Article(id=1304366145344131526, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, issueId=1304366133864321404, articleNumber=null, orderNo=null, doi=10.13343/j.cnki.wsxb.20260455, pmid=null, cstr=null, oa=null, hot=null, price=null, onlineType=0, articleFormat=0, articleType=null, articleTypeStr=research-article, receivedDate=1780156800000, receivedDateStr=2026-05-31, revisedDate=null, revisedDateStr=null, acceptedDate=1783699200000, acceptedDateStr=2026-07-11, onlineDate=1788914723001, onlineDateStr=2026-09-09, pubDate=1788451200000, pubDateStr=2026-09-04, doiRegisterDate=null, doiRegisterDateStr=null, onlineIssueDate=1788914723001, onlineIssueDateStr=2026-09-09, onlineJustAcceptDate=null, onlineJustAcceptDateStr=null, onlineFirstDate=null, onlineFirstDateStr=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, createTime=1788914723001, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1788914723001, updator=13701087609, issue=Issue{id=1304366133864321404, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, year='2026', volume='66', issue='9', pageStart='4291', pageEnd='4651', issueExtLink='null', onlineDate='null', pubDate='1788451200000', pubDateStr='2026-09-04', beforeIssueId=null, nextIssueId=null, price=null, status=1, issueComplete=1, articleOrder=1, issueType=1, specialIssue=0, createTime=1788914720263, creator='13701087609', updateTime=1788914779113, updator='13701087609', preIssue=null, nextIssue=null, articleTotal=null, ext={EN=IssueExt(id=1304366380803974113, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, issueId=1304366133864321404, language=EN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=), CN=IssueExt(id=1304366380803974114, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, issueId=1304366133864321404, language=CN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=)}, issueFiles=null, downloadFileDto=null}, startPage=4362, endPage=4379, ext={EN=ArticleExt(id=1304366145562235335, articleId=1304366145344131526, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, language=EN, title=Acetogenic bacteria and one-carbon gas biotransformation: from fundamental research to applications, columnId=1192149543727808575, journalTitle=Acta Microbiologica Sinica, columnName=Review, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

The valorization of one-carbon (C1) gases such as CO, CO2,and syngas (a mixture with H2) represents a promising route for responding to global climate change and establishing a sustainable circular economy. Acetogens, a group of obligate anaerobic microorganisms capable of efficiently assimilating C1 gases via the Wood-Ljungdahl pathway (WLP), offer a natural conversion route with high carbon atom economy for biological carbon fixation. This paper provides a systematic review of the latest advancements in C1 gases conversion by acetogens, spanning from fundamental research to industrial applications. We first elucidate the metabolic coupling between acetogens and C1 gases, delving into the biochemical basis for utilizing C1 sources. In terms of fundamental research, we highlight recent breakthroughs in energy conservation mechanisms and metabolic flux regulation. Then, we summarize how the development of advanced genetic manipulation systems, exemplified by CRISPR-Cas tools, has enhanced the titers of natural products such as acetate and ethanol and accelerated the transformation of acetogens into chassis cells for the production of high-value chemicals such as butanol and 3-hydroxybutyrate. Finally, this review analyzes the engineering challenges, including gas-liquid mass transfer limitations and energy supply bottlenecks, associated with the scale-up of gas fermentation while offering a perspective on the broad application prospects of acetogens in achieving carbon peaking and carbon neutrality goals and advancing next-generation green biomanufacturing.

, authors=Zihan XU1, Yuzhen LI1, Junzhe ZHANG1, Zhiqiong WEN1, Ziyong LIU1, Xiaoqing MA1, Fuli LI1, 2, *, authorsList=Zihan XU, Yuzhen LI, Junzhe ZHANG, Zhiqiong WEN, Ziyong LIU, Xiaoqing MA, Fuli LI, authorCompany=null, correspAuthors=Fuli LI, authorNote=

These authors contributed equally to this work.

, correspAuthorsNote=
*E-mail:
, copyrightStatement=null, copyrightOwner=null, extLink=null, articleAbsUrl=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, pdfUrl=null, pdf=null, pdfFileSize=null, pdfExtLink=null, richHtmlUrl=null, mobilePdfUrl=null, reviewReport=null, pdfFirstPage=null, abstractGraph=null, abstractGraphContent=null, abstractVideo=null, citation=null, cebUrl=null, magXmlContent=null, mapNumber=null, fund=null), CN=ArticleExt(id=1304366146954744272, articleId=1304366145344131526, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, language=CN, title=产乙酸菌与一碳气体生物转化:从基础到应用, columnId=1192149543882997826, journalTitle=微生物学报, columnName=综述, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

一碳(C1)气体(如CO、CO2及其与H2组成的合成气)的资源化利用,是应对全球气候变化及构建可持续循环经济的关键路径。产乙酸菌作为一类能够通过伍德-永达尔途径(Wood-Ljungdahl pathway, WLP)高效同化C1气体的专性厌氧微生物,为生物固碳提供了一条高碳原子经济性的天然转化通道。本文系统综述了产乙酸菌在C1气体转化领域从基础研究到工业应用的最新进展。首先,本文阐释了产乙酸菌与C1气体之间的代谢耦合关系,深入解析了其利用C1底物的生化基础。在基础研究方面,重点探讨了近年来在能量守恒机制以及代谢流调控方面的突破;同时,总结了以CRISPR-Cas为代表的先进遗传操作系统的开发,以及如何利用其提升乙酸、乙醇等天然代谢产物的产量,推动产乙酸菌向生产丁醇、3-羟基丁酸(3-hydroxybutyric acid, 3-HB)等高附加值化学品的“底盘细胞”转变。最后,本文剖析了产乙酸菌气态发酵在走向工业化规模放大时所面临的气液传质受限、能量供应瓶颈等工程挑战,并对其在助力实现“双碳”目标与下一代绿色生物制造中的广阔应用前景进行了展望。

, authors=徐子涵1, 李煜真1, 张俊哲1, 文志琼1, 刘自勇1, 马小清1, 李福利1, 2, *, authorsList=徐子涵, 李煜真, 张俊哲, 文志琼, 刘自勇, 马小清, 李福利, authorCompany=null, correspAuthors=李福利, authorNote=

作者贡献声明

徐子涵:文章框架设计与撰写、修改和完善,资料收集与整理以及最终的文字润色和校对,图表绘制;李煜真:文章撰写、修改和完善,资料收集与整理,图表绘制与美化;张俊哲:最终文字修改与校对,参考文献信息核查与补充;文志琼:文章格式修改;刘自勇:对综述提出修改意见;马小清:文章审阅与修改;李福利:提出综述的主题、框架和研究问题、文章审阅与修改建议。

