA基因序列分析及生理生化实验对其进行鉴定,分析其耐盐碱能力、产1-氨基环丙烷-l-羧酸(1-aminocyclopropane-l-carboxylic acid, ACC)脱氨酶、嗜铁素、吲哚-3-乙酸(indole-3-acetic acid, IAA)及溶磷的能力。利用盆栽试验评价该菌株在盐碱环境下对紫花苜蓿的促生能力,并通过绿色荧光蛋白(green fluorescent protein, GFP)标记分离菌株,观察其在紫花苜蓿根内的定殖情况,为开发适用于盐碱地改良的紫花苜蓿菌剂提供理论依据。
供试植物紫花苜蓿(M. sativa)取自黑龙江省绥化市兰西县黑龙江省草业研究所基地(46°32′55.55″N, 126°01′41.62″E)。将紫花苜蓿装入事先准备好的无菌保鲜袋中,于4 ℃冰箱中保存,带回实验室后立刻进行耐盐碱内生细菌的分离与鉴定。
将紫花苜蓿用自来水冲洗干净后晾干,称取1 g根系组织,分别用75%乙醇和2%次氯酸钠对其进行表面灭菌,采用组织匀浆法[9]进行内生细菌的分离。选取生长状况良好且形态不同的单菌落进行纯化培养,经6代纯化后,将制得的甘油菌于-80 ℃保存备用。
采用CTAB/NaCl方法提取细菌DNA[10]。使用细菌16S rRNA基因通用引物27F (5′-AGA GTTTGATCCTGGCTCAG-3′)和1492R (5′-GGT TACCTTGTTACGACTT-3′)[11]进行PCR扩增。PCR反应体系(20 μL):ddH2O 13.0 µL,上、下游引物(10 µmol/L)各0.4 µL,Taq酶(5 U/µL) 0.2 μL,DNA模板2.0 µL,Buffer 2.0 µL,dNTPs 2.0 µL。PCR反应条件:94 ℃预变性3 min;94 ℃变性30 s,55 ℃退火30 s,72 ℃延伸90 s,30个循环;72 ℃终延伸10 min。PCR产物经琼脂糖凝胶电泳检测后送至生工生物工程(上海)股份有限公司进行测序(去除两端嵌合序列)。将测序结果与GenBank数据库进行BLAST多重序列比对,利用MEGA 11软件以邻接法(neighbor-joining method)构建系统发育树,选用bootstrap法(1 000次重复)[12]评估系统发育树分支聚类的稳定性,从而对分离菌株进行分子鉴定。参照《常见细菌系统鉴定手册》[13]和《伯杰细菌鉴定手册》[14],对分离菌株进行生理生化鉴定。
以LB液体培养基为基础培养基,添加NaCl使培养基中NaCl含量分别为1%-8%,将pH值均调至7.0[15];参照Li等[16]的方法,利用pH 7.0-10.0缓冲液体系(pH 7.0-8.0,0.1 mol/L KH2PO4+0.1 mol/L NaOH;pH 9.0-10.0,0.1 mol/L NaHCO3+0.1 mol/L Na2CO3)维持培养基pH稳定,调节培养基pH分别为7.0、8.0、9.0、10.0。将分离菌株在LB培养基中28 ℃、180 r/min振荡培养12 h,调节菌悬液浓度(OD600=0.50±0.02),将其等量转接到不同NaCl浓度和pH值的培养基中,28 ℃、180 r/min振荡培养12 h后测定OD600吸光值。
以2,4-二硝基苯肼为染料,α-丁酮酸为检测指标,参照Honma等[17]的方法测定菌株的ACC脱氨酶活力。蛋白质的测定采用Bradford[18]的方法。
将菌株接种于MKB (Modified King’s B)培养基中,28 ℃、180 r/min培养48 h。参照王平等[19]的方法测定菌株嗜铁素合成能力。
将分离菌株接种至DF (dworkin and foster)培养基中,28 ℃、180 r/min培养48 h,参考Glickmann等[20]的方法,采用Salkowski比色法测定菌株产IAA能力。
将菌株接种到LB培养基中37 ℃、200 r/min培养过夜,再以1%接种量转接至PVK (pikovskaya)培养基中(以不接菌培养基为对照),28 ℃、180 r/min培养72 h。参考乔策策等[21]的方法,采用钼锑抗显色法计算有效磷含量,菌株的溶磷量为有效磷含量减去对照值。
