Article(id=1242093868959727823, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, issueId=1242093864144666765, articleNumber=null, orderNo=null, doi=10.13343/j.cnki.wsxb.20240218, pmid=null, cstr=null, oa=null, hot=null, price=null, onlineType=0, articleFormat=0, articleType=null, articleTypeStr=research-article, receivedDate=1712246400000, receivedDateStr=2024-04-05, revisedDate=null, revisedDateStr=null, acceptedDate=1716134400000, acceptedDateStr=2024-05-20, onlineDate=1774067855348, onlineDateStr=2026-03-21, pubDate=1716393600000, pubDateStr=2024-05-23, doiRegisterDate=null, doiRegisterDateStr=null, onlineIssueDate=1774067855348, onlineIssueDateStr=2026-03-21, onlineJustAcceptDate=null, onlineJustAcceptDateStr=null, onlineFirstDate=null, onlineFirstDateStr=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, createTime=1774067855348, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1774067855348, updator=13701087609, issue=Issue{id=1242093864144666765, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, year='2024', volume='64', issue='10', pageStart='3571', pageEnd='3997', issueExtLink='null', onlineDate='null', pubDate='null', beforeIssueId=null, nextIssueId=null, price=null, status=1, issueComplete=1, articleOrder=1, issueType=-1, specialIssue=null, createTime=1774067854200, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1774067980255, updator=13701087609, preIssue=null, nextIssue=null, ext={EN=IssueExt(id=1242094392937353679, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, issueId=1242093864144666765, language=EN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=), CN=IssueExt(id=1242094392937353680, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, issueId=1242093864144666765, language=CN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=)}, issueFiles=null}, startPage=3633, endPage=3646, ext={EN=ArticleExt(id=1242093869374963939, articleId=1242093868959727823, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, language=EN, title=Research progress in the synthesis and regulation of pullulan in Aureobasidium spp., columnId=1239895164987175635, journalTitle=Acta Microbiologica Sinica, columnName=Reviews, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

Pullulan is an exopolysaccharide produced by Aureobasidium spp. Despite its widespread biotechnological applications, the mechanisms underlying the biosynthesis and regulation of pullulan remain to be studied. In recent years, researchers have employed molecular biological techniques to elucidate the molecular mechanisms of pullulan synthesis and regulation. The transmembrane protein AmAgs2 is identified as a key enzyme for the synthesis of pullulan, and the cAMP-protein kinase A (cAMP-PKA), target of rapamycin 1 (TORC1), high osmotic glycerol 1 (HOG1), and sucrose nonfermentable 1 (Snf1) signaling pathways are involved in the regulation of pullulan synthesis. We reviewed the research progress in this field, aiming to give insights into the research on the synthesis and regulation mechanisms of fungal extracellular polysaccharide and provide theoretical support for building cell factories with high yields of pullulan.

