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Article(id=1204800734601650916, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, issueId=1204800727341310425, articleNumber=null, orderNo=null, doi=10.13343/j.cnki.wsxb.20250336, pmid=null, cstr=null, oa=null, hot=null, price=null, onlineType=0, articleFormat=0, articleType=null, articleTypeStr=research-article, receivedDate=1745424000000, receivedDateStr=2025-04-24, revisedDate=null, revisedDateStr=null, acceptedDate=1755705600000, acceptedDateStr=2025-08-21, onlineDate=1765176479243, onlineDateStr=2025-12-08, pubDate=1764777600000, pubDateStr=2025-12-04, doiRegisterDate=null, doiRegisterDateStr=null, onlineIssueDate=1765176479243, onlineIssueDateStr=2025-12-08, onlineJustAcceptDate=null, onlineJustAcceptDateStr=null, onlineFirstDate=null, onlineFirstDateStr=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, createTime=1765176479243, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1765176479243, updator=13701087609, issue=Issue{id=1204800727341310425, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, year='2025', volume='65', issue='12', pageStart='5191', pageEnd='5649', issueExtLink='null', onlineDate='null', pubDate='null', beforeIssueId=null, nextIssueId=null, price=null, status=1, issueComplete=1, articleOrder=1, issueType=-1, specialIssue=null, createTime=1765176477513, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1765176611928, updator=13701087609, preIssue=null, nextIssue=null, ext={EN=IssueExt(id=1204801291189986067, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, issueId=1204800727341310425, language=EN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=), CN=IssueExt(id=1204801291189986068, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, issueId=1204800727341310425, language=CN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=)}, issueFiles=null}, startPage=5325, endPage=5338, ext={EN=ArticleExt(id=1204800735130133258, articleId=1204800734601650916, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, language=EN, title=Isolation and antibiotic resistance analysis of intestinal antibiotic-resistant bacterial strains from five typical Corvidae species in plateau cities, columnId=1192149543992045670, journalTitle=Acta Microbiologica Sinica, columnName=Research Article, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

Objective To systematically understand the antibiotic resistance and the distribution of resistance genes of intestinal antibiotic-resistant bacteria in Corvidae species on plateaus. Methods The conventional culture method and sequencing were employed to analyze 71 intestinal samples from five typical Corvidae species in plateau cities. Results A total of 70 bacterial strains were isolated, belonging to 25 species, 14 genera of 3 phyla. The highest number of strains was isolated from the medium containing sulfamethoxazole and the intestinal samples of Corvus macrorhynchos, with Enterococcus and Enterococcus mundtii being the dominant genus and species, respectively. The Kirby-Bauer disk diffusion test revealed that the isolated strains had the highest resistance rate to polymyxin antibiotics, and all the strains exhibited multidrug resistance, with nearly 40% being superbugs resistant to 10 or more antibiotics. Among the seven major categories of resistance genes, carbapenem resistance genes showed the highest detection rate, with tetD being the most frequently detected resistance gene. The detection rates of integrons and gene cassettes were both low. Conclusion Avian species of Corvidae exhibit high diversity and widespread prevalence of multidrug-resistant bacterial strains in their intestinal microbiota. Antibiotic resistance genes are widely present within these strains and exhibit significant transmission potential. As a result, they serve as veritable reservoirs and vectors for antibiotic-resistant bacteria and resistance genes, posing challenges and threats to human public health, medical care, and environmental safety. This study fills the gap in research on intestinal antibiotic-resistant bacteria and their antibiotic resistance in Corvidae birds, providing a scientific basis for subsequent assessments of the transmission risk of antibiotic resistance mediated by wild birds and the formulation of prevention and control strategies.

, correspAuthors=Wen WANG, authorNote=null, correspAuthorsNote=
*E-mail:
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目的 系统了解高原鸦科鸟类肠道抗生素耐药菌的耐药性及耐药基因分布情况。 方法 采用传统培养方法与测序技术相结合的方式对高原城市5种典型鸦科鸟类的71份肠道内容物样本进行分析。 结果 共分离获得70株菌株，分属于3门14属25种。在含磺胺甲噁唑的培养基和大嘴乌鸦(Corvus macrorhynchos)肠道样本中分离出的菌株数量最多。肠球菌属(Enterococcus)为优势属，其下的蒙氏肠球菌(Enterococcus mundtii)为优势种。通过药敏纸片琼脂扩散法(Kirby-Bauer法)检测发现分离菌株对多黏菌素类抗生素的耐药率最高，且所有分离菌株均呈现多重耐药性，其中10重及以上耐药的超级细菌占比近四成。在七大类耐药基因中碳青霉烯类耐药基因检出率最高，检出率最高的耐药基因为tetD。整合子和基因盒的检出率均较低。 结论 鸦科鸟类肠道内耐药菌株种类多样且普遍具有多重耐药性，耐药基因广泛存在且具有较强的传播潜能，是名副其实的耐药菌和耐药基因的储存库与传播媒介，对人类公共卫生医疗和环境安全构成挑战与威胁。本研究填补了鸦科鸟类肠道耐药菌及其抗生素耐药性研究的空白，为后续评估野生鸟类介导的抗生素耐药性传播风险以及制定公共卫生防控策略提供了初步科学依据。