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(2025-07-22)[2026-05-28]., articleTitle=null, refAbstract=null), Reference(id=1304388911028007812, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, articleId=1304366145344131526, doi=null, pmid=null, pmcid=null, year=null, volume=null, issue=null, pageStart=null, pageEnd=null, url=http://cn.jupengbio.com/, language=null, rfNumber=[101], rfOrder=104, authorNames=null, journalName=null, refType=null, unstructuredReference=巨鹏生物[EB/OL]. [2025-10-07]., articleTitle=巨鹏生物, refAbstract=null), Reference(id=1304388911099310981, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, articleId=1304366145344131526, doi=null, pmid=null, pmcid=null, year=null, volume=null, issue=null, pageStart=null, pageEnd=null, url=https://mp.weixin.qq.com/s/0brUTWn2mMDVR-dAyvhxZg, language=null, rfNumber=[102], rfOrder=105, authorNames=生物基科技, journalName=null, refType=null, unstructuredReference=生物基科技. 巨鹏生物: 合成生物学气体发酵技术的先行者, 开拓绿色生物能源新未来[EB/OL]. (2024-08-15)[2026-05-28]., articleTitle=巨鹏生物: 合成生物学气体发酵技术的先行者, 开拓绿色生物能源新未来, refAbstract=null), Reference(id=1304388911170614150, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, articleId=1304366145344131526, doi=null, pmid=null, pmcid=null, year=null, volume=null, issue=null, pageStart=null, pageEnd=null, url=https://mp.weixin.qq.com/s/0brUTWn2mMDVR-dAyvhxZg, language=null, rfNumber=[102], rfOrder=106, authorNames=BIO-BASED TECHNOLOGY, journalName=null, refType=null, unstructuredReference=BIO-BASED TECHNOLOGY. Jupeng Bio: a pioneer in synthetic biology gas fermentation technology, opening up a new future for green bio-energy[EB/OL]. (2024-08-15)[2026-05-28]., articleTitle=null, refAbstract=null), Reference(id=1304388911258694535, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, articleId=1304366145344131526, doi=null, pmid=null, pmcid=null, year=null, volume=null, issue=null, pageStart=null, pageEnd=null, url=https://mp.weixin.qq.com/s/tj57XxLVCY6UU4Bg1tlVrg, language=null, rfNumber=[103], rfOrder=107, authorNames=TK生物基材料与能源, journalName=null, refType=null, unstructuredReference=TK生物基材料与能源. 超亿元融资落地!南京食气生化, 让工业废气“变废为宝”[EB/OL]. (2026-03-25)[2026-05-28]., articleTitle=超亿元融资落地!南京食气生化, 让工业废气“变废为宝”, refAbstract=null), Reference(id=1304388911338386312, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, articleId=1304366145344131526, doi=null, pmid=null, pmcid=null, year=null, volume=null, issue=null, pageStart=null, pageEnd=null, url=https://mp.weixin.qq.com/s/tj57XxLVCY6UU4Bg1tlVrg, language=null, rfNumber=[103], rfOrder=108, authorNames=BIO-BASED MATERIALS AND ENERGY TK, journalName=null, refType=null, unstructuredReference=BIO-BASED MATERIALS AND ENERGY TK. Over 100 million yuan in funding secured! Nanjing Gasgene Biochemical turns industrial waste gas into valuable resources[EB/OL]. (2026-03-25)[2026-05-28]., articleTitle=null, refAbstract=null), Reference(id=1304388911418078089, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, articleId=1304366145344131526, doi=null, pmid=null, pmcid=null, year=null, volume=null, issue=null, pageStart=null, pageEnd=null, url=http://www.ccin.com.cn/detail/611719a97c67163111096e643080a7b6/news, language=null, rfNumber=[104], rfOrder=109, authorNames=中国化工报, journalName=null, refType=null, unstructuredReference=中国化工报. 河南生物发酵法无水乙醇项目投产[EB/OL]. (2025-12-17)[2026-06-30]., articleTitle=河南生物发酵法无水乙醇项目投产, refAbstract=null), Reference(id=1304388911506158474, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, articleId=1304366145344131526, doi=null, pmid=null, pmcid=null, year=null, volume=null, issue=null, pageStart=null, pageEnd=null, url=http://www.ccin.com.cn/detail/611719a97c67163111096e643080a7b6/news, language=null, rfNumber=[104], rfOrder=110, authorNames=CHINA CHEMICAL INDUSTRY NEWS, journalName=null, refType=null, unstructuredReference=CHINA CHEMICAL INDUSTRY NEWS. Henan Bio-fermentation anhydrous ethanol project put into operation [EB/OL]. (2025-12-17)[2026-06-30]., articleTitle=null, refAbstract=null)], funds=[Fund(id=1304388897002255125, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, articleId=1304366145344131526, awardId=32370039, language=EN, fundingSource=the National Natural Science Foundation of China(32370039), fundOrder=null, country=null), Fund(id=1304388897094529814, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, articleId=1304366145344131526, awardId=32370039, language=CN, fundingSource=国家自然科学基金(32370039), fundOrder=null, country=null), Fund(id=1304388897178415895, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, articleId=1304366145344131526, awardId=U22A20425, language=CN, fundingSource=国家自然科学基金(U22A20425), fundOrder=null, country=null)], companyList=[AuthorCompany(id=1304388889716749013, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, articleId=1304366145344131526, xref=1., ext=[AuthorCompanyExt(id=1304388889729331926, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, articleId=1304366145344131526, companyId=1304388889716749013, language=EN, country=null, province=null, city=null, postcode=null, companyName=null, departmentName=null, remark=1.State Key Laboratory of Photoelectric Conversion and Utilization of Solar Energy, Qingdao New Energy Shandong Laboratory, Shandong C1 Refinery Engineering Research Center, Qingdao Institute of Bioenergy and Bioprocess Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao, Shandong, China), AuthorCompanyExt(id=1304388889737720535, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, articleId=1304366145344131526, companyId=1304388889716749013, language=CN, country=null, province=null, city=null, postcode=null, companyName=null, departmentName=null, remark=1.中国科学院青岛生物能源与过程研究所,太阳能光电转化与利用全国重点实验室,青岛新能源山东省实验室,一碳炼制山东省工程研究中心,山东 青岛)]), AuthorCompany(id=1304388891407053528, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, articleId=1304366145344131526, xref=2., ext=[AuthorCompanyExt(id=1304388891415442137, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, articleId=1304366145344131526, companyId=1304388891407053528, language=EN, country=null, province=null, city=null, postcode=null, companyName=null, departmentName=null, remark=2.Shandong Energy Institute, Qingdao, Shandong, China), AuthorCompanyExt(id=1304388891423830746, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, articleId=1304366145344131526, companyId=1304388891407053528, language=CN, country=null, province=null, city=null, postcode=null, companyName=null, departmentName=null, remark=2.山东能源研究院,山东 青岛)])], figs=[ArticleFig(id=1304388895915930377, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, articleId=1304366145344131526, language=EN, label=Figure 1, caption=Wood-Ljungdahl pathway in acetogens. FDH: Formate dehydrogenase; FHS: Formyl-THF synthetase; FCH: Formyl-THF cyclohydrolase; MDH: Methylene-THF dehydrogenase; MTHFR: Methylenetetrahydrofolate reductase; CODH/ACS: Carbon monoxide dehydrogenase/acetyl-CoA synthase; ALD: Acetaldehyde dehydrogenase; ADHE: Acetaldehyde/alcohol dehydrogenase; PTA: Phosphotransacetylase; ACK: Acetate kinase; AOR: Aldehyde: ferredoxin oxidoreductase., figureFileSmall=OB/MKZgyvpY7iXOu1dUwrA==, figureFileBig=OESomP6yYmm/MfsAFDsv9w==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1304388895999816458, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, articleId=1304366145344131526, language=CN, label=图1, caption=产乙酸菌伍德-永达尔途径示意图, figureFileSmall=OB/MKZgyvpY7iXOu1dUwrA==, figureFileBig=OESomP6yYmm/MfsAFDsv9w==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1304388896125645579, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, articleId=1304366145344131526, language=EN, label=Figure 2, caption=Energy conservation in acetogens. Electron-bifurcating hydrogenases exhibit diversity. CODH/ACS: CO dehydrogenase/acetyl-CoA synthase; Rnf: Rhodobacter nitrogen fixation complex; Ech: Energy-converting hydrogenase; Nfn complex: NADH-dependent reduced ferredoxin:NADP+ oxidoreductase., figureFileSmall=mgi4ZWmhIg0JkPad/xUZFw==, figureFileBig=1gQor4O7FOQcdoJZmNnASg==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1304388896196948748, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, articleId=1304366145344131526, language=CN, label=图2, caption=产乙酸菌能量代谢机制, figureFileSmall=mgi4ZWmhIg0JkPad/xUZFw==, figureFileBig=1gQor4O7FOQcdoJZmNnASg==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1304388896276640525, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, articleId=1304366145344131526, language=EN, label=Figure 3, caption=Titers and productivities of non-natural biochemicals produced by engineered acetogens. 2-PE[71]: 2-phenylethanol; BA[76]: Butyric acid; n-BuOH[77]: n-butanol; n-HexOH[78]: n-hexanol; 3-HB[75]: 3-hydroxybutyrate; EA[26]: Ethyl acetate; MEK[79]: Methyl ethyl ketone; IBA[77]: Isobutanol; IP[80]: Isoprene; MVA[80]: Mevalonate; ACE[72]: Acetone; IPA[72]: Isopropanol., figureFileSmall=Aps7ZFKQXUhcFXITPgQenQ==, figureFileBig=XYkgITPzUniT1GmVErKD5A==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1304388896356332302, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, articleId=1304366145344131526, language=CN, label=图3, caption=产乙酸菌非天然代谢产物产量及产率, figureFileSmall=Aps7ZFKQXUhcFXITPgQenQ==, figureFileBig=XYkgITPzUniT1GmVErKD5A==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1304388896444412687, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, articleId=1304366145344131526, language=EN, label=Figure 4, caption=Proposed energy conservation schemes of C. ljungdahlii wild type and ΔhytA strains for autotrophic growth on CO2/H2. A: Wild-type (WT) strain with acetate as the sole product; B: ΔhytA strain with acetate as the sole product. The schemes assume that the methylene-THF reductase involved is electron-bifurcating and NADH specific. Notably, the methylene-THF reductase was assumed to be ferredoxin (Fd)-dependent[86]. Fdh: Formate dehydrogenase; Nfn: NADH-dependent reduced ferredoxin:NADP+ oxidoreductase; Rnf: Rhodobacter nitrogen fixation complex., figureFileSmall=XGaFFpofPACCGtH3LBTEzQ==, figureFileBig=aM3lpCm49cyVt2sujbNZ4w==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1304388896519910160, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, articleId=1304366145344131526, language=CN, label=图4, caption=永达尔氏梭菌野生型与ΔhytA 菌株在CO2/H2 生长条件下的能量代谢方案, figureFileSmall=XGaFFpofPACCGtH3LBTEzQ==, figureFileBig=aM3lpCm49cyVt2sujbNZ4w==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1304388896591213329, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, articleId=1304366145344131526, language=EN, label=Table 1, caption=

