Article(id=1316714497935524864, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, issueId=1316714454184739470, articleNumber=null, orderNo=null, doi=10.13343/j.cnki.wsxb.20260219, pmid=null, cstr=null, oa=null, hot=null, price=null, onlineType=0, articleFormat=0, articleType=null, articleTypeStr=research-article, receivedDate=1773331200000, receivedDateStr=2026-03-13, revisedDate=null, revisedDateStr=null, acceptedDate=1775836800000, acceptedDateStr=2026-04-11, onlineDate=1791858799680, onlineDateStr=2026-10-13, pubDate=1791043200000, pubDateStr=2026-10-04, doiRegisterDate=null, doiRegisterDateStr=null, onlineIssueDate=1791858799680, onlineIssueDateStr=2026-10-13, onlineJustAcceptDate=null, onlineJustAcceptDateStr=null, onlineFirstDate=null, onlineFirstDateStr=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, createTime=1791858799680, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1791858799680, updator=13701087609, issue=Issue{id=1316714454184739470, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, year='2026', volume='66', issue='10', pageStart='4661', pageEnd='5310', issueExtLink='null', onlineDate='null', pubDate='1791043200000', pubDateStr='2026-10-04', beforeIssueId=null, nextIssueId=null, price=null, status=1, issueComplete=1, articleOrder=1, issueType=1, specialIssue=null, createTime=1791858789249, creator='13701087609', updateTime=1791885400527, updator='13701087609', preIssue=null, nextIssue=null, articleTotal=null, ext={EN=IssueExt(id=1316826070066774161, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, issueId=1316714454184739470, language=EN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=), CN=IssueExt(id=1316826070066774162, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, issueId=1316714454184739470, language=CN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=)}, issueFiles=null, downloadFileDto=null}, startPage=4773, endPage=4790, ext={EN=ArticleExt(id=1316714498162016256, articleId=1316714497935524864, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, language=EN, title=Research progress in prokaryotic antiphage mechanisms based on nucleotide homeostasis regulation, columnId=1192149543727808575, journalTitle=Acta Microbiologica Sinica, columnName=Review, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=
The arms race between bacteria and phages has driven the evolution of diverse antiphage defense systems. In recent years, a series of defense mechanisms targeting the nucleotide pool have been discovered, revealing that nucleotides are not only fundamental molecules for metabolism but also serve as key signaling carriers, effector substrates, and toxic weapons in bacterial immunity. According to the interaction modes between defense mechanisms and the nucleotide pool, this review systematically summarizes seven representative antiphage systems and categorizes them into three major classes: (1) Systems mediated by nucleotide cyclization into signaling molecules [e.g., cyclic oligonucleotide-based antiphage signaling system (CBASS), pyrimidine cyclase system for antiphage resistance (Pycsar), and Panoptes], which utilize nucleotidyltransferases to synthesize cyclic oligonucleotide second messengers that activate downstream effector proteins, leading to abortive infection; (2) Systems mediated by nucleotide depletion [e.g., deoxycytidine triphosphate (dCTP) deaminase, deoxyguanosine triphosphatase (dGTPase), and Nezha], which specifically hydrolyze or modify dNTPs or NAD+, resulting in a nucleotide pool imbalance and an energy crisis that block phage replication; (3) Systems mediated by aberrant nucleotide conversion [e.g., restriction by an adenosine deaminase acting on RNA (RADAR) and type III CRISPR-Cas-associated deaminase (CAAD)], which convert canonical nucleotides into toxic analogs [e.g., inosine triphosphate (ITP) and deoxyinosine triphosphate (dITP)], poisoning the nucleotide pool and inducing abortive infection. This review focuses on the core components, protein structural features, assembly mechanisms, and antiphage regulatory strategies of each category of system and discusses the escape mechanisms evolved by phages against these systems. In summary, the regulation of nucleotide pool homeostasis has emerged as a core strategy in bacterial immunity. In-depth investigation of these systems not only helps elucidate the molecular basis of prokaryote-phage co-evolution but also provides important insights for developing novel antimicrobial strategies and tools in synthetic biology.