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Antimicrobial Resistance & Infection Control, 2023, 12(1): 32., articleTitle=Quaternary ammonium disinfectants and antiseptics: tolerance, resistance and potential impact on antibiotic resistance, refAbstract=null)], funds=[Fund(id=1217784602354176510, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, articleId=1204800734601650916, awardId=32111530018, language=EN, fundingSource=International Cooperation and Exchange of the National Natural Science Foundation of China(32111530018), fundOrder=null, country=null), Fund(id=1217784602433868293, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, articleId=1204800734601650916, awardId=32111530018, language=CN, fundingSource=国家自然科学基金国际(地区)合作与交流项目(32111530018), fundOrder=null, country=null), Fund(id=1217784602580668943, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, articleId=1204800734601650916, awardId=2022-HZ-812, language=EN, fundingSource=Project of Qinghai Provincial Department of Science and Technology(2022-HZ-812), fundOrder=null, country=null), Fund(id=1217784602710692372, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, articleId=1204800734601650916, awardId=2022-HZ-812, language=CN, fundingSource=青海省科学技术厅项目(2022-HZ-812), fundOrder=null, country=null)], companyList=[AuthorCompany(id=1217784597069353102, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, articleId=1204800734601650916, xref=1., ext=[AuthorCompanyExt(id=1217784597077741712, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, articleId=1204800734601650916, companyId=1217784597069353102, language=EN, country=null, province=null, city=null, postcode=null, companyName=null, departmentName=null, remark=1.State Key Laboratory of Plateau Ecology and Agriculture, Qinghai University, Xining, Qinghai, China), AuthorCompanyExt(id=1217784597086130321, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, articleId=1204800734601650916, companyId=1217784597069353102, language=CN, country=null, province=null, city=null, postcode=null, companyName=null, departmentName=null, remark=1.青海大学，省部共建三江源生态与高原农牧业国家重点实验室，青海 西宁)]), AuthorCompany(id=1217784597186793629, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, articleId=1204800734601650916, xref=2., ext=[AuthorCompanyExt(id=1217784597195182237, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, articleId=1204800734601650916, companyId=1217784597186793629, language=EN, country=null, province=null, city=null, postcode=null, companyName=null, departmentName=null, remark=2.College of Ecological and Environmental Engineering, Qinghai University, Xining, Qinghai, China), AuthorCompanyExt(id=1217784597203570846, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, articleId=1204800734601650916, companyId=1217784597186793629, language=CN, country=null, province=null, city=null, postcode=null, companyName=null, departmentName=null, remark=2.青海大学 生态环境工程学院，青海 西宁)])], figs=[ArticleFig(id=1217784600659677591, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, articleId=1204800734601650916, language=EN, label=Figure 1, caption=Number of isolated strains at the genus level from five crow species., figureFileSmall=Ptewzj2UXG4tHn2oz9GI/Q==, figureFileBig=fvawdfG+jWrzirMjnnIk4A==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1217784600768729501, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, articleId=1204800734601650916, language=CN, label=图1, caption=五种鸦科鸟类在属水平上分离出的菌株数量, figureFileSmall=Ptewzj2UXG4tHn2oz9GI/Q==, figureFileBig=fvawdfG+jWrzirMjnnIk4A==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1217784600894558630, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, articleId=1204800734601650916, language=EN, label=Figure 2, caption=Resistance rate of isolated strains to 21 kinds of antibiotics. A: The resistance rates of all isolated strains to 21 antibiotics across 8 categories; B: Antibiotic resistance rates of isolated bacterial strains from different corvid bird species against 21 types of antibiotics. AMX: Amoxicillin; CAZ: Ceftazidime; MEM: Meropenem; AT: Aztreonam; OX: Oxacillin; AK: Amikacin; KAN: Kanamycin; STR: Streptomycin; GM: Gentamicin; ENR: Enrofloxacin; OFX: Ofloxacin; CIP: Ciprofloxacin; TMP: Trimethoprim; SIZ: Sulfisoxazole; SXT: Trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole (co-trimoxazole); E: Erythromycin; AZM: Azithromycin; PB: Polymyxin B; TE: Tetracycline; MI: Minocycline; C: Chloramphenicol., figureFileSmall=NvzMuwjH9/W+2t6jzNPHNw==, figureFileBig=B81bNywEe2YHj/zmARRDrA==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1217784601032970668, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, articleId=1204800734601650916, language=CN, label=图2, caption=分离菌株对21种抗生素的耐药率。A：所有分离菌株对八大类21种抗生素的耐药率；B：不同鸦科鸟类分离菌株对21种抗生素的耐药率。AMX：阿莫西林；CAZ：头孢他啶；MEM：美罗培南；AT：氨曲南；OX：苯唑西林；AK：丁胺卡那；KAN：卡那霉素；STR：链霉素；GM：庆大霉素；ENR：恩诺沙星；OFX：氧氟沙星；CIP：环丙沙星；TMP：甲氧苄胺嘧啶；SIZ：磺胺异噁唑；SXT：复方新诺明；E：红霉素；AZM：阿奇霉素；PB：多黏菌素B；TE：四环素；MI：米诺环素；C：氯霉素。, figureFileSmall=NvzMuwjH9/W+2t6jzNPHNw==, figureFileBig=B81bNywEe2YHj/zmARRDrA==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1217784601137828271, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, articleId=1204800734601650916, language=EN, label=Figure 3, caption=Analysis of drug resistance susceptibility and multidrug resistance of isolated strains. A: Statistics on RIS rate of antibiotic-resistant bacteria (R indicates resistance; I indicates intermediate susceptibility; S indicates sensitivity); B: Heat map of multiple drug resistance of antibiotic-resistant bacteria (The horizontal axis represents abbreviations of antibiotics. The color ranging from dark blue to dark red indicates that the number of strains increases from small to large)., figureFileSmall=/xIYNPPLM1fEB5OXX5VWlw==, figureFileBig=uzqYr9PUBhVesJ2YkJG4ug==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1217784601263657400, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, articleId=1204800734601650916, language=CN, label=图3, caption=分离菌株的耐药敏感程度和多重耐药性分析。A：耐药菌RIS率统计图(R表示耐药；I表示中介；S表示敏感)；B：耐药菌多重耐药性热图(横坐标为抗生素简写。图中由深蓝色至深红色表示菌株数量由少至多)。, figureFileSmall=/xIYNPPLM1fEB5OXX5VWlw==, figureFileBig=uzqYr9PUBhVesJ2YkJG4ug==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1217784601402069440, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, articleId=1204800734601650916, language=EN, label=Figure 4, caption=Detection rate of resistance genes. A: Detection results of resistance genes in seven categories; B: Detection results of 28 resistance genes., figureFileSmall=wDHijrI9lXTwFQ9fGiiPRQ==, figureFileBig=cVX76LpbTIqbdcEEEORuwA==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1217784601473372615, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, articleId=1204800734601650916, language=CN, label=图4, caption=耐药基因检出率柱状图。A：七大类耐药基因检出率；B：28种耐药基因检出率。, figureFileSmall=wDHijrI9lXTwFQ9fGiiPRQ==, figureFileBig=cVX76LpbTIqbdcEEEORuwA==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1217784601548870094, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, articleId=1204800734601650916, language=EN, label=Figure 5, caption=Bar chart of detection rate of integrons in drug-resistant bacteria. A: Detection rate of integrons of drug-resistant bacteria; B: Detection rate of gene cassettes in integrons of drug-resistant bacteria., figureFileSmall=oSnudoNsvkiPu1CZnJUnHQ==, figureFileBig=S28e06ZxgrCojgxZ075euQ==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1217784601670504916, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, articleId=1204800734601650916, language=CN, label=图5, caption=耐药菌整合子检出率柱状图。A：耐药菌整合子检出率；B：耐药菌整合子中基因盒检出率。, figureFileSmall=oSnudoNsvkiPu1CZnJUnHQ==, figureFileBig=S28e06ZxgrCojgxZ075euQ==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1217784601792139737, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, articleId=1204800734601650916, language=EN, label=Table 1, caption=