, correspAuthors=Guanglei LIU, authorNote=null, correspAuthorsNote=
*LIU Guanglei, E-mail:
, copyrightStatement=Copyright ©2024 Acta Microbiologica Sinica. All rights reserved., copyrightOwner=null, extLink=null, articleAbsUrl=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, pdfUrl=null, pdf=null, pdfFileSize=null, pdfExtLink=null, richHtmlUrl=null, mobilePdfUrl=null, reviewReport=null, pdfFirstPage=null, abstractGraph=null, abstractGraphContent=null, abstractVideo=null, citation=null, cebUrl=null, magXmlContent=null, mapNumber=null, authorCompany=null, fund=null, authors=null, authorsList=Lan XU, Yujie WANG, Zhenming CHI, Guanglei LIU), CN=ArticleExt(id=1242093871736357165, articleId=1242093868959727823, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, language=CN, title=短梗霉普鲁兰多糖合成和调控的研究进展, columnId=1192149543882997826, journalTitle=微生物学报, columnName=综述, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

普鲁兰多糖是一种由短梗霉属真菌合成的胞外多糖。虽然普鲁兰多糖在生物技术的各个领域有着广泛的应用,但其生物合成与调控的具体机制有待进一步研究。近年来,研究人员利用分子生物学方法对普鲁兰多糖的合成与调控的分子机制进行阐明,发现以跨膜蛋白AmAgs2为关键多糖合成酶的合成途径,并揭示cAMP-Protein kinase A (cAMP-PKA)、Target of rapamycin 1 (TORC1)、High osmotic glycerol 1 (HOG1)和Sucrose nonfermentable 1 (Snf1)信号通路参与普鲁兰多糖合成的调控。因此,本文对近年来该领域的研究进行综述,为真菌胞外多糖合成调控的机制提供研究参考,并为高产普鲁兰多糖细胞工厂的构建提供理论支持。

, correspAuthors=刘光磊, authorNote=null, correspAuthorsNote=null, copyrightStatement=版权所有©《微生物学报》编辑部2024, copyrightOwner=null, extLink=null, articleAbsUrl=null, sourceXml=Kn1DqcUEvv2j7OfDlaFfLQ==, magXml=e2vErx6D/xOSH7gGhTMeOg==, pdfUrl=null, pdf=i+NetbBVCISjGhcis5fIyg==, pdfFileSize=625440, pdfExtLink=null, richHtmlUrl=null, mobilePdfUrl=null, reviewReport=null, pdfFirstPage=null, abstractGraph=LDJ0hXESdJq6P7++OwytfA==, abstractGraphContent=null, abstractVideo=null, citation=null, cebUrl=null, magXmlContent=CzVpwUPHJXObVNrTiqxkfQ==, mapNumber=null, authorCompany=null, fund=null, authors=

#These authors contributed equally to this work.

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AmAgs2: α-glucan synthetase2; Amy_D: Extracellular α-amylase catalytic domain; Gys_D: Intracellular GT1_Glycogen_synthetase domain; EPST_D: EPS_sugtrans domain (EPST_D) embedded in multiple transmembrane regions; Gys: Glycogen synthetase; Glg1 and Glg2: Glycogenin isoforms; Gcs1: Ceramide β-glucosyltransferase; Sgt1: Sterol glucosyltransferase; Short α-(1, 4)-glucosyl chain: Pullulan primer; Long α-(1, 4)-glucosyl chain: Pullulan precursor; Lph-G: Phospholipid intermediate-glucose; HXT: Hexose transporter; Glc: Glucose; Glc-6-P: Glucose-6-phosphate; Glc-1-P: Glucose-1-phosphate; UDP-Glc: UDP-glucose., figureFileSmall=vdIJ/ybHSrEwgg6lr31Wjg==, figureFileBig=GdTrIJx6/GfLnJH6LcawHw==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1243285161488528103, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, articleId=1242093868959727823, language=CN, label=图2, caption=Aureobasidium melanogenum中普鲁兰多糖的合成途径, figureFileSmall=vdIJ/ybHSrEwgg6lr31Wjg==, figureFileBig=GdTrIJx6/GfLnJH6LcawHw==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1243285161610162925, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, articleId=1242093868959727823, language=EN, label=Figure 3, caption=The various signaling pathways that are involved in pullulan synthesis in Aureobasidium spp., figureFileSmall=tG1hjfJhgYjr6G6g8eEeug==, figureFileBig=mF1rJrh8BKbrY6atVgZjFA==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1243285161715020528, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, articleId=1242093868959727823, language=CN, label=图3, caption=短梗霉普鲁兰多糖合成中涉及的各种信号通路, figureFileSmall=tG1hjfJhgYjr6G6g8eEeug==, figureFileBig=mF1rJrh8BKbrY6atVgZjFA==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1243285161849238264, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, articleId=1242093868959727823, language=EN, label=Table 1, caption=

The pullulan titers and yields produced by different strains of Aureobasidium spp.