, authors=Guolun LI, Bocheng HUANG, Dandan ZHANG
*, Xiangkai ZHEN
*, authorsList=Guolun LI, Bocheng HUANG, Dandan ZHANG, Xiangkai ZHEN, authorCompany=null, correspAuthors=Dandan ZHANG, Xiangkai ZHEN, authorNote=null, correspAuthorsNote=
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细菌与噬菌体之间的“军备竞赛”驱动了多种抗噬菌体防御系统的演化。近年来,一系列以核苷酸为核心的防御机制被相继发现,揭示了作为生命代谢基本分子的核苷酸也是细菌免疫系统中的关键信号载体、效应底物和毒性武器。本文根据防御机制与核苷酸的相互作用方式系统综述了7种代表性抗噬菌体系统,并将其归纳为三大类别:(1)作为信号分子发挥功能的系统[如基于环状寡核苷酸的抗噬菌体信号系统(cyclic oligonucleotide-based antiphage signaling system, CBASS)、抗噬菌体抗性嘧啶环化酶系统(pyrimidine cyclase system for antiphage resistance, Pycsar)、Panoptes系统],它们通过核苷酸环化酶合成环状寡核苷酸第二信使,激活下游效应蛋白引发流产感染;(2)核苷酸耗竭引起宿主流产感染的系统[如脱氧胞苷三磷酸脱氨酶(deoxycytidine triphosphate deaminase, dCTP deaminase)及脱氧鸟苷三磷酸酶(deoxyguanosine triphosphatase, dGTPase)、Nezha系统],通过特异性水解或修饰三磷酸脱氧核糖核苷(deoxyribonucleoside triphosphate, dNTPs)或烟酰胺腺嘌呤二核苷酸(nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide, NAD+),导致核苷酸失衡与能量危机,阻滞噬菌体复制;(3)核苷酸异常转化介导的系统[如基于RNA腺苷脱氨酶的限制系统(restriction by an adenosine deaminase acting on RNA, RADAR)、三型CRISPR-Cas关联脱氨酶(type III CRISPR-Cas-associated deaminase, CAAD)],通过将正常核苷酸转化为具有毒性的类似物[如肌苷三磷酸(inosine triphosphate, ITP)、脱氧肌苷三磷酸(deoxyinosine triphosphate, dITP)],有毒的代谢物诱导流产感染。本文重点阐述了各系统的核心组分、蛋白结构特征、组装机制及抗噬菌体调控策略,并探讨了噬菌体针对上述系统的逃逸机制。综合表明,核苷酸稳态调控已成为细菌免疫的核心策略之一,对这些系统的深入研究不仅有助于揭示原核生物与噬菌体共进化的分子基础,也为开发新型抗菌策略和合成生物学元件提供了重要启示。
, authors=李国伦, 黄勃诚, 张丹丹
*, 甄向凯
*, authorsList=李国伦, 黄勃诚, 张丹丹, 甄向凯, authorCompany=null, correspAuthors=张丹丹, 甄向凯, authorNote=
作者贡献声明
李国伦:文章初稿撰写,图表绘制等;黄勃诚:文献整理,辅助图表制作;张丹丹:论文审阅与修改;甄向凯:论文选题、论文框架搭建。
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Antiphage model diagram of the CBASS system (modified from the reference [14]). A: Composition of the CBASS system; B: Molecular mechanism of the CBASS system., figureFileSmall=dkDwwoKvi8wKEshI4HW7rQ==, figureFileBig=xmLVKm+Mm40s0oxJ1jnMBw==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1316829800514302525, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, articleId=1316714497935524864, language=CN, label=图1, caption=
CBASS系统抗噬菌体模型图(根据参考文献[14]修改), figureFileSmall=dkDwwoKvi8wKEshI4HW7rQ==, figureFileBig=xmLVKm+Mm40s0oxJ1jnMBw==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1316829800635937342, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, articleId=1316714497935524864, language=EN, label=Figure 2, caption=
Antiphage model diagram of the Pycsar system (modified from the reference [19]). A: Composition of the Pycsar system; B: Molecular mechanism of the Pycsar system., figureFileSmall=bpBon4Jrm1xsVyjAXC/mDQ==, figureFileBig=NAp1tp/j71WR6pY+3MZfUA==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1316829800875012672, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, articleId=1316714497935524864, language=CN, label=图2, caption=
Pycsar系统抗噬菌体模型图(根据参考文献[19]修改), figureFileSmall=bpBon4Jrm1xsVyjAXC/mDQ==, figureFileBig=NAp1tp/j71WR6pY+3MZfUA==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1316829800967287360, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, articleId=1316714497935524864, language=EN, label=Figure 3, caption=
Antiphage model diagram of the Panoptes system (modified from the reference [20]). A: Composition of the Panoptes system; B: Molecular mechanism of the Panoptes system., figureFileSmall=9uqY3gtLlCWcE/wba0HaQw==, figureFileBig=hsQa8pynv/qmhINoRaRgbw==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1316829801059562049, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, articleId=1316714497935524864, language=CN, label=图3, caption=
Panoptes系统抗噬菌体模型图(根据参考文献[20]修改), figureFileSmall=9uqY3gtLlCWcE/wba0HaQw==, figureFileBig=hsQa8pynv/qmhINoRaRgbw==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1316829802733089346, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, articleId=1316714497935524864, language=EN, label=Figure 4, caption=