Result of sampling

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
SpeciesSampling point coordinatesNumber of samples
Pyrrhocorax pyrrhocorax101°16′43″E, 36°40′01″N19
Corvus dauuricus101°17′26″E, 36°41′21″N12
Corvus frugilegus101°54′10″E, 37°04′10″N11
Corvus macrorhynchos101°55′43″E, 35°15′21″N16
Corvus corax96°59′35″E, 32°59′25″N13
), ArticleFig(id=1217784601917968869, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, articleId=1204800734601650916, language=CN, label=表1, caption=

采样结果统计

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
SpeciesSampling point coordinatesNumber of samples
Pyrrhocorax pyrrhocorax101°16′43″E, 36°40′01″N19
Corvus dauuricus101°17′26″E, 36°41′21″N12
Corvus frugilegus101°54′10″E, 37°04′10″N11
Corvus macrorhynchos101°55′43″E, 35°15′21″N16
Corvus corax96°59′35″E, 32°59′25″N13
), ArticleFig(id=1217784602022826474, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, articleId=1204800734601650916, language=EN, label=Table 2, caption=

Zone diameter breakpoints of disc diffusion method

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
Antibiotic categoriesAntibioticsAbbreviationDrug content (μg)Zone diameter breakpoints (mm)
RIS
β-lactamsAmoxicillinAMX20≤1314-16≥17
CeftazidimeCAZ30≤1415-17≥18
MeropenemMEM10≤1314-15≥16
AztreonamAT30≤1718-20≥21
OxacillinOX1≤1011-12≥13
AminoglycosidesAmikacinAK30≤1213-14≥15
KanamycinKAN30≤1415-16≥17
StreptomycinSTR10≤1112-14≥15
GentamicinGM10≤1213-14≥15
QuinolonesEnrofloxacinENR10≤1415-19≥20
OfloxacinOFX5≤1314-16≥17
CiprofloxacinCIP5≤1516-20≥21
SulfonamidesTrimethoprimTMP5≤1011-13≥14
SulfisoxazoleSIZ300≤1213-16≥17
CotrimoxazoleSXT25≤1011-13≥14
ChloramphenicolsChloramphenicolC30≤1213-17≥18
MacrolidesErythromycinE15≤1213-23≥24
AzithromycinAZM15≤1314-22≥23
PolymyxinsPolymyxin BPB300≤89-10≥11
TetracyclinesTetracyclineTE30≤1112-14≥15
MinocyclineMI30≤1011-13≥14
), ArticleFig(id=1217784602157044212, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, articleId=1204800734601650916, language=CN, label=表2, caption=

药敏实验的区域直径折点

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
Antibiotic categoriesAntibioticsAbbreviationDrug content (μg)Zone diameter breakpoints (mm)
RIS
β-lactamsAmoxicillinAMX20≤1314-16≥17
CeftazidimeCAZ30≤1415-17≥18
MeropenemMEM10≤1314-15≥16
AztreonamAT30≤1718-20≥21
OxacillinOX1≤1011-12≥13
AminoglycosidesAmikacinAK30≤1213-14≥15
KanamycinKAN30≤1415-16≥17
StreptomycinSTR10≤1112-14≥15
GentamicinGM10≤1213-14≥15
QuinolonesEnrofloxacinENR10≤1415-19≥20
OfloxacinOFX5≤1314-16≥17
CiprofloxacinCIP5≤1516-20≥21
SulfonamidesTrimethoprimTMP5≤1011-13≥14
SulfisoxazoleSIZ300≤1213-16≥17
CotrimoxazoleSXT25≤1011-13≥14
ChloramphenicolsChloramphenicolC30≤1213-17≥18
MacrolidesErythromycinE15≤1213-23≥24
AzithromycinAZM15≤1314-22≥23
PolymyxinsPolymyxin BPB300≤89-10≥11
TetracyclinesTetracyclineTE30≤1112-14≥15
MinocyclineMI30≤1011-13≥14
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高原城市5种典型鸦科鸟类肠道耐药菌株的分离及其耐药性分析
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崔全超 1 , 王优 1 , 樊思彤 2 , 李慧雯 2 , 王稳 1, *
微生物学报 | 研究报告 2025,65(12): 5325-5338
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微生物学报 | 研究报告 2025, 65(12): 5325-5338
高原城市5种典型鸦科鸟类肠道耐药菌株的分离及其耐药性分析
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崔全超1, 王优1, 樊思彤2, 李慧雯2, 王稳1, *
作者信息
  • 1.青海大学，省部共建三江源生态与高原农牧业国家重点实验室，青海 西宁
  • 2.青海大学 生态环境工程学院，青海 西宁
Isolation and antibiotic resistance analysis of intestinal antibiotic-resistant bacterial strains from five typical Corvidae species in plateau cities
Quanchao CUI1, You WANG1, Sitong FAN2, Huiwen LI2, Wen WANG1, *
Affiliations
  • 1.State Key Laboratory of Plateau Ecology and Agriculture, Qinghai University, Xining, Qinghai, China
  • 2.College of Ecological and Environmental Engineering, Qinghai University, Xining, Qinghai, China
出版时间: 2025-12-04 doi: 10.13343/j.cnki.wsxb.20250336
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摘要
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目的 系统了解高原鸦科鸟类肠道抗生素耐药菌的耐药性及耐药基因分布情况。 方法 采用传统培养方法与测序技术相结合的方式对高原城市5种典型鸦科鸟类的71份肠道内容物样本进行分析。 结果 共分离获得70株菌株，分属于3门14属25种。在含磺胺甲噁唑的培养基和大嘴乌鸦(Corvus macrorhynchos)肠道样本中分离出的菌株数量最多。肠球菌属(Enterococcus)为优势属，其下的蒙氏肠球菌(Enterococcus mundtii)为优势种。通过药敏纸片琼脂扩散法(Kirby-Bauer法)检测发现分离菌株对多黏菌素类抗生素的耐药率最高，且所有分离菌株均呈现多重耐药性，其中10重及以上耐药的超级细菌占比近四成。在七大类耐药基因中碳青霉烯类耐药基因检出率最高，检出率最高的耐药基因为tetD。整合子和基因盒的检出率均较低。 结论 鸦科鸟类肠道内耐药菌株种类多样且普遍具有多重耐药性，耐药基因广泛存在且具有较强的传播潜能，是名副其实的耐药菌和耐药基因的储存库与传播媒介，对人类公共卫生医疗和环境安全构成挑战与威胁。本研究填补了鸦科鸟类肠道耐药菌及其抗生素耐药性研究的空白，为后续评估野生鸟类介导的抗生素耐药性传播风险以及制定公共卫生防控策略提供了初步科学依据。