Representative acetogens and their genetic engineering tools

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
SpeciesSubstratesNative productsOptimum temperature/℃Optimum pHGenetic engineering toolsReferences
C. ljungdahliiH2/CO2, COAcetate, ethanol, 2,3-butanediol, lactate375.5-6.0CRISPR/Cas, ClosTron, homologous recombination[6,18-22]
C. autoethanogenumH2/CO2, COAcetate, ethanol, 2,3-butanediol, lactate375.5-6.0CRISPR/Cas, ClosTron, homologous recombination[23-27]
M. thermoaceticaH2/CO2, COAcetate55-606.5-6.8Homologous recombination[28-30]
C. coskatiiH2/CO2, CO

Acetate,

ethanol

375.8-6.5Plasmid expression[9,31]
A. woodiiH2/CO2, COAcetate306.5-7.0CRISPR/Cas, plasmid expression[31-34]
C. carboxidivoransH2/CO2, COAcetate, ethanol, butyrate, butanol, hexanoate, hexanol376.0ClosTron, homologous recombination[35-37]
), ArticleFig(id=1304388896687682322, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, articleId=1304366145344131526, language=CN, label=表1, caption=

代表性产乙酸菌及其遗传改造工具

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
SpeciesSubstratesNative productsOptimum temperature/℃Optimum pHGenetic engineering toolsReferences
C. ljungdahliiH2/CO2, COAcetate, ethanol, 2,3-butanediol, lactate375.5-6.0CRISPR/Cas, ClosTron, homologous recombination[6,18-22]
C. autoethanogenumH2/CO2, COAcetate, ethanol, 2,3-butanediol, lactate375.5-6.0CRISPR/Cas, ClosTron, homologous recombination[23-27]
M. thermoaceticaH2/CO2, COAcetate55-606.5-6.8Homologous recombination[28-30]
C. coskatiiH2/CO2, CO

Acetate,

ethanol

375.8-6.5Plasmid expression[9,31]
A. woodiiH2/CO2, COAcetate306.5-7.0CRISPR/Cas, plasmid expression[31-34]
C. carboxidivoransH2/CO2, COAcetate, ethanol, butyrate, butanol, hexanoate, hexanol376.0ClosTron, homologous recombination[35-37]
), ArticleFig(id=1304388896763179795, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, articleId=1304366145344131526, language=EN, label=Table 2, caption=

Comparison of genetic engineering tools used in acetogens

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
Comparison dimensionClosTronHomologous recombinationCRISPR/Cas
Main applicationGene disruptionPrecise gene knockout, knock-in, and point mutationsPrecise gene knockout, knock-in, point mutation, and transcriptional regulation
Technical limitationNon-scarless editing; polar mutationLow efficiencyCas protein toxicity
Manipulation

Disruption of spo0A in C. difficile[55]

Disruption of hydrogenase genes in C. autoethanogenum[11]

Disruption of adhE1 in C. ljungdahlii[9]

Deletion of rnfAB gene of Rnf

complex in C. ljungdahlii[57]

Construction of ΔpyrE strain; insertion of lactate dehydrogenase gene in M. thermoacetica[28]

Insertion of a butyrate production pathway in C. ljungdahlii[58]

Deletion of pta, adhE1, ctf, and pyrE in

C. ljungdahlii[18]

Anhydrotetracycline-induced Cas9 mediated deletion of adh and 2,3-bdh in

C. autoethanogenum[24]

Endogenous CRISPR/Cas mediated deletion of pyrE, pheA, and hsdR1 in

A. woodii[34]

Knockdown of genes in the WLP and fructose-PTS system by dCas9 in E. limosum[62]

), ArticleFig(id=1304388896851260180, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, articleId=1304366145344131526, language=CN, label=表2, caption=

产乙酸菌中的基因工程编辑工具比较

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
Comparison dimensionClosTronHomologous recombinationCRISPR/Cas
Main applicationGene disruptionPrecise gene knockout, knock-in, and point mutationsPrecise gene knockout, knock-in, point mutation, and transcriptional regulation
Technical limitationNon-scarless editing; polar mutationLow efficiencyCas protein toxicity
Manipulation

Disruption of spo0A in C. difficile[55]

Disruption of hydrogenase genes in C. autoethanogenum[11]

Disruption of adhE1 in C. ljungdahlii[9]

Deletion of rnfAB gene of Rnf

complex in C. ljungdahlii[57]

Construction of ΔpyrE strain; insertion of lactate dehydrogenase gene in M. thermoacetica[28]

Insertion of a butyrate production pathway in C. ljungdahlii[58]

Deletion of pta, adhE1, ctf, and pyrE in

C. ljungdahlii[18]

Anhydrotetracycline-induced Cas9 mediated deletion of adh and 2,3-bdh in

C. autoethanogenum[24]

Endogenous CRISPR/Cas mediated deletion of pyrE, pheA, and hsdR1 in

A. woodii[34]

Knockdown of genes in the WLP and fructose-PTS system by dCas9 in E. limosum[62]

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产乙酸菌与一碳气体生物转化:从基础到应用
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徐子涵 1 , 李煜真 1 , 张俊哲 1 , 文志琼 1 , 刘自勇 1 , 马小清 1 , 李福利 1, 2, *
微生物学报 | 综述 2026,66(9): 4362-4379
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微生物学报 |综述 2026 , 66 (9) : 4362 -4379
产乙酸菌与一碳气体生物转化:从基础到应用
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徐子涵1, 李煜真1, 张俊哲1, 文志琼1, 刘自勇1, 马小清1, 李福利1, 2, *
作者信息
  • 1.中国科学院青岛生物能源与过程研究所,太阳能光电转化与利用全国重点实验室,青岛新能源山东省实验室,一碳炼制山东省工程研究中心,山东 青岛
  • 2.山东能源研究院,山东 青岛
通讯作者:
李福利
作者简介:

作者贡献声明

徐子涵:文章框架设计与撰写、修改和完善,资料收集与整理以及最终的文字润色和校对,图表绘制;李煜真:文章撰写、修改和完善,资料收集与整理,图表绘制与美化;张俊哲:最终文字修改与校对,参考文献信息核查与补充;文志琼:文章格式修改;刘自勇:对综述提出修改意见;马小清:文章审阅与修改;李福利:提出综述的主题、框架和研究问题、文章审阅与修改建议。

Acetogenic bacteria and one-carbon gas biotransformation: from fundamental research to applications
Zihan XU1, Yuzhen LI1, Junzhe ZHANG1, Zhiqiong WEN1, Ziyong LIU1, Xiaoqing MA1, Fuli LI1, 2, *
Affiliations
  • 1.State Key Laboratory of Photoelectric Conversion and Utilization of Solar Energy, Qingdao New Energy Shandong Laboratory, Shandong C1 Refinery Engineering Research Center, Qingdao Institute of Bioenergy and Bioprocess Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao, Shandong, China
  • 2.Shandong Energy Institute, Qingdao, Shandong, China
  • Corresponding Author:
出版时间: 2026-09-04 doi: 10.13343/j.cnki.wsxb.20260455
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一碳(C1)气体(如CO、CO2及其与H2组成的合成气)的资源化利用,是应对全球气候变化及构建可持续循环经济的关键路径。产乙酸菌作为一类能够通过伍德-永达尔途径(Wood-Ljungdahl pathway, WLP)高效同化C1气体的专性厌氧微生物,为生物固碳提供了一条高碳原子经济性的天然转化通道。本文系统综述了产乙酸菌在C1气体转化领域从基础研究到工业应用的最新进展。首先,本文阐释了产乙酸菌与C1气体之间的代谢耦合关系,深入解析了其利用C1底物的生化基础。在基础研究方面,重点探讨了近年来在能量守恒机制以及代谢流调控方面的突破;同时,总结了以CRISPR-Cas为代表的先进遗传操作系统的开发,以及如何利用其提升乙酸、乙醇等天然代谢产物的产量,推动产乙酸菌向生产丁醇、3-羟基丁酸(3-hydroxybutyric acid, 3-HB)等高附加值化学品的“底盘细胞”转变。最后,本文剖析了产乙酸菌气态发酵在走向工业化规模放大时所面临的气液传质受限、能量供应瓶颈等工程挑战,并对其在助力实现“双碳”目标与下一代绿色生物制造中的广阔应用前景进行了展望。