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
StrainsSubstratesPullulan titers (g/L)Yields (g/g substrates)References
A. pullulans MTCC 1991Sucrose125.74.1[24]
A. melanogenum TN3-1Glucose110.30.8[7]
A. melanogenum AMY-PKS-11Glucose103.50.8[25]
A. pullulans RBF 4A3Sucrose88.60.6[26]
A. melanogenum EI36Inulin70.60.6[27]
A. pullulans RM1603Sucrose62.50.8[28]
A. melanogenum TN2-1-2Xylose and glucose55.10.5[29]
A. pullulans P56Beet molasses49.00.5[30]
A. pullulans BL06Sucrose37.90.2[31]
A. pullulans NGGlucose18.30.3[32]
), ArticleFig(id=1243285161970873083, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1192105938417971205, articleId=1242093868959727823, language=CN, label=表1, caption=

不同Aureobasidium spp.菌株的普鲁兰多糖产量和产率

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
StrainsSubstratesPullulan titers (g/L)Yields (g/g substrates)References
A. pullulans MTCC 1991Sucrose125.74.1[24]
A. melanogenum TN3-1Glucose110.30.8[7]
A. melanogenum AMY-PKS-11Glucose103.50.8[25]
A. pullulans RBF 4A3Sucrose88.60.6[26]
A. melanogenum EI36Inulin70.60.6[27]
A. pullulans RM1603Sucrose62.50.8[28]
A. melanogenum TN2-1-2Xylose and glucose55.10.5[29]
A. pullulans P56Beet molasses49.00.5[30]
A. pullulans BL06Sucrose37.90.2[31]
A. pullulans NGGlucose18.30.3[32]
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短梗霉普鲁兰多糖合成和调控的研究进展
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徐澜 1, # , 王宇杰 1, # , 池振明 1, 2 , 刘光磊 1, 2, *
微生物学报 | 综述 2024,64(10): 3633-3646
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微生物学报 | 综述 2024, 64(10): 3633-3646
短梗霉普鲁兰多糖合成和调控的研究进展
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徐澜1, #, 王宇杰1, #, 池振明1, 2, 刘光磊1, 2, *
作者信息
  • 1 中国海洋大学 海洋生命学院, 山东 青岛 266003
  • 2 海洋生物多样性与进化教育部重点实验室, 山东 青岛 266003
Research progress in the synthesis and regulation of pullulan in Aureobasidium spp.
Lan XU1, #, Yujie WANG1, #, Zhenming CHI1, 2, Guanglei LIU1, 2, *
Affiliations
  • 1 College of Marine Life Sciences, Ocean University of China, Qingdao 266003, Shandong, China
  • 2 MOE Key Laboratory of Evolution and Marine Biodiversity, Qingdao 266003, Shandong, China
出版时间: 2024-05-23 doi: 10.13343/j.cnki.wsxb.20240218
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普鲁兰多糖是一种由短梗霉属真菌合成的胞外多糖。虽然普鲁兰多糖在生物技术的各个领域有着广泛的应用,但其生物合成与调控的具体机制有待进一步研究。近年来,研究人员利用分子生物学方法对普鲁兰多糖的合成与调控的分子机制进行阐明,发现以跨膜蛋白AmAgs2为关键多糖合成酶的合成途径,并揭示cAMP-Protein kinase A (cAMP-PKA)、Target of rapamycin 1 (TORC1)、High osmotic glycerol 1 (HOG1)和Sucrose nonfermentable 1 (Snf1)信号通路参与普鲁兰多糖合成的调控。因此,本文对近年来该领域的研究进行综述,为真菌胞外多糖合成调控的机制提供研究参考,并为高产普鲁兰多糖细胞工厂的构建提供理论支持。

短梗霉  /  普鲁兰多糖  /  合成途径  /  调控机制  /  信号通路

Pullulan is an exopolysaccharide produced by Aureobasidium spp. Despite its widespread biotechnological applications, the mechanisms underlying the biosynthesis and regulation of pullulan remain to be studied. In recent years, researchers have employed molecular biological techniques to elucidate the molecular mechanisms of pullulan synthesis and regulation. The transmembrane protein AmAgs2 is identified as a key enzyme for the synthesis of pullulan, and the cAMP-protein kinase A (cAMP-PKA), target of rapamycin 1 (TORC1), high osmotic glycerol 1 (HOG1), and sucrose nonfermentable 1 (Snf1) signaling pathways are involved in the regulation of pullulan synthesis. We reviewed the research progress in this field, aiming to give insights into the research on the synthesis and regulation mechanisms of fungal extracellular polysaccharide and provide theoretical support for building cell factories with high yields of pullulan.