鸦科鸟类  /  肠道菌群  /  抗生素耐药菌  /  抗生素耐药基因

Objective To systematically understand the antibiotic resistance and the distribution of resistance genes of intestinal antibiotic-resistant bacteria in Corvidae species on plateaus. Methods The conventional culture method and sequencing were employed to analyze 71 intestinal samples from five typical Corvidae species in plateau cities. Results A total of 70 bacterial strains were isolated, belonging to 25 species, 14 genera of 3 phyla. The highest number of strains was isolated from the medium containing sulfamethoxazole and the intestinal samples of Corvus macrorhynchos, with Enterococcus and Enterococcus mundtii being the dominant genus and species, respectively. The Kirby-Bauer disk diffusion test revealed that the isolated strains had the highest resistance rate to polymyxin antibiotics, and all the strains exhibited multidrug resistance, with nearly 40% being superbugs resistant to 10 or more antibiotics. Among the seven major categories of resistance genes, carbapenem resistance genes showed the highest detection rate, with tetD being the most frequently detected resistance gene. The detection rates of integrons and gene cassettes were both low. Conclusion Avian species of Corvidae exhibit high diversity and widespread prevalence of multidrug-resistant bacterial strains in their intestinal microbiota. Antibiotic resistance genes are widely present within these strains and exhibit significant transmission potential. As a result, they serve as veritable reservoirs and vectors for antibiotic-resistant bacteria and resistance genes, posing challenges and threats to human public health, medical care, and environmental safety. This study fills the gap in research on intestinal antibiotic-resistant bacteria and their antibiotic resistance in Corvidae birds, providing a scientific basis for subsequent assessments of the transmission risk of antibiotic resistance mediated by wild birds and the formulation of prevention and control strategies.