产乙酸菌  /  Wood-Ljungdahl途径  /  一碳气体  /  基因改造  /  合成生物学

The valorization of one-carbon (C1) gases such as CO, CO2,and syngas (a mixture with H2) represents a promising route for responding to global climate change and establishing a sustainable circular economy. Acetogens, a group of obligate anaerobic microorganisms capable of efficiently assimilating C1 gases via the Wood-Ljungdahl pathway (WLP), offer a natural conversion route with high carbon atom economy for biological carbon fixation. This paper provides a systematic review of the latest advancements in C1 gases conversion by acetogens, spanning from fundamental research to industrial applications. We first elucidate the metabolic coupling between acetogens and C1 gases, delving into the biochemical basis for utilizing C1 sources. In terms of fundamental research, we highlight recent breakthroughs in energy conservation mechanisms and metabolic flux regulation. Then, we summarize how the development of advanced genetic manipulation systems, exemplified by CRISPR-Cas tools, has enhanced the titers of natural products such as acetate and ethanol and accelerated the transformation of acetogens into chassis cells for the production of high-value chemicals such as butanol and 3-hydroxybutyrate. Finally, this review analyzes the engineering challenges, including gas-liquid mass transfer limitations and energy supply bottlenecks, associated with the scale-up of gas fermentation while offering a perspective on the broad application prospects of acetogens in achieving carbon peaking and carbon neutrality goals and advancing next-generation green biomanufacturing.