Antiphage model diagram of the defense-type dCTP deaminase and dGTPase system (modified from the reference [21]). A: Domain organization of dCTP deaminase and dGTPase; B: Molecular mechanism of defense-type dCTP deaminase and dGTPase in antiphage immunity., figureFileSmall=tx2c2AfsvtaMBV2GSIt8cA==, figureFileBig=WuPosDuPI4jECE+vslNVmg==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1316829802804392515, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, articleId=1316714497935524864, language=CN, label=图4, caption=
防御型dCTP deaminase和dGTPase系统抗噬菌体模型图(根据参考文献[21]修改), figureFileSmall=tx2c2AfsvtaMBV2GSIt8cA==, figureFileBig=WuPosDuPI4jECE+vslNVmg==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1316829802888278596, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, articleId=1316714497935524864, language=EN, label=Figure 5, caption=
Antiphage model diagram of the Nezha system (modified from the reference [26]). A: Composition of the Nezha system; B: Molecular mechanism of the Nezha system in antiphage immunity., figureFileSmall=QvppLgsLzaGZaJgFVrExyw==, figureFileBig=D5niz0YXorMJw8dpzbBgxw==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1316829802951193157, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, articleId=1316714497935524864, language=CN, label=图5, caption=
Nezha系统抗噬菌体模型图(根据参考文献[26]修改), figureFileSmall=QvppLgsLzaGZaJgFVrExyw==, figureFileBig=D5niz0YXorMJw8dpzbBgxw==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1316829803018302022, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, articleId=1316714497935524864, language=EN, label=Figure 6, caption=
Antiphage model diagram of the RADAR system (modified from the reference [23]). A: Composition of the RADAR system; B: Molecular mechanism of the RADAR system in antiphage immunity., figureFileSmall=cI+uk7mvSqUx3t5TJiWa1w==, figureFileBig=viyvwT2EE2wT1quZLHaFXQ==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1316829803089605191, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, articleId=1316714497935524864, language=CN, label=图6, caption=
RADAR系统抗噬菌体模型图(根据参考文献[23]修改), figureFileSmall=cI+uk7mvSqUx3t5TJiWa1w==, figureFileBig=viyvwT2EE2wT1quZLHaFXQ==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1316829803169296969, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, articleId=1316714497935524864, language=EN, label=Figure 7, caption=
Antiphage model diagram of the type III CRISPR-Cas-associated deaminase system (modified from the reference [28]). A: Domain organization of CAAD in the type III CRISPR-Cas-associated deaminase system; B: Molecular mechanism of the type III CRISPR-Cas-associated deaminase system in antiphage immunity., figureFileSmall=HgMqNTumOCyTiTXidCU7nw==, figureFileBig=LU8LDDLENK0e/vUZpp5pQw==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1316829803265765962, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, articleId=1316714497935524864, language=CN, label=图7, caption=
三型CRISPR-Cas关联脱氨酶系统抗噬菌体模型图(根据参考文献[28]修改), figureFileSmall=HgMqNTumOCyTiTXidCU7nw==, figureFileBig=LU8LDDLENK0e/vUZpp5pQw==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1316829803395789387, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, articleId=1316714497935524864, language=EN, label=Table 1, caption=
Comparison of three classes of antiphage defense systems based on nucleotide homeostasis regulation
, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
| Category | Representative system | Core components | Key nucleotide changes | Core role of nucleotides | References |
|---|
| Nucleotides as signaling molecules | CBASS | CD-Ntase (cGAS/DncV-like nucleotidyltransferase), effector | ATP/GTP/UTP/CTP→cOA (cyclic oligonucleotides, e.g., 3′3′-cGAMP, 3′3′3′-cAMP-AMP-AMP) | Cyclic oligonucleotides act as second messengers, binding to effectors to activate membrane perforation, NADase, or nuclease activities | [17-18] |