供试紫花苜蓿(M. sativa)种子由黑龙江省农业科学院畜牧分院提供。供试盐碱土(pH 8.4,EC 288 μS/cm)取自黑龙江省绥化市兰西县远大镇胜利村。将内生菌Z-1接种于LB培养基中37 ℃、200 r/min培养过夜,28 ℃、6 000 r/min离心10 min,取菌体沉淀,用无菌水重悬菌体,将其浓度稀释至1×108 CFU/mL以制成菌悬液。将种子置于菌悬液中浸泡2 h (对照组置于等量无菌水中),均匀地播种于装有0.65 kg盐碱土的花盆中。以灌根的方式定期接种菌悬液(对照组浇灌等量无菌水)。培养4周后取其叶片与根系,测定紫花苜蓿叶片生理特性及根系活力。采用2,3,5-氯化三苯基四氮唑法[22]测定植株根系活力,采用茚三酮法[23]和考马斯亮蓝染色法[24]分别测定植株游离脯氨酸和可溶性蛋白含量,采用愈创木酚氧化法[25]和氮蓝四唑光还原法[26]测定植株POD和SOD活性,采用分光光度法[27-28]测定植株过氧化氢(H2O2)含量和过氧化氢酶(catalase, CAT)活性,采用硫代巴比妥酸(TBA)法[29]和羟胺氧化法[30]测定植株丙二醛(malondialdehyde, MDA)和超氧阴离子(superoxide anion, O2-)含量;培养8周后测定紫花苜蓿的生物量。
携带质粒pMP2444的大肠杆菌DH5α购自淼灵质粒平台,该质粒具有庆大霉素抗性(Gen),由T3启动子驱动EGFP的表达。将大肠杆菌DH5α (pMP2444)在含有30 µg/mL硫酸庆大霉素的LB固体培养基[31]上划线培养。利用质粒提取试剂盒[天根生化科技(北京)有限公司]提取表达质粒,并于-20 ℃保存备用。采用TSS法[32]制备感受态细胞,挑取内生菌Z-1的单菌落接种至LB液体培养基中,37 ℃、200 r/min培养过夜。以1%的比例转接至LB液体培养基中,37 ℃、200 r/min培养至OD600=0.3-0.5,冰浴10 min,4 ℃、6 000 r/min离心5 min,将菌体重悬于1/10原体积预冷的无菌TSS溶液[33]中,进行分装(100 μL/管),并置于-80 ℃保存。利用热激转化法[34]将质粒导入Z-1感受态细胞中,以未导入质粒的Z-1感受态细胞为对照组,将其涂布于含有30 µg/mL硫酸庆大霉素的LB固体培养基上。参照於浩然等[35]的方法测定标记菌株与野生型菌株的生长速率。
对紫花苜蓿种子进行表面消毒后,将其置于Z-1-gfp (带有GFP标记的菌株Z-1)菌悬液(1×108 CFU/mL)中浸泡2 h (对照组置于等量无菌水中),选取20粒均匀地播种于装有0.65 kg盐碱土的花盆(口径12.8 cm、底径8.3 cm、高度11 cm)中。待紫花苜蓿幼苗长出真叶后,每盆定苗15株,并向紫花苜蓿根系浇灌标记菌株发酵液10 mL (1×108 CFU/mL),以未接种菌液的紫花苜蓿植株为对照。在幼苗生长过程中,用无菌蒸馏水补充水分。接种25 d后,随机选取3棵紫花苜蓿植株进行表面消毒,称取0.2 g紫花苜蓿根系置于无菌研钵中,加入1 mL无菌水研磨。将研磨液依次稀释为10-1、10-2、10-3,取100 μL稀释液涂布于含有30 µg/mL硫酸庆大霉素的平板上,28 ℃培养24 h。在黑暗条件下,用手提紫外灯观察每皿内的荧光菌落数量,并以每克紫花苜蓿根系的荧光菌落数量(CFU/g)表示其定殖情况。
在显微镜下观察标记菌株在紫花苜蓿根内的定殖情况。接种菌株Z-1-gfp 25 d后随机选取5棵紫花苜蓿植株(以施加等量无菌水的紫花苜蓿为对照),对其进行表面杀菌与消毒。用灭菌的刀片将紫花苜蓿根系分割成1 cm×1 cm的切片,放置在振动切片机[徕卡显微系统(上海)贸易有限公司]上,设置切片参数:切片速度0.4 mm/s、振幅1.50 mm、切片厚度70 μm。利用激光扫描共聚焦显微镜[徕卡显微系统(上海)贸易有限公司]观察标记菌株在紫花苜蓿根内的定殖情况,最大激发波长为485 nm、发射波长为498 nm。