acetogen  /  Wood-Ljungdahl pathway  /  one-carbon gas  /  genetic modification  /  synthetic biology
徐子涵, 李煜真, 张俊哲, 文志琼, 刘自勇, 马小清, 李福利. 产乙酸菌与一碳气体生物转化:从基础到应用. 微生物学报, 2026 , 66 (9) : 4362 -4379 . DOI: 10.13343/j.cnki.wsxb.20260455
Zihan XU, Yuzhen LI, Junzhe ZHANG, Zhiqiong WEN, Ziyong LIU, Xiaoqing MA, Fuli LI. Acetogenic bacteria and one-carbon gas biotransformation: from fundamental research to applications[J]. Acta Microbiologica Sinica, 2026 , 66 (9) : 4362 -4379 . DOI: 10.13343/j.cnki.wsxb.20260455
当前,全球经济发展对化石能源的高强度消耗不仅引发了日益严峻的能源安全危机,更导致温室气体剧增与气候变暖问题[1]。为应对这一人类共同挑战,中国明确提出了“双碳”目标,亟需发展绿色生物制造与高效碳捕集、利用与封存技术,重塑工业碳循环体系。在此背景下,以一碳(C1)气体(如CO、CO2及其与H2组成的合成气)为原料的第三代生物炼制技术,正成为突破传统石化路线和第一、二代生物制造瓶颈的关键路径[2]。相较于物理和化学催化,生物转化C1气体具有条件温和、环境风险低、经济效益高和绿色可持续等独特优势[3]
现阶段,能够转化和利用一碳气体的自养生物主要包括植物、微藻、蓝细菌等光合生物,以及厌氧固碳菌等化能自养微生物[4]。厌氧固碳菌广泛分布于深层土壤、河湖淤泥及动物肠道等厌氧环境中[5],其最为显著的特征在于能够利用一碳气体进行自养生长,并以乙酸为主要代谢产物。本文聚焦一种专性厌氧的化能固碳 菌——产乙酸菌(acetogens),典型产乙酸菌包括永达尔氏梭菌(Clostridium ljungdahlii)[6]、自产醇梭菌(Clostridium autoethanogenum)[7]、热醋穆尔氏菌(Moorella thermoacetica)[8]、克萨氏梭菌(Clostridium coskatii)[9]以及伍氏醋酸杆菌(Acetobacterium woodii)[10]等。这些微生物通过伍德-永达尔途径(Wood-Ljungdahl pathway, WLP)将一碳气体经过多步复杂催化反应转化为乙酰辅酶A (acetyl-CoA),乙酰辅酶A进而通过各类代谢通路合成乙酸、乙醇等产物[11]。目前,产乙酸菌生物转化仍存在产物得率低、气体利用率低、产物种类少等技术瓶颈。随着产乙酸菌基因编辑技术与代谢工程技术的发展,基因编辑效率日趋提升[12],使得对产乙酸菌的理性改造成为可能。本文聚焦产乙酸菌固定一碳气体的代谢机制、遗传改造及基因工程方面的研究进展,并探讨未来构建细胞工厂的发展方向和应用前景。
产乙酸菌是系统发育上具有高度多样性的一类厌氧微生物,其核心代谢特征是能够通过伍德-永达尔途径将CO和CO2等一碳底物转化为乙酸[13],在碳固定与生物制造中展现出巨大的应用潜力。第一种得到详细研究的产乙酸菌是1942年发现的热醋穆尔氏菌(Moorella thermoacetica)[14],长期作为产乙酸菌的模式菌种。梭菌属(Clostridium)中包含种类丰富的产乙酸菌。1992年,Gaddy与Clausen[15]首次分离并鉴定出一种可利用CO、CO2/H2发酵产生乙醇与乙酸的微生物,将其命名为永达尔氏梭菌(C. ljungdahlii),用以纪念在伍德-永达尔途径研究中作出卓越贡献的微生物学家Lars G. Ljungdahl。随后,自产醇梭菌、食一氧化碳梭菌(Clostridium carboxidivorans)[16]等产乙酸菌相继被发现。多种梭菌属的产乙酸菌能够代谢一碳气体并将其转化为乙酸、乙醇、2,3-丁二醇等产物;米氏梭菌(Clostridium muellerianum)[17]以及食一氧化碳梭菌[16]还可以生产丁酸等产物。目前,常见的产乙酸菌菌种如表1所示。
伍德-永达尔途径是一条线性厌氧固碳途径,包括甲基分支(methyl branch)和羰基分支(carbonyl branch) 2条通路[38] (图1),是目前已知步骤最短、消耗ATP最少的碳同化途径。在甲基分支中,CO2首先被甲酸脱氢酶(formate dehydrogenase, FDH)还原为甲酸(formate);此后,在甲酰四氢叶酸合成酶(formyl-tetrahydrofolate synthetase)的催化下,甲酸与一碳单位代谢辅酶四氢叶酸(tetrahydrofolate, THF)结合,生成甲酰-THF (formyl-THF),并消耗1分子的ATP。甲酰-THF脱水环化生成次甲基-THF (methenyl-THF),通过两步还原生成甲基-THF (methyl-THF)。此后,甲基转移酶(methyltransferase)将甲基-THF上的甲基基团转移给类咕啉铁硫蛋白(corrinoid iron-sulfur-containing protein, CoFeSP),完成甲基分支。在羰基分支中,CO2会在一氧化碳脱氢酶/乙酰辅酶A合成酶(carbon monoxide dehydrogenase/acetyl-CoA synthase, CODH/ACS)的催化下接收电子被还原为结合态的CO。以CO为底物时,CODH能够直接捕获环境中的CO并将其固定在酶的活性中心,形成结合态的羰基。结合态的CO与来自甲基途径的甲基-CoFeSP缩合生成乙酰辅酶A[38-39],进而进入下游代谢途径,生成乙酸、乙醇等代谢产物,从而实现碳的固定。
产乙酸菌在产生乙酸的过程中会通过磷酸转乙酰酶(phosphotransacetylase, Pta)和乙酸激酶(acetate kinase, Ack)生成1分子的ATP,仅能抵消WLP消耗的1分子ATP[40]。为满足细胞自身生长代谢要求,产乙酸菌必然还存在额外的能量合成模式。研究发现,产乙酸菌体内存在2种由还原型铁氧还蛋白(reduced ferredoxin, Fd2-)驱动的离子泵复合物:红细菌固氮复合物(rhodobacter nitrogen fixation complex, Rnf)和能量转换氢酶(energy-converting hydrogenase, Ech)分别推动电子从Fd2-到其他辅因子的转移,并产生驱动ATP合酶合成ATP的跨膜离子梯度。通过H+或Na+跨膜梯度的构建,Rnf或Ech复合体与ATP合酶形成一套能量代谢偶联系统,为产乙酸菌的生长代谢与产物合成提供能量来源[41-42]。在CO生长条件下,产乙酸菌通过CODH将CO的电子传递至氧化型Fd,得到Fd2-为细胞提供主要还原力以及驱动Rnf或Ech复合体的运行;以CO2/H2为底物时,氢化酶(hydrogenase)在代谢起始阶段发挥着重要作用[43]。氢化酶捕获H2,通常通过电子歧化反应生成Fd2-和NAD(P)H,为下游还原反应提供初始还原力[44]
在所有产乙酸菌中,WLP所有反应涉及的碳流向是高度保守的,但参与氧化还原反应的酶(复合体)及其偶联的辅因子在不同菌种中展现出了多样性(图2)。在伍氏醋酸杆菌中,氢化酶复合体为NAD+依赖,且Rnf复合体驱动Na+跨膜转运;在永达尔氏梭菌中,氢化酶复合体传递电子给辅因子NADP+,Rnf复合体产生的是质子(H+)依赖的电化学渗透势[45]。在热醋穆尔氏菌中,氢化酶同样依赖NAD+,但由Ech复合体驱动质子势形成。此外,Nfn复合体(NADH-dependent reduced ferredoxin:NADP+ oxidoreductase)在上述体系中发挥着关键协调作用,它通过催化Fd2-、NADH与NADPH之间的可逆转换调控胞内氧化还原平衡,从而避免因辅因子失衡所导致的能量代谢冲突[11,43]。由此可见,不同产乙酸菌中酶系及其辅因子依赖性的差异塑造了其产物合成与能量代谢模式的多样性。
产乙酸菌能够通过伍德-永达尔途径固定CO2、CO等一碳气体。然而,野生型产乙酸菌的天然代谢网络主要围绕能量保存进化,其碳代谢流大部分流向乙酸和乙醇,产物谱较为狭窄。近年来,随着基因组编辑工具(如CRISPR-Cas系统、ClosTron等)的成熟,研究人员正通过代谢工程与合成生物学手段,对产乙酸菌的底盘细胞进行系统性重构,以期突破胞内热力学与能量极限,实现从气体向高附加值化学品和材料的定向转化。
产乙酸菌的遗传操作首先依赖于外源DNA导入系统。常用方法包括电击转化法,适用于永达尔氏梭菌等大多数菌株[24,46],以及接合转移法,适用于难以进行电转化的伍氏醋酸杆菌等[47]
此外,合适的基因表达载体同样是关键,由于产乙酸菌通常为革兰氏阳性菌,而载体构建常在大肠埃希氏菌中完成,开发能在2类宿主中稳定复制的穿梭载体成为必要。其中,pMTL80000系列质粒是广泛应用于梭菌的代表性穿梭载体系统,其采用模块化设计理念,包含可更换的复制元件、选择性标记和报告基因等模块,能够根据不同宿主菌株的需求灵活组装[48],在永达尔氏梭菌[49]、自产醇梭菌[50]及伍氏醋酸杆菌[51]等多种产乙酸菌中均有成功应用。其中,pCB102和pCD6等梭菌来源的复制子为产乙酸菌的遗传操作提供了多样化的工具选择[48]。同时,部分产乙酸菌的限制性修饰系统会降解外源质粒[52],可通过预先对质粒进行甲基化修饰[53]或使用特定缺陷型大肠埃希氏菌(如dam-/dcm-)来克服[54]