| Pycsar | PycC (pyrimidine cyclase), PycE (pyrimidine cyclase effector) | UTP/CTP→cUMP/cCMP | cUMP/cCMP activate PycE to exert NADase and membrane-disrupting functions | [19] |
| Panoptes | OptS (nucleotide second-messenger synthase), OptE (nucleotide-binding effector protein) | ATP/GTP/UTP→cyclic dinucleotides (e.g., 2′,3′-c-di-AMP, 3′,2′-cGAMP) | Cyclic dinucleotides suppress OptE; their sequestration by phage Acb2 relieves this inhibition, activating OptE and triggering membrane damage | [20] |
| Nucleotide depletion | dCTP deaminase/dGTPase | dCTP deaminase, dGTPase | dCTP→dUTP, dGTP→dG | dCTP and dGTP are consumed via deamination and hydrolysis, respectively, depleting two key dNTPs from the host nucleotide pool | [21] |
| Nezha | Sir2 (NADase), HerA (RecA-like ATPase) | NAD+→ADPR+NAM, ATP→ADP+Pi | The NADase activity of Sir2 and the ATPase activity of HerA function synergistically, eliminating phage genomes through NAD+ depletion and ATP-dependent DNA unwinding | [22] |
| Aberrant nucleotide conversion | RADAR | RdrA (AAA+ATPase), RdrB (adenosine deaminase) | ATP/dATP→ITP/dITP | RdrB utilizes its adenosine deaminase activity to convert ATP/dATP into toxic ITP/dITP, which are misincorporated into DNA/RNA, disrupting genetic information transfer | [23-24] |
| Type III CRISPR-Cas-associated deaminase | CAAD | ATP/dATP→ITP/dITP | Cyclic oligoadenylates (cA4, cA6) activate CAAD, which converts ATP/dATP into ITP/dITP, poisoning the nucleotide pool | [25] |
), ArticleFig(id=1316829803471286860, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, articleId=1316714497935524864, language=CN, label=表1, caption=
基于核苷酸稳态调控的3类抗噬菌体防御系统特征比较
, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
| Category | Representative system | Core components | Key nucleotide changes | Core role of nucleotides | References |
|---|
| Nucleotides as signaling molecules | CBASS | CD-Ntase (cGAS/DncV-like nucleotidyltransferase), effector | ATP/GTP/UTP/CTP→cOA (cyclic oligonucleotides, e.g., 3′3′-cGAMP, 3′3′3′-cAMP-AMP-AMP) | Cyclic oligonucleotides act as second messengers, binding to effectors to activate membrane perforation, NADase, or nuclease activities | [17-18] |
| Pycsar | PycC (pyrimidine cyclase), PycE (pyrimidine cyclase effector) | UTP/CTP→cUMP/cCMP | cUMP/cCMP activate PycE to exert NADase and membrane-disrupting functions | [19] |
| Panoptes | OptS (nucleotide second-messenger synthase), OptE (nucleotide-binding effector protein) | ATP/GTP/UTP→cyclic dinucleotides (e.g., 2′,3′-c-di-AMP, 3′,2′-cGAMP) | Cyclic dinucleotides suppress OptE; their sequestration by phage Acb2 relieves this inhibition, activating OptE and triggering membrane damage | [20] |
| Nucleotide depletion | dCTP deaminase/dGTPase | dCTP deaminase, dGTPase | dCTP→dUTP, dGTP→dG | dCTP and dGTP are consumed via deamination and hydrolysis, respectively, depleting two key dNTPs from the host nucleotide pool | [21] |
| Nezha | Sir2 (NADase), HerA (RecA-like ATPase) | NAD+→ADPR+NAM, ATP→ADP+Pi | The NADase activity of Sir2 and the ATPase activity of HerA function synergistically, eliminating phage genomes through NAD+ depletion and ATP-dependent DNA unwinding | [22] |
| Aberrant nucleotide conversion | RADAR | RdrA (AAA+ATPase), RdrB (adenosine deaminase) | ATP/dATP→ITP/dITP | RdrB utilizes its adenosine deaminase activity to convert ATP/dATP into toxic ITP/dITP, which are misincorporated into DNA/RNA, disrupting genetic information transfer | [23-24] |
| Type III CRISPR-Cas-associated deaminase | CAAD | ATP/dATP→ITP/dITP | Cyclic oligoadenylates (cA4, cA6) activate CAAD, which converts ATP/dATP into ITP/dITP, poisoning the nucleotide pool | [25] |
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