Aureobasidium spp.  /  pullulan  /  synthetic pathway  /  regulatory mechanism  /  signaling pathway
徐澜, 王宇杰, 池振明, 刘光磊. 短梗霉普鲁兰多糖合成和调控的研究进展. 微生物学报, 2024 , 64 (10) : 3633 -3646 . DOI: 10.13343/j.cnki.wsxb.20240218
Lan XU, Yujie WANG, Zhenming CHI, Guanglei LIU. Research progress in the synthesis and regulation of pullulan in Aureobasidium spp.[J]. Acta Microbiologica Sinica, 2024 , 64 (10) : 3633 -3646 . DOI: 10.13343/j.cnki.wsxb.20240218
短梗霉(Aureobasidium spp.)属于子囊菌门,是一种双态型真菌,既有主要形态酵母样细胞,也有次要形态丝状细胞[1]。短梗霉属菌株在全球广泛分布,因其能够合成黑色素又被称为“黑酵母”[2]。目前经DNA鉴定的短梗霉属菌株多达32种[3],包括广为人知的产黑色素短梗霉(Aureobasidium melanogenum)和出芽短梗霉(Aureobasidium pullulans)等多个种,它们因具有高水平的普鲁兰多糖合成与分泌能力而闻名[1, 4]。短梗霉有极端环境耐受性,可抵御多种环境胁迫[5-8],还具有广泛的酶谱以利用不同的底物[9]
普鲁兰多糖(pullulan)是短梗霉发酵过程中的主要产物之一,能够协助细胞在不同环境下聚集、絮凝和黏附[1, 10]。作为一种水溶性胞外多糖,普鲁兰多糖无臭、无味,并且无任何毒性和诱变性[11]。普鲁兰多糖因其生物可降解性、生物相容性、水溶性和无毒性等特点成为制药、化妆品和食品等行业的重要原料[12],其特性还能够通过与其他材料结合或化学修饰来调节改变[13]。近年来,普鲁兰多糖在食品工业、制药领域、水处理领域的应用还在不断扩大,消费市场不断增长[10]。因此,对于普鲁兰多糖的合成与调控机制的研究十分有意义。
目前,短梗霉是生产普鲁兰多糖的主要菌株。对于短梗霉中普鲁兰多糖合成途径的研究经历了漫长的探索过程。A. melanogenum中的普鲁兰多糖合成途径已经基本解析,研究发现α-葡聚糖合成酶(α-glucan synthetase2, AmAgs2)是普鲁兰多糖合成的关键酶[4]。在合成调控方面,已有研究证明普鲁兰多糖的合成受多个信号通路的影响,包括cAMP-Protein kinase A (cAMP-PKA)信号通路、Target of rapamycin 1 (TORC1)信号通路、High osmotic glycerol 1 (HOG1)信号通路和Sucrose nonfermentable 1 (Snf1)信号通路[9],对这些途径中关键基因的上调和下调也影响着普鲁兰多糖的产量,是普鲁兰多糖合成代谢工程改造的重点。
本文综述了不同短梗霉菌株普鲁兰多糖的生物合成途径、合成调控及以上两个过程中的关键酶及其编码基因等方面的研究进展,列出了目前为提高产量而进行的短梗霉中普鲁兰合成途径的改造,以期提高人们对短梗霉及普鲁兰多糖在工业生物技术上的意义及发展前景的关注。