在此基础上,产乙酸菌的基因编辑技术经历了从低效、有痕向高效、精准、无痕的发展,先后出现了ClosTron、同源重组(homology-directed repair, HR)以及以CRISPR/Cas系统为基础的基因编辑技术(表2)。ClosTron也被称作基于II类内含子的基因插入失活技术。2007年,Heap等[55]开发了一种可广泛适用于梭菌的基因编辑工具ClosTron,其利用乳酸乳球菌(Lactococcus lactis) ltrB基因可移动的II类内含子,通过RNA介导的反转录归巢机制整合到目标基因组位点,使目标基因插入性失活[56],目前已被应用于艰难拟梭菌[55]、永达尔氏梭菌[9]及自产醇梭菌[11]等菌株。ClosTron技术虽然操作简单,但仍存在明显局限:II类内含子插入靶基因后会同时干扰该基因所在操纵子中下游基因的转录,造成极性效应,因此不适用于研究多顺反子基因簇中特定基因的功能;且该技术无法回收筛选标记,限制了连续多轮基因编辑操作。
同源重组作为经典的遗传操作工具,通过质粒上携带的同源序列与基因组发生交换,实现目的基因的删除或替换;尽管产乙酸菌存在天然重组效率低下的瓶颈,但随着质粒载体的优化(如采用拷贝型质粒替代自杀型质粒以增加同源片段的接触频率与持续时间)及转化效率的提升,该技术已被广泛改良应用。为了克服突变株筛选周期长及抗生素在嗜热菌中易失效等难题,不同团队开发了一系列基于正负筛选标记组合的高效辅助策略:在永达尔氏梭菌中,Tremblay等[57]和Leang等[46]早期成功利用自杀质粒分别敲除了rnfABadhE1/adhE2基因;Ueki等[58]结合catP筛选标记与Cre-lox系统,不仅实现pta基因的敲除,还完成了抗性标记回收及丁酸合成途径的基因组整合;Liew等[59]开发了自产醇梭菌pheSthiK反向筛选标记,Walker等[60]则设计出利用1个阳性和2个阴性标记进行两步同源重组的“Triple Cross”精准中断工具。此外,利用参与嘧啶合成的pyrEpyrF基因作为反向筛选标记,可实现突变株的高效筛选。PyrE/F编码的酶能够将无毒的前体物质5-氟乳清酸(5-FOA)转化为具有细胞毒性的5-氟-dUMP,从而导致细胞死亡。因此,在pyrEpyrF基因缺陷型菌株中,于筛选培养基中添加5-FOA和尿嘧啶仅有发生目标遗传修饰的突变株能够存活。该筛选策略已被应用于A. woodii[61]M. thermoacetica[28]中。
成簇规律间隔短回文重复序列(clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats, CRISPR)是一类广泛存在于细菌和古菌基因组中的特殊DNA序列,由富含AT的前导区和被短重复序列间隔开的间隔序列构成;CRISPR相关蛋白(CRISPR-associated proteins, Cas)则是与CRISPR序列关联的核酸内切酶,二者共同构成原核生物的“获得性免疫”系统。CRISPR-Cas系统依赖CRISPR RNA (crRNA)与trans-activating crRNA (tracrRNA)识别并切割靶序列,实现DNA双链断裂。在实验室操作中,crRNA与tracrRNA可融合为向导RNA (guide RNA, gRNA)。CRISPR作为免疫反应的一部分,会与多种Cas蛋白相互作用,因此演化出不同类型的CRISPR-Cas防御系统。目前,CRISPR-Cas系统已经被开发并应用于多种产乙酸菌中,包括自产醇梭菌[24]、永达尔氏梭菌[18]、黏液真杆菌(Eubacterium limosum)[62]等。CRISPR-Cas系统在目标DNA上进行切割并引入双链断裂,由此引发非同源末端连接(non-homologous end joining, NHEJ)与同源重组(HR) 2种修复机制。NHEJ会引入移码突变,HR则需要同源DNA模板完成修复,同源模板中可插入外源基因,因此适用于精准基因插入或替换等操作。产乙酸菌普遍缺乏NHEJ修复系统,因此敲除载体中通常携带同源序列,供菌体修复双链断裂。针对Cas蛋白持续表达带来的细胞毒性,研究者采用无内切酶活性的dCas9构建CRISPR干扰(CRISPR interference, CRISPRi)系统用于转录抑制[63-64],或利用诱导型启动子(如四环素诱导型启动子P tet 、胆碱诱导型启动子P choline1 和1,2-丙二醇诱导型启动子P 1,2-PD )控制Cas9表达以提升编辑效率[63,65]。此外,也有研究利用伍氏醋酸杆菌内源I-B型CRISPR-Cas系统实现了基因敲除[34]。上述成果为产乙酸菌的基因编辑提供了重要的技术基础。
产乙酸菌能够通过WLP将CO、CO2等一碳气体转化为乙酰辅酶A,并合成乙酸等有机酸和醇类等代谢产物。然而,当前工业气体发酵环境下普遍存在野生型产乙酸菌生长缓慢、固碳效率低、副产物多以及天然代谢产物合成路径代谢流受限等瓶颈。因此,通过分子遗传改造手段对产乙酸菌进行定向优化,打破其天然代谢屏障,引导碳流向所需目标产物,对提高工业生产效率和产物得率具有重要意义。
目前,提高产乙酸菌天然代谢产物产量的遗传改造策略主要有提升WLP固碳效率以及增强下游目标产物合成2种[66]。由于CO2高度氧化,是一种处于极低能量状态的稳定分子,在WLP的甲基分支中甲酸脱氢酶被认为是关键的限速酶。Zhang等[67]C. ljungdahlii中通过基因敲除和定点突变解除了全局转录因子CcpA的转录抑制,并对胞内乙酰化/脱乙酰化系统(acetyltransferase/NAD+-dependent deacetylase, At2/Dat1)进行调控,优化了FDH1关键赖氨酸位点的乙酰化状态,成功打破天然状态下FDH1的活性限制,实现了CO2固定能力的显著提升。此外,对羰基分支中CODH/ACS复合体的改造展现出极大的应用潜力。Köpke等[68]利用ClosTron技术分别失活了C. autoethanogenum中的3个CODH同工酶基因(acsAcooS1cooS2),发现ΔacsA突变株在以CO或CO2/H2作为唯一碳源和能源的自养条件下完全无法生长;而对acsA基因进行过表达,可显著缩短菌株在气体发酵初期的生长延滞期,并实现乙醇和乳酸产量的提升。Lo等[69]利用CRISPR/Cas9技术成功敲除C. ljungdahlii中催化乙酸合成的关键基因ptaaor2,菌株的产乙醇/乙酸比例从约1:9显著升至1:2;在ΔptaΔaor2基础上再敲除aor1,乙醇占总碳产物的比例提高至超80%。Banerjee等[19]C. ljungdahlii菌株中过表达adhE1基因,将其乙醇产量提升至原先的1.5倍。Liu等[70]C. ljungdahlii Δdat1菌株背景下过表达aor2并引入adhE1的去乙酰化模拟突变(K379R/K388R/K440R),在合成气发酵中,工程菌株的乙醇产量较野生型提高约170%,乙醇/乙酸比例由0.43提升至1.51,实现了碳流从产酸向产醇的高效重定向。
综上所述,遗传操作工具的快速发展,为产乙酸菌的系统性代谢重塑提供了强大支撑,不仅极大程度突破了其天然固碳与生物合成的效率瓶颈,更赋予胞内碳代谢流高度的定向性。然而,当前限制固碳效率进一步提升的核心瓶颈还包括气液传质的低效性,分子水平的改造通常在实验室摇瓶或小型反应器中表现优异,向工业级放大时却难以维持原有性能;同时,产乙酸菌的遗传学操作仍处于相对初级的阶段,存在突变背景复杂、精准调控困难、改造菌株遗传稳定性不足等问题。多维度、系统性的研究仍是未来突破这些挑战的关键所在。
产乙酸菌通过WLP生产的乙酸和乙醇等天然短链代谢物附加值较低,且市场容量有限。目前,通过异源合成途径引入,研究者已实现利用产乙酸菌合成中长链高级醇、酮类及生物塑料前体等十几种非天然代谢产物[42]。例如,Liew等[71]C. autoethanogenum中通过组合启动子文库和多质粒联用技术异源过表达脱羧酶、苯乙醛还原酶及莽草酸途径中的多个限速酶基因,最终在合成气发酵中实现208 mg/L的稳定苯乙醇(2-phenylethanol, 2-PE)产量,产率可达约12 mg/(L·h)。另外,Liew等[72]C. autoethanogenumC. ljungdahlii为底盘,通过引入丙酮丁醇梭菌(C. acetobutylicum)和拜氏梭菌(C. beijerinckii)等来源的多种基因组合异源构建完整的丙酮/异丙醇合成途径,在120 L中试装置中的丙酮生产率约3 g/(L·h),异丙醇生产率约3 g/(L·h),产物选择性高达90%。Höfle等[73]A. woodii中引入来自不同梭菌的硫解酶(thiolase A, thlA)、辅酶A转移酶(CoA-transferase, ctfA/ctfB)、乙酰乙酸脱羧酶(acetoacetate decarboxylase, Adc)以及仲醇脱氢酶(secondary alcohol dehydrogenase, SadH),成功使其异源合成异丙醇,产量达(5.64±1.08) mmol/L,对菌株进一步优化后异丙醇产量可提高2.5倍。Lauer等[21]成功将一段包含克氏梭菌(Clostridium kluyveri)和丙酮丁醇梭菌基因的17.9 kb基因簇转入C. ljungdahlii中,在CO2/H2气体发酵条件下,丁醇产量达109 mg/L,己醇产量达393 mg/L。Banerjee等[19]C. ljungdahlii中导入来自C. acetobutylicum的丙酮合成基因,并配合乳糖诱导启动子,在CO发酵条件下的丙酮产量可达871 mg/L。另外,研究者已在C. autoethanogenum[74]C. coskatiiC. ljungdahlii[20,75]中,成功实现生物可降解塑料聚3-羟基丁酸(polyhydroxybutyrate, PHB)及其单体3-羟基丁酸(3-hydroxybutyric acid, 3-HB)的异源合成。Dykstra等[26]通过敲除C. autoethanogenum中的竞争途径并表达啤酒塞加塔氏菌(Segatella cerevisiae)来源的醇乙酰转移酶,成功在该菌株中实现乙酸乙酯的合成,产量可达0.2 mmol/L。短链脂肪酸酯的生产,标志着产乙酸菌合成高附加值化合物的水平达到新的高度。产乙酸菌异源合成非天然代谢产物的产量与产率如图3所示。