实验数据使用Excel 2022进行统计,方差分析使用SPSS 26.0进行。不同处理组各指标采用t检验法和单因素方差分析(one-way ANOVA)进行比较。
将盐碱地种植的紫花苜蓿根系组织磨碎匀浆后,稀释涂布于NaCl浓度为7%、pH 9.0的LB培养基上,经纯化,筛选到1株在高盐碱LB培养基上生长良好的内生菌,编号为Z-1。
内生菌Z-1的菌落呈圆形、隆起、不透明、边缘整齐,在固体培养基上呈淡黄色。对内生菌Z-1进行分子生物学鉴定,将其16S rRNA基因序列(GenBank登录号为PV563462)在GenBank数据库中进行BLAST比对分析,并构建系统发育树(图1),内生菌Z-1属于假单胞菌属(Pseudomonas),与模式菌株摩拉维亚假单胞菌(Pseudomonas moraviensis) 1B4T位于同一分支,序列一致性为99.45%。生理生化实验结果表明,菌株Z-1的甲基红、柠檬酸盐水解和明胶液化实验呈阳性,而氧化酶、蔗糖水解、伏普、吲哚、淀粉水解、硫化氢和革兰氏染色实验呈阴性。综合菌落形态特征、16S rRNA基因序列分析及生理生化实验结果,确定菌株Z-1为摩拉维亚假单胞菌(P. moraviensis)。
对筛选获得的菌株Z-1在不同浓度NaCl和不同pH值培养液中的生长情况进行了分析。结果表明,随着NaCl浓度和pH值的增加,菌株的生长受到抑制。在NaCl浓度为1%-3%时,菌株能够正常生长;当NaCl浓度为4%时,菌株Z-1的生长量明显受到抑制;当NaCl浓度超过5%时,菌株Z-1几乎无法生长(图2A)。因此,菌株Z-1的耐受NaCl浓度最高为4%。在pH值为8.0和9.0时菌株可正常生长;当pH值为10.0时菌株几乎不生长(图2B)。因此,菌株Z-1的耐受pH值最高为9.0。
对内生菌Z-1的ACC脱氨酶活性、嗜铁素合成能力、溶磷能力和IAA合成能力进行了测定。结果表明,内生菌Z-1的ACC脱氨酶活性为15.94 µmol α-KA/(mg·h);A/Ar值为1.42 (A为待测样品上清液与CAS检测液混合后的吸光值;Ar为空白对照);有效磷含量为243.81 μg/mL;IAA测定结果显示,内生菌Z-1在无l-Trp时即可合成IAA,且随着l-Trp浓度的增加,IAA的合成量也增加,当l-Trp浓度达到500 μg/mL时,IAA的合成量最高,可达7.03 μg/mL (表1)。
与对照组相比,接种内生菌Z-1的紫花苜蓿株高增加了5.71%,根长增加了9.61%,地上鲜重和干重分别增加了18.27%和18.52%,地下鲜重和干重分别增加了10.57%和18.18% (P<0.05) (表2)。结果表明,接种内生菌可促进盐碱环境下紫花苜蓿的生长。
与对照组相比,接种内生菌Z-1后紫花苜蓿的根系活力提高了27.92% (图3A);游离脯氨酸和可溶性蛋白含量分别提高了19.06%和13.37% (图3B3C);CAT、POD和SOD活性分别提高了16.23%、54.93%和4.22% (图3D-3F);H2O2和O2-含量分别降低了22.67%和16.32% (图3G3H);MDA含量降低了13.05% (图3I) (P<0.05)。结果表明,接种内生菌Z-1可以有效缓解盐碱环境对紫花苜蓿生理特性的影响。
为了检测菌株Z-1在紫花苜蓿根内的定殖情况,通过转化将质粒pMP2444导入菌株Z-1中。由生长曲线(图4)可看出,菌株Z-1与Z-1-gfp的生长变化趋势基本一致,几乎同时进入对数期和稳定期,表明质粒标记对菌株的正常生长未产生明显影响。通过盆栽试验分析Z-1-gfp在紫花苜蓿根内的定殖能力(图5),结果表明经Z-1-gfp发酵液灌根处理后,在紫花苜蓿根内能检测出目标菌株,且定殖量达到7.57×104 CFU/g,说明菌株Z-1在紫花苜蓿根内具有良好的定殖能力。