普鲁兰多糖最早于1938年由Bauer发现[14],后经水解实验确认其结构,并命名为普鲁兰多糖[15]。普鲁兰多糖是一种线性的α-d-葡聚糖,其分子量大小为4.5×104−4.5×105 Da,由2个α-1,4-糖苷键连结的麦芽三糖亚基通过α-1,6键连接而成[2]。普鲁兰多糖的分子式为(C6H10O5)n,其化学结构如图1所示。α-1,4和α-1,6键的规律性交替使其结构柔韧性及溶解度增加,使得普鲁兰多糖具有其他多糖所没有的独特的成膜特性[2, 16]。据报道,普鲁兰多糖中也存在一小部分随机分布的麦芽四糖亚基[16]
外观方面,普鲁兰多糖是一种介于灰白色与白色之间的细颗粒粉末。在发酵过程中,普鲁兰多糖以无定形黏液的形式积累于产普鲁兰多糖菌株细胞的表面[17]。普鲁兰多糖溶液的黏度相对较低,其黏度在相当广泛的pH范围内(pH 2.0−11.0)保持稳定,并且在大多数金属离子存在的条件下保持稳定[3]。普鲁兰多糖对其生产菌株具有重要的生理意义[2]:包括为细胞提供碳源和能量,保护细胞免受紫外线、重金属、氧化剂和有机污染物的损害等。
普鲁兰多糖被美国食品药品监管局列为一般认为安全类(generally recognised as safe, GRAS)生物聚合物。由于其GRAS地位和独特的性质,它被认为是工业领域的重要聚合物。普鲁兰多糖是一种白色、水溶性、无臭无味的生物黏合剂,主要用作食品添加剂,起到增稠剂、稳定剂、填料、胶凝剂和黏合剂的作用[18-19]。用于食品包装材料的普鲁兰多糖能够有效防止食品氧化。鉴于普鲁兰多糖的独特结构和对人体无毒、无刺激的特性,其还可以作为一种载体,控制药物在体内环境的释放,因此成为制药和化妆品领域的潜力菌株[17]
普鲁兰多糖的生产菌株在自然界分布广泛,许多微生物被报道为普鲁兰多糖的生产菌株,包括短梗霉(Aureobasidium spp.)[4]、黄金银耳(Tremella mesenterica)[20]、栗疫病菌(Cryphonectria parasitica)[21]、浅黄枝衣(Teloschistes flavicans)[22]和浆果红酵母(Rhodototula bacarum)[23]等。短梗霉是普鲁兰多糖的主要微生物来源,目前以A. pullulansA. melanogenum进行普鲁兰多糖生产的研究较多[4]。如表1所示,A. pullulans MTCC 1991以蔗糖为碳源所得的普鲁兰多糖产量为125.7 g/L,A. melanogenum TN3-1以葡萄糖(glucose, Glc)为碳源所得的普鲁兰多糖产量为110.3 g/L,A. melanogenum EI36以菊粉为碳源所得的普鲁兰多糖产量为110.3 g/L。由表1中所列的参数可知,短梗霉能够利用多种底物进行普鲁兰多糖的合成。
虽然早在20世纪60年代就已经将普鲁兰多糖的分子结构解析清楚[15],而且普鲁兰多糖应用于食品、化妆品领域已有40余年历史,但其合成途径的研究却进展缓慢。直至2020年,Chen等的研究对A. melanogenum P16普鲁兰多糖的合成途径、相关酶及其编码基因进行了解析[33-34]。本节对短梗霉中普鲁兰多糖的合成机制的研究进行简单概述。