Corvidae birds  /  intestinal microbiota  /  antibiotic-resistant bacteria  /  antibiotic resistance genes
崔全超, 王优, 樊思彤, 李慧雯, 王稳. 高原城市5种典型鸦科鸟类肠道耐药菌株的分离及其耐药性分析. 微生物学报, 2025 , 65 (12) : 5325 -5338 . DOI: 10.13343/j.cnki.wsxb.20250336
Quanchao CUI, You WANG, Sitong FAN, Huiwen LI, Wen WANG. Isolation and antibiotic resistance analysis of intestinal antibiotic-resistant bacterial strains from five typical Corvidae species in plateau cities[J]. Acta Microbiologica Sinica, 2025 , 65 (12) : 5325 -5338 . DOI: 10.13343/j.cnki.wsxb.20250336
正文
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抗生素是人类历史上里程碑式的发现，其不仅可在人类疾病治疗中显著降低感染性疾病的死亡率，而且在畜牧养殖中可用于治疗动物疾病、促进动物生长；同时，抗生素还应用于农业领域以防治植物病害，在维护人类公共卫生安全、保障农牧产业效益等方面发挥着重要作用[1]。正是由于抗生素在这些方面的优势，其使用量大幅增加，甚至出现滥用现象，使得抗生素成为一种细菌选择压力广泛存在于环境中。细菌可通过基因突变或水平基因转移等方式获得耐药性以适应环境，进而进化为耐药菌甚至超级耐药菌，致使许多传统抗生素的疗效下降甚至消失，给感染性疾病的治疗带来困难[2]。细菌作为肠道微生物的重要组成部分，广泛存在于肠道中。耐药菌的产生使耐药性在肠道菌株间迅速传播，致使鸟类肠道成为天然的耐药菌储存库[3]。目前，关于抗生素及其耐药菌的研究已较为完善，覆盖了高原鼠兔(Ochotona curzoniae)、啮齿目(Rodents)等多个方向[4-5]。近年来，关于鸟类肠道微生物中耐药菌和耐药基因的研究也逐渐增多。Cao等[6]和Luo等[7]分别对10种不同候鸟和7种野生鸟类及其栖息环境的耐药基因组和微生物组进行了分析，揭示了鸟类肠道微生物群落结构、可移动遗传元件(mobile genetic elements, MGEs)和环境残留抗生素对耐药基因组的影响，但在鸦科(Corvidae)鸟类中的相关研究较少。
鸦科鸟类可通过传播种子、进行生物监测等方式提供生态系统服务，但也会因觅食垃圾、发出噪声和传播病原等行为对生态系统产生负面影响，在生态系统中具有双面作用[8]。作为野生兼性食腐鸟类，鸦科鸟类活动范围广泛、食性多样且复杂，更易接触存在抗生素的环境，成为抗生素耐药菌和抗生素耐药基因的传播媒介[9]。此外，鸦科鸟类体内还携带大量病原体，且具有极强的传播潜能，在病原体和寄生虫的传播动力学中发挥作用[10]。与大多数受城市化负面影响的鸟种不同，鸦科鸟种凭借其复杂的食性、高等的认知等优势对城市具有极强的适应能力，成为为数不多的城市适应鸟类，其活动范围与人类高度重合[11]。也正因如此，鸦科鸟类携带的病原体和耐药菌能更频繁地与人类和周围环境接触，成为病原菌和抗生素耐药性的传播媒介，给公共卫生安全领域带来重大挑战和威胁[12]。由于鸦科鸟类具有极强的病原传播潜能且与人类密切接触，近年来对其的研究主要集中在病原体传播方面，而对于鸦科鸟类肠道菌群及其在抗生素耐药性传播方面的研究尚显不足。
本研究将传统分离培养方法与测序技术相结合，利用两者的优势初步对秃鼻乌鸦(Corvus frugilegus)、大嘴乌鸦(Corvus macrorhynchos)、红嘴山鸦(Pyrrhocorax pyrrhocorax)、渡鸦(Corvus corax)和达乌里寒鸦(Corvus dauuricus)这5种青藏高原典型鸦科鸟类的肠道耐药菌进行分离、培养和鉴定，以期初步掌握青藏高原鸦科鸟类肠道内耐药菌株的分布、组成、耐药程度以及耐药基因的分布和传播情况。
1 材料与方法
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1.1 材料
1.1.1 样本
本研究采集了71只鸦科鸟类(表1)，采样地点分别为青海省湟源县(达乌里寒鸦、红嘴山鸦)、互助土族自治县(秃鼻乌鸦)、泽库县(大嘴乌鸦)和玉树藏族自治州(渡鸦)。5种鸦科鸟类的获取数量差异不大，数量由高到低依次为：红嘴山鸦(19只)、大嘴乌鸦(16只)、渡鸦(13只)、达乌里寒鸦(12只)、秃鼻乌鸦(11只)。取同一只鸟的肠道内容物或粪便混合后，加入适量无菌水，12 000×g离心2 min，吸取上清液作为一份样品，最终获得71份样品。本研究方案已通过青海大学医学院伦理委员会审定。
1.1.2 主要试剂和仪器
细菌基因组DNA提取试剂盒，宝日医生物技术(北京)有限公司；DL2000 DNA marker，宝生物工程(大连)有限公司；药敏纸片，杭州微生物试剂有限公司；Biosharp琼脂糖，北京白鲨易科技有限公司；胶回收试剂盒，山东思科捷生物技术有限公司；PCR引物，由苏州金唯智生物科技有限公司合成。
无菌超净台、恒温培养箱、摇床，上海昕仪仪器仪表有限公司；PCR扩增仪，赛默飞世尔科技(中国)有限公司；凝胶成像系统，Bio-Rad Laboratories公司。
1.2 菌株分离与保种
对上清液依次稀释101、103、105、107倍后，涂布于含5种抗生素的LB培养基上，5种抗生素浓度设为美国临床实验室标准化协会(clinical and laboratory standards institute, CLSI)发布的最小抑菌浓度的1倍和100倍(最小抑菌浓度：多黏菌素B为4 mg/L、替加环素为4 mg/L、亚胺培南为4 mg/L、氨苄青霉素为32 mg/L、磺胺甲恶唑为76 mg/L)，置于37 ℃恒温培养箱内培养24 h。观察菌株生长情况，若菌株可正常生长，待菌落生长达到操作要求后挑取单菌落进行划线培养以纯化单菌落。将纯化后的单菌落接种至含1 mL培养液的离心管中，37 ℃、180×g振荡培养16 h，取700 µL菌液加入300 µL甘油混匀保种，置于-80 ℃冰箱中保存备用，每株菌保种3管。
1.3 药敏实验