为进一步证实上述结果,将紫花苜蓿根系制作成临时装片,使用激光扫描共聚焦显微镜观察Z-1-gfp的定殖情况。结果表明,经Z-1-gfp灌根处理后,紫花苜蓿根系(横切面、纵切面)在激光扫描共聚焦显微镜下可观察到明显绿色荧光(图6F6L),而经无菌水处理的对照组紫花苜蓿根系切片未发现明显的绿色荧光(图6C6I),进一步证实菌株Z-1可在紫花苜蓿根内定殖。
盐碱胁迫是植物生长过程中面临的主要非生物胁迫之一,对植物的生长和发育具有严重危害[36]。植物内生菌可通过多种途径促进植物生长,提高植物对盐碱胁迫的抵抗能力[37]。例如,Siddiqui等[38]从盐生草中分离得到的内生细菌在盐胁迫下可显著提高水稻和玉米的产量。Yang等[39]发现接种强壮植物伯克霍尔德氏菌(Paraburkholderia phytofirmans) PsJN能够提高盐胁迫下藜麦的生物量,增强其抵抗盐胁迫的能力。Asif等[40]研究发现,接种纺锤状赖氨酸芽孢杆菌(Lysinibacillus fusiformis) ART-1和球形赖氨酸芽孢杆菌(Lysinibacillus sphaericus) ART-10可以促进盐胁迫下水稻的生长。本研究从紫花苜蓿根系中分离得到了一株内生细菌Z-1,该菌株具有较强的耐盐碱能力。接种Z-1后提高了盐碱环境下紫花苜蓿的株高、根长、地上及地下部分的鲜重和干重,表明内生菌Z-1在盐碱环境下具有促进紫花苜蓿生长的能力。
植物内生菌具有产IAA、嗜铁素以及溶解难溶性磷酸盐等多种促生特性,从而促进植物的生长[41]。例如,Lu等[6]从水稻根系分离得到的菠萝泛菌(Pantoeaananatis) D1具有产IAA、嗜铁素和溶磷的能力,可显著提高盐胁迫下水稻根系及芽的生长。Bokhari等[42]从沙漠植物根系筛选到的芽孢杆菌属(Bacillus)细菌具有较强的耐盐能力,同时还具有产IAA、嗜铁素和溶磷等促生特性,可以促进拟南芥在盐胁迫条件下的生长。本研究筛选的内生菌Z-1不仅具有产嗜铁素、IAA以及溶磷能力,还具有ACC脱氨酶活性。Gamalero等[43]从盐生植物补血草中分离得到的内生细菌具有较强的ACC脱氨酶特性。据报道,有益微生物所产生的ACC脱氨酶能够作用于植物乙烯合成的前体ACC,将其分解为α-丁酮酸和氨,从而有效降低植株内乙烯含量,减轻乙烯对植物生长的抑制作用,促进植物生长,提高其对非生物胁迫的抵抗能力[44]
脯氨酸和可溶性蛋白是植物体内重要的渗透调节物质,在非生物胁迫下会大量积累,平衡植物体内渗透势,减少逆境对植物的危害[45]。王艳宇等[46]研究表明,佐贝尔菌属(Zobellella sp.) DQSA1能够提高绿豆植株脯氨酸和可溶性蛋白含量。本研究中,接种内生菌Z-1显著提高了盐碱环境下紫花苜蓿的可溶性蛋白及脯氨酸含量(P<0.05)。在非生物胁迫下,植物体内会产生大量的活性氧(O2-、H2O2等),这些活性氧具有极强的氧化性,会导致植物细胞膜脂过氧化,最终生成MDA,并对生物大分子如蛋白质和核酸造成交联聚合,具有细胞毒性[47]。SOD可以将O2-歧化为H2O2和O2,减少对植物的氧化损伤;CAT可以通过将H2O2分解为水和氧气以防止其积累;而POD可以参与H2O2消除[48]。研究表明,内生菌可以通过影响植物抗氧化酶活性和ROS清除系统等促进植物的生长,提高植物的耐盐碱性[49]。Abd_Allah等[50]研究表明,接种内生菌枯草芽孢杆菌(Bacillus subtilis) BERA71提高了盐胁迫下鹰嘴豆的SOD、POD和CAT活性。本研究中,接种内生菌Z-1增强了盐碱胁迫下紫花苜蓿的POD、CAT和SOD活性,降低了MDA、O2-、H2O2含量,表明内生菌Z-1可以通过提高紫花苜蓿抗氧化酶活性减少活性氧的产生,提高其对盐碱胁迫的抗性。
绿色荧光蛋白(GFP)标记方法可以对目的菌株进行稳定的标记,便于检测内生菌在植物体内的定殖情况[51]。本研究表明内生菌Z-1在紫花苜蓿根内具有较好的定殖能力。毛仲玉等[52]研究表明,田菁茎瘤固氮根瘤菌(Azorhizobium caulinodans)在茎瘤芥根内具有较好的定殖能力,接种该菌株可以显著提高茎瘤芥的生物量。Ku等[53]研究表明,蜡样芽孢杆菌(Bacillus cereus) YL6在玉米、小麦和白菜根内具有较好的定殖能力,可以促进这些植物的生长。Li等[54]研究表明,内生简单近芽孢杆菌(Peribacillus simplex) M1可以在玉米根内定殖,提高玉米的抗氧化酶活性,促进盐碱胁迫下玉米的生长。这些研究表明植物内生促生菌在宿主植物的成功定殖是其发挥作用的关键。