1982年,Catley等[35]利用d-[14C]葡萄糖对A. pullulans进行产普鲁兰多糖发酵,并对细胞进行脉冲处理以提取含放射性标记的糖脂;淀粉葡糖苷酶能够水解异麦芽糖、潘糖中的α-1,4和α-1,6糖苷键;其对所得糖脂催化后释放的物质中有60%放射性低聚糖被水解为d-葡萄糖,表明产物中存在α-1,4和α-1,6糖苷键。1998年,Simon等[36]发现在A. pullulans细胞的生长过程中,普鲁兰多糖的合成增加,而糖原的合成减少,猜测这可能是由于这两种分布于细胞中不同位置的多糖的产生动力学存在相关性;为了验证这一假设,设计实验对生长过程中定期提取的发酵液进行生化分析和微观研究;超微结构数据表明,糖原存在于所有不同的细胞类型(分生孢子、膨大细胞和厚垣孢子)以及细胞发育的所有阶段;然而,其合成水平具有时间依赖性,在指数期早期下降,而此时普鲁兰多糖的合成增加,用χ2方法计算所得的胞内糖原与胞外普鲁兰多糖水平的相关系数r表明两者呈负相关,这些结果表明糖原可能参与了普鲁兰多糖的生物合成途径。Duan等[37]研究了A. pullulans Y68中不同的碳源对于普鲁兰多糖的合成、尿苷二磷酸(uridine diphosphate, UDP)-Glc的水平、α-葡萄糖磷酸变位酶、尿苷二磷酸葡萄糖(uridine diphosphate glucose, UDPG)-焦磷酸化酶和葡萄糖基转移酶的活性的影响。实验结果表明,在葡萄糖培养基中的普鲁兰多糖产量最高,当有更多的普鲁兰多糖合成时,细胞中的UDP-Glc会减少,α-葡萄糖磷酸变位酶、UDPG-焦磷酸化酶和葡萄糖基转移酶的活性提高[37]。因此得出结论,α-葡萄糖磷酸变位酶、UDPG-焦磷酸化酶和葡萄糖基转移酶是参与普鲁兰多糖生物合成途径的关键酶[37]
Kang等[38]通过敲除A. pullulans IMS822 KCTC11179BP的普鲁兰多糖合成基因(PUL1)获得菌株A. pullulans NP1221;A. pullulans NP1221的菌落为白色,而野生型菌株为黑色,该突变菌株失去产普鲁兰多糖的能力,转而生产β-葡聚糖;实验结果证实了PUL1基因编码的普鲁兰多糖合成酶在A. pullulans IMS822 KCTC 11179BP中参与普鲁兰多糖的生物合成。同样地,Ma等[39]A. pullulans HN6.2中敲除PUL1基因后,获得的突变体DPS1的普鲁兰多糖产量下降,进一步证明了该基因对普鲁兰多糖的生物合成至关重要,但详细机制仍有待研究。Li等[2]结合之前的研究,推测普鲁兰多糖的生物合成为以下过程:α-磷酸葡萄糖异构酶将葡萄糖-6-磷酸(glucose-6-phosphate, Glc-6-P)转化为葡萄糖-1-磷酸(glucose-1-phosphate, Glc-1-P),然后由UDPG-焦磷酸化酶将其转为UDP-Glc,它是普鲁兰多糖合成的前体物质;随后,葡萄糖基转移酶借助磷酸二酯键将葡萄糖-1-磷酸结合至脂质过氧化物上,形成脂质连接的异麦芽糖和异潘糖,再经由普鲁兰多糖合成酶的作用形成普鲁兰多糖。
Liu等[40]A. melanogenum P16菌株产普鲁兰多糖培养基进行优化后,产物普鲁兰多糖的分子量上升;而与之相对应的,α-淀粉酶、葡糖淀粉酶和普鲁兰多糖酶的活性下降,编码这些酶的基因的相对转录水平降低。由UGT1编码的葡萄糖基转移酶(UDP-glucose: glycoprotein glucosyltransferase-like protein, Ugt1)也被证明与普鲁兰多糖的生物合成有关[41]。在P16菌株中,敲除UGT1后会使普鲁兰多糖的产量大大降低,过表达UGT1会使普鲁兰多糖的产量显著提升。Ugt1可能作为“折叠传感器”对参与普鲁兰多糖合成的不完全折叠糖蛋白进行糖基化[34]