然而,尽管产乙酸菌在非天然代谢产物合成中已展现出巨大潜力,其在进一步工程化改造和规模化应用上仍存在瓶颈。目前,产乙酸菌异源产物类型仍集中在中短碳链化合物层面,引入长链化合物合成路径需要消耗更多ATP,通常会导致改造菌株面临巨大的代谢负担,甚至无法在自养条件下存活。另外,中长链醇及酮类具有较强的疏水性和细胞膜穿透性,产物在发酵液中积累,可能破坏产乙酸菌的细胞结构,导致发酵过早停滞,严重制约工业生产。未来可通过优化能量代谢模块以增强ATP供给、结合产物原位分离技术减轻细胞毒性,并运用适应性进化手段筛选高耐受性菌株,从而突破产乙酸菌在长链化合物合成中的瓶颈。
产乙酸菌在固定一碳气体转化为乙酸的代谢过程中,能量代谢的核心挑战在于WLP本身处于热力学极限边缘,其碳固定过程难以实现ATP的净积累。为克服这种热力学约束,产乙酸菌进化出更为复杂的能量代谢与平衡机制,该机制主要依赖Rnf、Ech等跨膜离子泵复合体以及Nfn等基于黄素的电子歧化转氢酶,偶联ATP生成并协调不同辅因子间的浓度,以适应菌体复杂的代谢环境。ATP产率取决于所用电子供体种类(H2、CO或糖类)以及最终产物。在以H2/CO2作为能源和碳源生长时ATP产率最低,在伍氏醋酸杆菌中,生产每摩尔乙酸仅偶联生成0.3 mol ATP;若继续还原乙酸生产乙醇,ATP得率为负,因此伍氏醋酸杆菌在H2为能源的条件下无法合成乙醇[11]。受固有的能量限制,将碳流重定向到乙醇、2,3-丁二醇等其他产物在热力学上存在显著障碍。为克服能量供给不足导致的下游产物合成受阻,提升ATP供给水平并匹配目标产物代谢途径的辅因子需求是当前可行的改造策略。
提高ATP生成量的一种策略是强化胞内外离子梯度差。由于大部分ATP通过Rnf/Ech跨膜复合体形成的离子梯度偶联生成,因此可对这些复合体或其功能亚基开展基因工程改造,促进离子梯度的构建。Rnf和Ech均为由多个亚基组成的大型跨膜金属酶复合体,直接在细胞膜上无限制过表达会引发严重的膜拥挤效应与细胞毒性,且其功能发挥需要锚定蛋白等辅助因子协同,难以通过异源表达获得有活性的蛋白[81]。已发表的研究案例多采用启动子工程进行精细表达调控,或通过基因敲除与回补的方式定量验证其对跨膜离子梯度和ATP合成的调控作用。
Tremblay等[57]完成了Rnf复合体编码基因的首次敲除,在此之前,学界仅从生化层面推测Rnf的生理功能;该团队在模式菌株永达尔氏梭菌中利用同源重组单交换技术使编码Rnf复合物核心通道和多铁硫簇电子传递蛋白的rnfAB基因失活;改造后的突变株完全丧失自养生长能力,ATP合成、质子梯度、膜电位均显著下降,异养生长过程也受到明显抑制。通过调控发酵pH或基因工程手段人为上调Rnf或Ech的转录丰度,可直接提升跨膜离子梯度。Liu等[82]研究发现,在相对较低的pH (5.3 vs. 6.0)条件下发酵,菌株代谢活性显著增强,乙醇产量和生物量积累均实现翻倍提升,该现象可归因于低pH环境下质子梯度升高,进而推动ATP合成效率提升。嗜热产乙酸菌(Thermoanaerobacter kivui)依赖Ech复合体形成跨膜离子梯度,敲除该菌的ech基因簇会直接导致ATP合成停滞;利用质粒将修饰后的ech操纵子置于可调控强启动子下重新导入细胞,不仅提升了自养条件下的ATP基础得率,还为引入高耗能合成途径构建了性能优异的嗜热底盘[83]
提高ATP得率的另一有效策略是引入效率更高的替代电子受体途径,推动细胞通过非底物水平磷酸化的方式合成ATP。适配的电子受体可独立于底物水平磷酸化过程,促进细胞依托离子梯度驱动的磷酸化反应生成能量。已有研究证实,硝酸盐[84]、硫代硫酸盐及二甲基亚砜[85]等均可作为产乙酸菌的外源电子受体。在永达尔氏梭菌的自养代谢过程中,引入硝酸盐作为外源电子受体可有效调控胞内氧化还原通量,优化能量得率。机制研究表明,硝酸盐在胞内与氢化酶介导的电子歧化(electron bifurcation)过程偶联,优先捕获H2氧化释放的还原当量。该过程改变了Fd2-的流向,使其不再主要用于低能效的CO2还原,而是大量进入Rnf跨膜复合体强化跨膜离子梯度,间接驱动化学渗透偶联的ATP合成。理论计算显示,该硝酸盐还原途径的理论ATP得率(1.5 ATP/乙酸)显著高于传统CO2/H2转化为乙酸的理论通量(0.63 ATP/乙酸);同时,实验测得的胞内ATP/ADP比率及乙酰辅酶A前体水平显著上调,进一步证实该代谢路径与能量生成过程的高度偶联[84]
在产乙酸菌的代谢工程研究中,针对能量转化的关键限速环节——氢化酶开展基因改造,是打破细胞热力学与动力学瓶颈的核心策略。在以CO2/H2为底物的生长条件下,电子歧化氢化酶在H2摄取与氧化过程中发挥主导作用。Wen等[86]研究发现,在永达尔氏梭菌中敲除电子歧化氢化酶催化亚基hytA后,突变株在H2环境下的生长速率和产物合成能力显著提升:生物量较野生型提高3倍,乙酸和乙醇产量分别提升2倍和3倍;进一步分析表明,hytA敲除后,编码单亚基氢化酶的hyd基因出现显著上调表达,推测Hyd是一种非电子歧化、铁氧还蛋白(Fd)依赖的氢化酶;该研究揭示了氢化酶Hyd与电子歧化氢化酶Hyt在H2利用动力学和辅酶依赖性上的显著差异,并据此重新绘制了以Hyd为主导的能量代谢路径(图4),为产乙酸菌能量代谢重塑提供了重要的理论参考。在伍氏醋酸杆菌中,Moon等[87]过表达了一种H2依赖的CO2还原酶(hydrogen-dependent CO2 reductase, HDCR),并对该酶的hycB电子传递亚基开展结构域定点突变,改造后的菌株不仅显著提升了整体氢气摄取速率,还大幅增加了胞内Fd2-的丰度,最终使工程菌株在CO2/H2条件下的甲酸和乙酸合成通量突破原有动力学极限,同时获得了在CO中生长的能力。Bae等[88]筛选得到一株新型产乙酸菌球型香蕉孢菌(Sporomusa sphaeroides),将其氢化酶在E. limosum中异源表达后,重组菌株的H2消耗率实现翻倍,甚至在能量受限条件下测到丁酸的生成。
针对产乙酸菌利用H2或CO过程中仍存在的传质障碍与热力学限制,一种极具潜力的策略是直接为产乙酸菌提供外源电子,例如依托电能驱动。产乙酸菌利用阴极电子或阴极原位产生的H2为WLP供给能量,合成下游产物,该过程被称为微生物电合成。Nevin等[89]于2010年首次在卵型香蕉孢菌(Sporomusa ovata)中利用阴极电子固定CO2生成乙酸,实现微生物电合成;该研究证实产乙酸菌可直接从电极获取电子,将CO2高效转化为多碳有机物,其中用于还原CO2生成乙酸及2-氧代丁酸的电子占阴极总转移电子的86%。目前已有多种产乙酸菌(如醋酸梭菌、热醋穆尔氏菌和永达尔氏梭菌[90])被报道可利用胞外电子完成电合成,但电子进入细胞的具体通路仍未阐明。例如,Kracke等[91]证实胞外电子供给可显著改变自产醇梭菌的代谢流向,使其从产乙酸转向合成乳酸和2,3-丁二醇,该过程通常需要甲基紫精或中性红等电子载体促进电子传递;实验数据显示,引入高氧化还原电位的电子载体后,乳酸和2,3-丁二醇的产量分别达到9.8 mmol/L和2.21 mmol/L,较对照组分别提升35倍和3倍。Im等[92]针对永达尔氏梭菌的研究表明,该菌株具备直接接收胞外电子的能力;但在逐步降低阴极电位的实验中,库伦效率从-1.0 V条件下的18%显著下降至-1.2 V条件下的5%,同时乙酸产量同步回落;推测该菌株更倾向于依托氢气介导的电子传递模式,库伦效率下降的原因可解释为电位越负,体系析氢速率越快,但培养基pH急剧上升与H2大量逸散的协同作用,最终影响了永达尔氏梭菌的代谢产物合成。目前,微生物电合成的深层机制仍有待解析,适配该过程的底盘微生物种类十分有限,严重制约其工业化应用前景。除电能供给外,光驱动产乙酸菌合成化学品正成为重塑其能量代谢的另一前沿方向。He等[93]构建了硫化镉纳米材料与S. ovata细胞耦合的光合系统,不仅实现高达16.82%的光量子效率,更在乙酸的生产速率与总滴度上全面刷新了此前非生物-生物杂合系统的记录。Jin等[94]同样构建了硫化镉纳米颗粒-微生物耦合体系,无需H2等额外能源,仅依托可见光照射产生的电子即可驱动自产醇梭菌将CO2转化为乙酸。在光照条件下,乙酸产量达到12.1 mmol/L,是无光照对照组的3.8倍,也高于H2驱动条件下的8.8 mmol/L;转录组分析结果提示,金属离子和黄素分子等小分子电子穿梭载体参与了胞内外的电子转运过程。这种从依托固态电极输送电子向直接利用光生电子的技术演进,不仅在机制层面揭示了光能对产乙酸菌代谢网络的直接重塑能力,更为拓展极端自养微生物的能量获取途径、实现大宗化学品的可持续绿色制造提供了全新思路。