根据美国临床和实验室标准协会提出的药敏纸片琼脂扩散法(Kirby-Bauer法)对分离菌株进行八大类21种抗生素的耐药表型检测。将麦氏度为0.5的菌液均匀涂布在LB培养基上，用灭菌镊子夹取含不同抗生素的药敏片贴于培养基表面，轻轻按压防止药敏片脱落，每个平板保持适当间距贴4个药敏片。平板倒置后置于37 ℃恒温培养箱中培养16 h。培养后用游标卡尺测量并记录抑菌圈直径，药敏片类别、含量、缩写以及折点信息详见表2。以由中国兽医药品监察所提供的大肠埃希氏菌(ATCC 25922)为质控菌株，若质控菌株的药物敏感度正常，则药敏试验结果可靠。
1.4 耐药基因检测
参考文献[13]设计28种耐药基因的引物，运用PCR扩增技术检测所有分离菌株是否存在耐药基因。PCR扩增体系(20 µL)：2×Taq PCR Master Mix 10 µL，上、下游引物(0.4 µmol/L)各0.8 µL，DNA模板1 µL，ddH2O 7.4 µL。PCR反应条件：95 ℃预变性5 min；95 ℃变性30 s，引物退火温度降低5 ℃后持续30 s，72 ℃延伸1 min，共5个循环；95 ℃变性30 s，引物退火温度下持续30 s，72 ℃延伸1 min，共25个循环；72 ℃终延伸10 min；4 ℃保存。扩增完成后，取PCR产物和DNA marker各8 µL进行1.2%琼脂糖凝胶电泳，在蛋白印迹成像系统下观察结果。将出现相应条带的PCR产物送至天津金唯智生物科技有限公司进行测序，之后将序列上传至NCBI运用BLAST进行比对。
1.5 整合子和基因盒的检测
对3类整合子整合酶基因进行检测，参考文献[14]并比照整合子保守区序列合成对应引物筛选出整合酶基因检测呈阳性的分离菌，并对其基因盒进行扩增及测序。PCR扩增体系(50 µL)：2×Taq PCR Master Mix 25 µL，上、下游引物(0.4 µmol/L)各2 µL，DNA模板2.5 µL，ddH2O 18.5 µL。整合子整合酶PCR反应条件：95 ℃预变性5 min；95 ℃变性30 s，引物退火温度降低5 ℃后持续30 s，72 ℃延伸1 min，共5个循环；95 ℃变性30 s，引物退火温度持续30 s，72 ℃延伸1 min，共25个循环；72 ℃终延伸10 min。Ⅰ类整合子基因盒PCR反应条件：94 ℃预变性1 min；98 ℃变性30 s，55 ℃退火30 s，72 ℃延伸4 min，共35个循环；72 ℃终延伸10 min。Ⅱ类整合子基因盒PCR反应条件：94 ℃预变性1 min；98 ℃变性30 s，50 ℃退火30 s，72 ℃延伸4 min，共12个循环；98 ℃变性30 s，56 ℃退火30 s，72 ℃延伸4 min，共30个循环；72 ℃终延伸10 min。Ⅲ类整合子基因盒PCR反应条件：94 ℃预变性5 min；94 ℃变性45 s，55 ℃退火45 s，72 ℃延伸2 min，共36个循环；72 ℃终延伸5 min。扩增完成后，取PCR产物和DNA marker各15 µL进行1.2%琼脂糖凝胶电泳，之后在凝胶成像系统下观察。对出现整合子基因盒条带的PCR电泳凝胶进行切割并使用胶回收试剂盒回收，送至天津金唯智生物科技有限公司进行测序，之后将序列上传至NCBI，运用BLAST进行比对。
2 结果与分析
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2.1 样本采集与菌株分离情况
采用不同浓度的5种抗生素进行菌株分离，共分离获得70株菌株。从筛选条件来看，在100×抗生素浓度下筛选出的菌株占比31.43%，在1×抗生素浓度下筛选出的菌株占比68.57%。不同浓度下筛选出的菌株数仅在达乌里寒鸦样本中存在显著差异。在添加了磺胺甲噁唑的培养基上分离出的菌株数量最多(31.43%)。在添加替加环素的条件下仅在1×浓度下分离出3株菌株，分别来源于达乌里寒鸦(2株)和红嘴山鸦(1株)；而在添加其他4种抗生素的条件下均在1×和100×浓度下分离出了菌株，这表明替加环素与其他4种抗生素相比具有更强的抑菌效果。从菌株来源看，5种鸦科鸟类中所分离出的菌株数量差异不大，由高到低依次为大嘴乌鸦(19株)、达乌里寒鸦(15株)、红嘴山鸦(13株)、秃鼻乌鸦(12株)、渡鸦(11株)。
2.2 分离菌株的组成
对70株菌株进行测序比对后发现，其分属于3门14属25种[原始数据存储在国家微生物科学数据中心(http://nmdc.cn)，编号分别为NMDCN00098QR-NMDCN00098QT、NMDCN00098QU、NMDCN00098QV、NMDCN00098R0-NMDCN00098R9、NMDCN00098RA-NMDCN00098RV、NMDCN00098S0-NMDCN00098S9、NMDCN00098SA-NMDCN00098SV、NMDCN00098T0]。在门水平上，芽孢杆菌门(Bacillota, 57.14%)和假单胞菌门(Pseudomonadota, 41.43%)的相对丰度合计超过98.00%。两者在大嘴乌鸦、渡鸦和红嘴山鸦内分离出的菌株数相近，而在达乌里寒鸦和秃鼻乌鸦内芽孢杆菌门的菌株数多于假单胞菌门。放线菌门(Actinomycetota)的相对丰度最低，仅分离出1株，来源于大嘴乌鸦。在属水平上，肠球菌属(Enterococcus, 45.71%)和假单胞菌属(Pseudomonas, 22.86%)为优势属。与其他4种鸦科鸟类相比(图1)，大嘴乌鸦样本中分离出的属最多(9个属)，且牛奶杆菌属(Galactobacter)、柔武氏菌属(Raoultella)和沙雷氏菌属(Serratia)为其特有。在种水平上，蒙氏肠球菌(Enterococcus mundtii，15株，21.43%)为优势种。
2.3 耐药表型结果
如图2A所示，分离出的菌株对八大类21种抗生素具有不同的耐药性。从八大类抗生素的角度看，所有分离菌对多黏菌素类抗生素的耐药率最高(58.57%)，对氯霉素类抗生素的耐药率最低(5.71%)。从21种抗生素的角度看，所有分离菌对苯唑西林的耐药率最高(85.71%)，对美罗培南和氯霉素的耐药率最低(5.71%)。5种鸦科鸟类分离菌株对苯唑西林、磺胺异噁唑和氨曲南3种抗生素的耐药率均较高且相近(图2B)，而对喹诺酮类抗生素的耐药率则恰好相反。值得注意的是，红嘴山鸦分离菌株对喹诺酮类、丁胺卡那、卡那霉素、链霉素等抗生素的耐药率高于其他鸦科鸟类，对苯唑西林的耐药率高达100.00%。
耐药敏感程度统计分析显示(图3A)，分离菌株已对21种抗生素中的10种产生较强耐药性，其R值检出率均大于等于50%。R值检出率最高的抗生素为苯唑西林和磺胺异噁唑，两者R值检出率均大于等于70%；R值检出率最低的抗生素为美罗培南和氯霉素，这表明苯唑西林和磺胺异噁唑的抑菌效果明显减弱，而美罗培南和氯霉素仍然具有较强的抑菌效果。此外，所有分离菌株对多黏菌素B几乎完全处于耐药或中介边缘，敏感型菌株极少出现。