本研究从紫花苜蓿根系中分离出的内生细菌摩拉维亚假单胞菌(Pseudomonas moraviensis) Z-1具有较强的耐盐碱能力、产ACC脱氨酶、嗜铁素、IAA和溶解无机磷的能力。在盐碱环境下,接种内生菌Z-1可以促进紫花苜蓿的生长,提高其生物量和根系活力,增加紫花苜蓿渗透调节物质的积累,并增强其抗氧化能力。此外,该菌株在紫花苜蓿根内具有较好的定殖能力。因此,内生菌Z-1可作为开发盐碱地紫花苜蓿微生物制剂的优质菌株资源。
  • 国家自然科学基金(U21A20182)
  • 黑龙江省科技攻关项目(2021ZXJ03B05)
  • 哈尔滨师范大学研究生创新基金(HSDSSCX2024-14)
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2025年第65卷第8期
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doi: 10.13343/j.cnki.wsxb.20250111
  • 接收时间:2025-02-17
  • 首发时间:2026-02-06
  • 出版时间:2025-08-04
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  • 收稿日期:2025-02-17
  • 录用日期:2025-05-13
基金
National Natural Science Foundation of China(U21A20182)
国家自然科学基金(U21A20182)
Key Scientific and Technological Project of Heilongjiang Province(2021ZXJ03B05)
黑龙江省科技攻关项目(2021ZXJ03B05)
Graduate Innovation Fund of Harbin Normal University(HSDSSCX2024-14)
哈尔滨师范大学研究生创新基金(HSDSSCX2024-14)
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    1.哈尔滨师范大学 生命科学与技术学院,黑龙江省分子细胞遗传与遗传育种重点实验室,黑龙江 哈尔滨
    2.黑龙江国宏节能环保有限公司,黑龙江 哈尔滨

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2种不同金属材料的力学参数

Family
属数
Number of
genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of
total species (%)

Genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of total
species (%)
鹅膏菌科Amanitaceae 2 11 5.26 鹅膏菌属 Amanita 10 4.78
小菇科 Mycenaceae 2 12 5.74 丝盖伞属 Inocybe 5 2.39
多孔菌科 Polyporaceae 8 14 6.70 蜡蘑属 Laccaria 5 2.39
红菇科 Russulaceae 3 23 11.00 小皮伞属 Marasmius 6 2.87
小菇属 Mycena 11 5.26
光柄菇属 Pluteus 5 2.39
红菇属 Russula 17 8.13
栓菌属 Trametes 5 2.39
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