在传统气态发酵过程中,乙酸、乙醇等代谢产物的持续积累会改变体系的吉布斯自由能,使产乙酸菌的固碳代谢在热力学上难以持续推进,最终导致菌体生长与产物合成停滞[95]。与单一菌种纯培养相比,共培养体系通过不同菌种的功能分工,可实现底物利用范围的拓展与产物类型的多元化。传统共培养方案采用线性、顺序的转化模式,低价值气体底物先由上游产乙酸菌转化为乙酸、乙醇等中间代谢物,再由下游碳链延长菌将其升级为长链羧酸或对应的醇类产物。Diender等[96]在自产醇梭菌培养体系中引入克氏梭菌构建共培养体系,后者无法直接利用气体底物,但可高效利用前者生成的代谢产物,依托逆向β-氧化途径合成丁酸和己酸。当产乙酸菌与利用糖类或其他复杂碳水化合物的异养菌共培养时,产乙酸菌既可同化外源供给的CO2,又可回收碳水化合物分解代谢产生的内源CO2,进一步优化体系的整体碳管理效率,实现远优于传统单一生产宿主的碳转化性能。Charubin等[97]将永达尔氏梭菌与丙酮丁醇梭菌共培养,丙酮丁醇梭菌利用糖类开展丙酮-丁醇-乙醇发酵(acetone-butanol-ethanol fermentation, ABE)时会产生大量CO2和H2废气,造成碳流失;永达尔氏梭菌可回收利用这些废气合成乙酸,生成的乙酸又可被丙酮丁醇梭菌重新同化利用。该体系不仅突破了单一碳源的限制,还证实了菌株间可通过胞外代谢物完成碳交换过程。目前共培养体系的核心挑战在于,不同菌种对pH、底物浓度等环境条件变化的差异化响应,可能引发非预期的代谢行为或种间竞争,最终导致目标产物合成量下降甚至菌群功能完全丧失。未来仍需通过菌株基因工程改造、共培养条件优化以及先进种间互作分析工具的开发,推动产乙酸菌共培养技术实现突破。
运用现代遗传操作工具对产乙酸菌进行系统性代谢工程改造,已经成功将其打造为能够利用一碳气体合成多种高附加值化学品的细胞工厂。实验室规模下取得的一系列突破性进展正加速推动一碳气体发酵向规模化与产业化应用转变。
美国朗泽科技(LanzaTech)及其在华合资企业北京首钢朗泽科技股份有限公司等生物制造企业,长期深耕气体生物发酵技术的研发与产业化实践,其成功经验为产乙酸菌从实验室走向大规模应用提供了系统的工程范式。基于生物反应器设计[98]和工艺流程优化[99],LanzaTech的厌氧发酵生产效率得到大幅度提升,率先实现了利用自产醇梭菌转化钢铁冶炼尾气生产燃料乙醇的10万吨级和菌体蛋白万吨级的规模连续生产。目前,北京首钢朗泽科技股份有限公司在中国河北、宁夏、贵州等地建成四大生产基地,形成了年产21万t燃料乙醇和2.32万t微生物蛋白的总产能,年消纳工业尾气超过10亿m3[100]。巨鹏生物科技有限公司以永达尔氏梭菌为核心工业菌株,通过“气化-发酵-回收”全流程技术体系实现了从底物气化到目标产物生产的一体化产业布局,该工艺的CO转化效率可达90%,乙醇选择性达98%[101]。此外,巨鹏生物科技有限公司进一步将永达尔氏梭菌与伍氏醋酸杆菌耦合,构建了双菌协同发酵体系;该体系中,混合气体中约70%的碳源可来自CO2,整体碳转化率提升至97.5%,接近零碳排放水平[102]。目前,该技术已逐步应用于10万吨级工业化项目。南京食气生化科技有限公司依托具有完全自主知识产权的工程化食气梭菌基因编辑与发酵技术平台,以永达尔氏梭菌为核心底盘,通过上游菌株遗传改造和下游发酵工艺优化联动,成功将富含CO和CO2的煤化工尾气高效转化为丁醇、可持续航空燃料(sustainable aviation fuel, SAF)前体以及饲料蛋白,实现了万吨级醇-蛋白的柔性联产。目前,该公司已建成百吨级、五百吨级中试装置,4套装置累计稳定运行过万小时,5万吨级示范项目已完成备案,即将启动建设[103]。美国塞纳达生物公司(SynataBio)采用一步法生物发酵工艺,以CO2、CO和H2为原料,制取无水乙醇的同时联产微生物蛋白。SynataBio与国内公司合作,利用河南龙宇煤化工有限公司50万t/年甲醇项目的工业尾气作为原料,与河南能源集团等合资成立河南赛龙图生物科技有限公司,建成全球首套5万t/年合成气生物发酵制无水乙醇项目,并规划到2028年将产能扩大至50万t/年[104]
尽管上述企业在工程放大及产能上取得了令人瞩目的突破,但从实验室到商业化工厂的放大过程中,多重技术瓶颈依然制约着一碳气体发酵经济性的进一步提升。由于气体发酵的特殊性,工业反应器放大过程普遍存在气液传质效率下降、气体分布不均、能耗激增及长周期运行不稳定等问题。此外,不同来源的合成气或工业富碳尾气在组分构成上存在较大差异,这种组分波动性不仅干扰产乙酸菌的代谢稳定性,严重时甚至可能导致反应体系的崩溃。同时,自养微生物生长缓慢、难以实现高密度培养,现有工艺多采用膜截留方式富集细胞以提高产率,但乙酸、乙醇等发酵产物浓度依然偏低,这进一步增大了下游产物分离能耗。尽管近年来基因编辑工具持续完善,多种代谢工程策略已被用于菌株改造,并在提升气体转化效率与产物得率方面取得一定进展,但相较于以糖类或淀粉为底物的传统发酵,整体效果仍不理想。未来亟需通过合成生物学和发酵工程技术协同创新,推动产乙酸菌上游分子设计与下游工程工艺的深度耦合,构建以工业富碳尾气为原料的绿色生物制造体系。
利用产乙酸菌转化一碳气体,为实现“双碳”目标和绿色生物制造提供了一条极具潜力的技术路径。随着合成生物学技术的飞速发展,各种代谢组件和遗传工具的开发与应用为产乙酸菌理性改造提供了重要支撑。借助先进的基因改造手段,研究人员已成功实现了菌株的代谢网络重构及异源合成途径引入,工程菌株不仅显著提升了乙酸、乙醇等天然代谢产物的合成水平,还实现了向丁醇、大宗溶剂及高价值生物塑料前体的定向转化。
尽管基于重组菌株的气体发酵技术已展现出良好的工业化前景,但在迈向大规模工业应用的过程中仍然面临一碳底物利用效率不足、原料气组分波动干扰代谢稳态、低产物浓度推高分离能耗等技术难题。针对上述挑战,未来研究亟需开发模块化、系统级的基因编辑工具和策略,提升菌株对气体底物利用效率;通过发酵工艺优化调控碳流和能量供给,增强菌株对气体组分波动的适应性;同时,在持续提升产物产量的基础上进一步拓宽高附加值产物谱系,提高产品经济性,以弥补低浓度发酵带来的分离成本劣势。唯有合成生物技术和工程过程技术协同突破才能将产乙酸菌底盘打造成高度可控的细胞工厂,从而为下一代可持续生物经济的发展提供持续动力。
  • 国家自然科学基金(32370039)
  • 国家自然科学基金(U22A20425)
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2026年第66卷第9期
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doi: 10.13343/j.cnki.wsxb.20260455
  • 接收时间:2026-05-31
  • 首发时间:2026-09-09
  • 出版时间:2026-09-04
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  • 收稿日期:2026-05-31
  • 录用日期:2026-07-11
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the National Natural Science Foundation of China(32370039)
国家自然科学基金(32370039)
国家自然科学基金(U22A20425)
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    1.中国科学院青岛生物能源与过程研究所,太阳能光电转化与利用全国重点实验室,青岛新能源山东省实验室,一碳炼制山东省工程研究中心,山东 青岛
    2.山东能源研究院,山东 青岛

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2种不同金属材料的力学参数

Family
属数
Number of
genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of
total species (%)

Genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of total
species (%)
鹅膏菌科Amanitaceae 2 11 5.26 鹅膏菌属 Amanita 10 4.78
小菇科 Mycenaceae 2 12 5.74 丝盖伞属 Inocybe 5 2.39
多孔菌科 Polyporaceae 8 14 6.70 蜡蘑属 Laccaria 5 2.39
红菇科 Russulaceae 3 23 11.00 小皮伞属 Marasmius 6 2.87
小菇属 Mycena 11 5.26
光柄菇属 Pluteus 5 2.39
红菇属 Russula 17 8.13
栓菌属 Trametes 5 2.39
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