对分离菌株的多重耐药性进行热图分析(图3B)，结果表明所有分离菌株至少具有3重耐药性，4重、5重和13重耐药的菌株丰度最高，且这些菌株主要对苯唑西林、磺胺异噁唑、氨曲南、多黏菌素B、链霉素、红霉素、阿奇霉素和阿莫西林这几类抗生素耐药。若以具有10重及以上耐药性为标准来定义超级细菌(superbug)，分离菌株中超级细菌有26株，占比高达37.14%。
2.4 耐药基因型结果
根据耐药基因库内七大类28种耐药基因对分离菌株进行耐药基因筛查发现(图4)，碳青霉烯类和四环素类耐药基因检出率最高，分别为74.29%、58.57%；磺胺类和多肽类耐药基因检出率最低，为18.57%；喹诺酮类、氨基糖苷类和大环内酯类耐药基因检出率居中，分别为38.57%、37.14%、28.57%。七大类中检出率最高的耐药基因分别为blaIMP和blaOXA-58、tetD、ermA、sul3、aac(6′)-Ib-cr、qnrD、mcr-1。在28种耐药基因中tetD检出率最高，为32.86%，ermB、mphB和sul2未检出。
从样本来源角度分析，检出耐药基因的菌株比例由高到低依次为：渡鸦(100.00%, 11/11)、大嘴乌鸦(94.74%, 18/19)、达乌里寒鸦(93.33%, 14/15)、红嘴山鸦(92.31%, 12/13)、秃鼻乌鸦(91.67%, 11/12)。值得注意的是，单一菌株检出耐药基因种数最多达11种，该菌株来源于大嘴乌鸦，此外共有4株分离菌株未检出耐药基因。
2.5 整合子和基因盒检测结果
对整合子和基因盒进行检测(图5)，其中整合酶基因intl-2和intl-3的阳性检出率较高，均为25.71%；intl-1的检出率较低，为10.00%。研究发现7株分离菌株同时携带多种类型整合子，其中3株同时携带I类和Ⅱ类整合子，2株同时携带I类和Ⅲ类整合子，2株同时携带Ⅱ类和Ⅲ类整合子。整合酶阳性菌株中基因盒总检出率为10.26% (4/39)，I类基因盒检出率为7.69% (3/39)，Ⅲ类基因盒检出率为2.56% (1/39)，II类基因盒未检出。Ⅰ类和Ⅲ类整合子均仅检出1种基因盒类型，I类整合子耐药基因组合类型为：aadA-aac(6′)-Ib7-aac(3)-Ib-carB-58，针对氨基糖苷类和β-内酰胺类抗生素；Ⅲ类整合子耐药基因组合类型为：aadA-aad24-qacEdelta1-qacE，针对氨基糖苷类抗生素和防腐剂。
3 讨论与结论
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鸦科鸟类活动区域与人类活动区域广泛重叠，易与人类以及被污染的环境接触而获得抗生素耐药菌，成为多种抗生素耐药性的传播者[11]。本研究对青藏高原5种典型鸦科鸟类的肠道菌株进行分离，开展耐药表型和耐药基因型实验以探究鸦科鸟类肠道菌群的耐药性。5种鸦科鸟类中分离出的菌株数量差异不大，这表明5种鸦科鸟类与常见抗生素的接触程度相似，值得注意的是，仅在达乌里寒鸦和红嘴山鸦中分离出替加环素耐药菌，且菌株数量最少，这表明两者与替加环素的接触较其他3种鸟类更为频繁，而替加环素多用于临床医疗，几乎不用于畜牧养殖[15]，这说明达乌里寒鸦和红嘴山鸦可能与医疗废物的接触较多。磺胺甲噁唑与由磺胺甲噁唑和甲氧苄啶制成的复合药物复方新诺明被广泛应用于畜牧养殖等过程，以至于多数菌株对其产生抗性，这与替加环素的情况形成鲜明对比[16]。
芽孢杆菌门和假单胞菌门广泛存在于鸟类肠道内[17]。芽孢杆菌门可为宿主提供所需的营养和能量，而假单胞菌门又与宿主能量积累密切相关，两者的高比例可能与鸦科鸟类需要大量能量以应对青藏高原的高寒环境有关[18]。放线菌门大多与病原菌相关[19]，分离出的菌株中仅包含1株，分属于牛奶杆菌属的嗜缬氨酸牛奶杆菌(Galactobacter valiniphilus)。嗜缬氨酸牛奶杆菌最早由Hahne等在2019年于生牛奶中分离出来[20]，其在肠道菌群中的作用以及耐药性还需进一步研究。肠球菌属在动物胃肠道中普遍存在，本研究中蒙氏肠球菌相对丰度最大，作为肠道中重要的益生菌，其可产生肠菌素，具有较强的抑菌潜力，对维持肠道菌群的平衡发挥重要作用[21]。假单胞菌属是最多样和最普遍的细菌属，本研究中相对丰度最大的假单胞菌为韦氏假单胞菌(Pseudomonas weihenstephanensis)，最早于2016年在生牛奶中分离出，目前对其耐药性的研究相对较少[22]。克雷伯氏菌属(Klebsiella)可引起多种传染病，且已获得多重耐药性和高毒力性，推测其可能与鸦科鸟类肠道炎症的发生有关[23]。其中，肺炎克雷伯氏菌(Klebsiella pneumoniae)不仅可以造成感染，且近年来耐碳青霉烯类高毒力肺炎克雷伯氏菌的检出率越来越高[24]。本研究中分离出的巴斯德氏克雷伯氏菌(Klebsiella pasteurii)和格氏克雷伯氏菌(Klebsiella grimontii)通常与其他7种克雷伯氏菌相互作用形成Klebsiella复合物，对碳青霉烯类、头孢曲松、环丙沙星等抗生素具有一定的耐药性[25]。
K-B药敏实验被用于鉴定分离菌株的耐药表型，结果表明所有分离菌株对多黏菌素B几乎处于完全耐药或中介边缘状态。大多数革兰氏阳性菌对多黏菌素天然耐药，而多黏菌素B对革兰氏阴性菌具有强效活性。结合耐药基因检测发现，部分革兰氏阴性菌株携带mcr-1基因，参与mcr家族介导的多黏菌素B耐药。结合先前研究，革兰氏阴性菌多黏菌素B耐药性的产生可通过mgrB、phoP、phoQ、pmrB和pmrA等基因介导，这些基因与脂多糖修饰、外膜蛋白表达改变和外排泵系统激活等多黏菌素B的耐药机制有关[26]。所有分离菌株至少具有3种耐药性，耐药重数多集中在4重、5重和13重，这主要与抗生素耐药基因的共同表达和水平转移相关[27]。在5种鸦科鸟类中，红嘴山鸦肠道分离菌的耐药程度最高，推测其可能与山鸦属和鸦属在生态习性方面的差异有关，最终导致两者肠道菌群组成和多样性的不同[28]。值得注意的是，10重及以上耐药的超级细菌占比近四成，这从侧面反映了鸦科鸟类是多种病原菌的载体，且这些病原菌能够逃避多种抗生素，尤其是传统抗生素的灭杀作用，为公共医疗卫生带来挑战[29]。
对抗生素耐药基因进行检测发现，七大类耐药基因中碳青霉烯类耐药基因检出率最高，多肽类耐药基因检出率最低，主要原因如下：每一类抗生素耐药基因检出率随受检测耐药基因种数的增多而提高，碳青霉烯类耐药基因种数最多，而多肽类最少；碳青霉烯类抗生素在医疗过程中大量使用，未被吸收的药物会排入环境中，加之医疗废物处理不当、历史残留、药物非法使用等原因，增大了鸦科鸟类与碳青霉烯类抗生素的接触机会[30]。所有耐药基因中检出率最高的是tetD，其在鸦科鸟类肠道中的来源包括：内在抗性，通过肠道菌株之间的竞争和垂直基因转移产生；外部抗性，通过可移动遗传元件介导的基因水平转移获取[31]。所有分离菌株中七大类耐药基因都能被检出，但每株分离菌中并不存在每类耐药基因中的所有基因，且不同菌株内检出的耐药基因有所不同，这说明这些耐药基因已在不同乌鸦种群间传播，使乌鸦肠道成为耐药菌以及耐药基因的储存库，通过其活动传播到人类和环境中，为公共卫生、环境安全带来负担[7]。分离菌株的耐药表型与基因型之间不存在明确的相关性，可能是由耐药基因表达调控、菌株的异质性耐药、耐药表型的可逆性以及表型检测和基因型检测的局限性与不完全性所致[32]。