普鲁兰多糖被认为是细胞壁中少量存在的成分[42],研究发现其定位于厚垣孢子的外表面[36]。高产普鲁兰多糖的A. melanogenum P16菌株细胞壁组分合成基因的缺失及回补实验表明,编码不同α-1,2甘露糖基转移酶的GT6GT7基因对于维持细胞完整性有重要作用,并且每个基因的敲除都会导致普鲁兰多糖产量下降及其合成相关基因表达量的下降[43]。这表明P16菌株中,普鲁兰多糖的生物合成依赖于细胞壁的完整性,这一过程可能发生于细胞壁和周质空间。
由于糖原、淀粉、葡聚糖和普鲁兰多糖中同时存在α-1,4和α-1,6糖苷键,已有充分的研究证明真菌中糖原的合成必须由糖原引物合成蛋白Glycogenin isoform 1 (Glg1)和Glycogenin isoform 2 (Glg2)合成的短链α-1,4-葡聚糖(short α-(1, 4)-glucosyl chain)开始,糖原合酶(glycogen synthetase, Gys)将UDPG糖基添加至其非还原端[4]。甾醇葡萄糖基转移酶(sterol glucosyltransferase, Sgt1)和神经酰胺β-葡萄糖基转移酶(ceramide β-glucosyltransferase, Gcs1)已被证明是A. melanogenum P16菌株合成普鲁兰多糖所必需的[33]。然而,这些相关基因的缺失并不会导致普鲁兰多糖合成能力完全丧失,这表明与糖原合成一样,普鲁兰多糖合成可以使用任何其他未知的替代引物进行。在组织胞浆菌、黑曲霉和构巢曲霉中,α-淀粉酶被认为参与α-1,3-葡聚糖合成的引物短链α-1,4-葡聚糖的合成[44]。这些研究结果表明短链α-1,4-葡聚糖是一种常见的引物,可用于包括普鲁兰多糖在内的多种α-葡聚糖的合成。因此,P16菌株细胞内的α-淀粉酶也可能与普鲁兰多糖引物的合成有关。
裂殖酵母细胞壁中的α-葡聚糖由AGS1AGS3编码的完整膜α-(1, 3)-葡聚糖合成酶Ags1和Ags3合成[45]。这种酶蛋白包括一个用于α-葡聚糖重构的胞外结构域和一个用于α-葡聚糖跨膜运输的多通道跨膜结构域;这些酶还可以催化α-1,4或α-1,6糖苷键的水解,以及转糖基化形成α-1,4或α-1,6糖苷键[45]。此外,有充分证据表明,酿酒酵母和其他出芽酵母的细胞壁不含α-葡聚糖,因为它们的基因组中无AGS同源基因[44]。推测该家族的酶可能在A. melanogenum P16菌株的普鲁兰多糖合成中起作用,在P16基因组DNA中寻找AGS同源基因,发现存在AGS1AGS2AGS3这3个同源基因。AGS1AGS3基因的缺失并不影响P16中普鲁兰多糖的合成,而AGS2 (现被称为AmAGS2)基因的完全敲除菌株不能合成普鲁兰多糖,回补AGS2基因后,菌株恢复了普鲁兰多糖的合成能力[34]。因此,AmAGS2基因被证明是A. melanogenum P16中普鲁兰多糖合成的关键基因。对AmAGS2基因编码的AmAgs2蛋白的氨基酸分析表明,该蛋白质定位于细胞质膜上,其保守结构域包括胞外α-淀粉酶催化结构域(extracellular α-amylase catalytic domain, Amy_D)、胞外糖原合成酶结构域(intracellular GT1_glycogen_synthetase domain, Gys_D)和多次跨膜的胞外多糖转运结构域(EPS_sugtrans domain, EPST_D)。此外,PUL基因编码的普鲁兰多糖合成酶被认为可能是AmAgs2活性所需的一种辅助蛋白[4]