整合子由整合酶基因、重组位点和基因盒组成，其能够捕获和积累多种基因盒，而基因盒内可携带不同的耐药基因，在整合酶的作用下基因盒中的耐药基因能够被表达，使菌株获得多重耐药性[33]。同时，整合子可以与可移动遗传元件结合，通过水平基因转移机制在不同菌株间传递，促进耐药基因在菌株之间的广泛传播，进而对环境和人类造成威胁[34]。目前，已鉴定出的整合子有10类，与编码抗生素耐药基因有关的基因盒有5类(I、Ⅱ、Ⅲ、Ⅳ、V类整合子)[35]。本研究中3类整合子对应的整合酶均有被检出，说明在鸦科鸟类肠道菌群内3类整合子十分流行。I类整合子整合酶基因intl-1检出率最低，Ⅱ类和Ⅲ类整合子整合酶基因intl-2和Intl-3检出率较高，与先前对家禽的研究结果有所出入，可能是由野生环境和饲养环境之间的差异所致[36]。整合子基因盒类型仅有2种，耐药基因类型为氨基糖苷类和β-内酰胺类。值得注意的是，在整合子基因盒内还检测出了防腐剂抗性基因，这表明鸦科鸟类已受到防腐剂的影响，提醒我们在关注抗生素的同时要注重防腐剂的规范使用[37]。整合子和基因盒的检出率均较低，表明在鸦科鸟类肠道菌群内整合子可能不具备广泛存在性，且整合子基因盒尚未对耐药基因进行广泛的捕获和拼接。
本研究运用来自5种典型鸦科鸟类的71份样本，对鸦科鸟类肠道抗生素耐药菌的耐药性以及耐药基因的分布作了初步分析。本研究分离出70株菌株，其中克雷伯氏菌属中部分菌种已获得多重耐药性和高毒力性，而鸦科鸟类肠道可能成为高毒性耐药菌株孕育的场所。10重及以上耐药的超级菌株在鸦科鸟类肠道分离菌株中占四成，这进一步说明鸦科鸟类在多重耐药菌株传播中的作用。分离菌株对碳青霉烯类抗生素和替加环素产生抗性，说明鸦科鸟类可能与医疗废物等接触较为频繁，医疗机构附近与其他区域鸟类肠道微生物耐药性差异还需进一步研究。此外，防腐剂的使用已经对城市生物产生了影响，防腐剂规范使用不容忽视。综上所述，鸦科鸟类肠道内耐药菌株多样且普遍具有多重耐药性，耐药基因广泛存在且具有较强的传播潜能，是名副其实的耐药菌和耐药基因的储存库和传播媒介。此外，本研究存在一定的局限性，样本数量相对较少，耐药菌株的筛选较为粗糙，未对厌氧耐药菌株进行充分筛选，且并未进行耐药菌株的后续处理分析，仅对鸦科鸟类肠道耐药菌进行了初步探究。将来还需完善和改进实验步骤，对更大规模样本进行分析，进一步研究鸟类肠道耐药菌株的组成、传播以及耐药机制等内容，从多方面探究鸦科鸟类在耐药性传播方面对人类和周围环境的影响。
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崔全超：贡献数据收集与监管，进行药敏试验、耐药基因检测实验以及整合子检测实验，数据分析，软件程序，验证，完成呈现，撰写文章，撰写、审阅；王优：贡献数据收集与监管，进行解剖实验、样本采集、药敏试验以及耐药基因检测，审阅；樊思彤：贡献数据收集与监管，进行药敏试验，测量并记录抑菌圈直径；李慧雯：贡献数据收集与监管，进行耐药基因检测，进行PCR扩增和凝胶电泳；王稳：贡献提出概念，获取基金，执行调研，方法论，项目管理，提供资源，监督管理，验证，审阅。
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作者声明不存在任何可能会影响本文所报告工作的已知经济利益或个人关系。
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  • 国家自然科学基金国际(地区)合作与交流项目(32111530018)
  • 青海省科学技术厅项目(2022-HZ-812)
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2025年第65卷第12期
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doi: 10.13343/j.cnki.wsxb.20250336
  • 接收时间：2025-04-24
  • 首发时间：2025-12-08
  • 出版时间：2025-12-04
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  • 收稿日期：2025-04-24
  • 录用日期：2025-08-21
基金
International Cooperation and Exchange of the National Natural Science Foundation of China(32111530018)
国家自然科学基金国际(地区)合作与交流项目(32111530018)
Project of Qinghai Provincial Department of Science and Technology(2022-HZ-812)
青海省科学技术厅项目(2022-HZ-812)
作者信息
    1.青海大学，省部共建三江源生态与高原农牧业国家重点实验室，青海 西宁
    2.青海大学 生态环境工程学院，青海 西宁

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2种不同金属材料的力学参数
科
Family		 属数
Number of
genus		 种数
Number of
species		 占总种数比例
Percentage of
total species (%)		 属
Genus		 种数
Number of
species		 占总种数比例
Percentage of total
species (%)
鹅膏菌科Amanitaceae 2 11 5.26 鹅膏菌属 Amanita 10 4.78
小菇科 Mycenaceae 2 12 5.74 丝盖伞属 Inocybe 5 2.39
多孔菌科 Polyporaceae 8 14 6.70 蜡蘑属 Laccaria 5 2.39
红菇科 Russulaceae 3 23 11.00 小皮伞属 Marasmius 6 2.87
小菇属 Mycena 11 5.26
光柄菇属 Pluteus 5 2.39
红菇属 Russula 17 8.13
栓菌属 Trametes 5 2.39
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