结合现有研究,对短梗霉中的普鲁兰多糖合成途径的总结如图2所示[4]:葡萄糖经己糖转运蛋白(hexose transporter, HXT)进入细胞后被磷酸化为葡萄糖-6-磷酸,α-磷酸葡萄糖异构酶将葡萄糖-6-磷酸转化为葡萄糖-1-磷酸,然后由UDPG-焦磷酸化酶将其转为UDP-葡萄糖,再经由糖原引物合成蛋白Glg1和Glg2、甾醇葡萄糖基转移酶Sgt1和神经酰胺β-葡萄糖基转移酶Gcs1合成普鲁兰多糖的合成引物短链α-1,4-葡聚糖;然后,AmAgs2的胞内Gys_D结构域在普鲁兰多糖合成引物的基础上催化形成普鲁兰多糖前体长链α-1,4-葡聚糖(long α-(1, 4)-glucosyl chain);合成的胞内普鲁兰多糖前体通过多次跨膜结构域EPST_D进行跨膜转运,穿过质膜到达质周空间;最后,胞外Amy_D结构域负责水解普鲁兰多糖前体中α-1,4糖苷键以释放麦芽三糖,并将释放的麦芽三糖转移到Phospholipid intermediate-glucose (Lph-G)中生成α-1,6糖苷键,重复此过程最终合成普鲁兰多糖。
研究发现,虽然许多真菌中α-葡聚糖合成酶是催化细胞壁α-1,3-葡聚糖合成的多结构域蛋白[44],并且含有一个Big_5结构域,但只有A. melanogenum TN3-1和A. melanogenum P16中含有保守氨基酸LQS的Big_5结构域才能催化高水平的普鲁兰多糖生物合成[46]。已有研究证明,Big_5结构域可以增强酶与其底物的结合亲和力,维持酶的正常功能[47]。因此,具有保守氨基酸LQS的Big_5结构域在普鲁兰多糖生物合成中具有特定功能是合理的。
图2可以看出,普鲁兰多糖的合成发生在短梗霉细胞的细胞壁和周质空间中。Wei等[4]提出的普鲁兰合成途径可以解释为什么敲除AmAGS2以外的其他许多基因不能够使菌株完全失去产普鲁兰多糖的能力[33, 39, 41]。阐明整个普鲁兰多糖合成途径在生物技术领域具有重要意义,这有助于进一步提高普鲁兰多糖的产量、编辑普鲁兰多糖分子、修饰普鲁兰多糖的化学性质,以及利用代谢工程和合成生物学手段了解普鲁兰多糖生物合成及其调控的详细机制。如图2所示,AmAgs2的每个结构域的详细功能还需进一步探究,AmAGS2基因可用于大大提高重组菌株的普鲁兰多糖的产量。
短梗霉是一种多态型真菌,具有4种不同的形态:芽生孢子(酵母样细胞)、菌丝体、具隔膜的无色厚垣孢子和具隔膜的黑色厚垣孢子,其中酵母样细胞是生产普鲁兰多糖的形态[48]。此外,也有研究发现A. melanogenum TN3-1菌株具隔膜的无色厚垣孢子形态与高产普鲁兰多糖有关[49]。因此,普鲁兰多糖的生物合成可以通过不同的细胞形态控制。图3列出了短梗霉中普鲁兰多糖合成调控涉及的信号通路。
图3所示,cAMP-PKA信号通路的主要成分包括Gpr1 (葡萄糖传感器、腺苷酸环化酶激活因子)、Mep2 (氨渗透酶/氮传感器)、Ras、Cyr1 (腺苷酸环化酶)、Tpk1-3 (蛋白激酶A的催化亚基)、Bcy1-2 (PKA-调节亚基)、Pde1和Pde2 (cAMP水解酶)[9]。PKA是一种异四聚体蛋白,由2个催化亚基和2个调节亚基组成,前者由TPK1-3编码,后者由BCY1编码[50]。在Gpr1感知糖信号后,Cyr1被激活,其信号分子cAMP的水平提高;cAMP与调节亚基结合,使其与催化亚基分离,从而激活PKA[50]。cAMP分别被低亲和力和高亲和力磷酸二酯酶Pde1和Pde2降解为AMP[51]。Msn2是cAMP-PKA信号通路的下游靶标,是一种含有DNA结合结构域的C2H2型锌指蛋白,可以识别被调控基因启动子序列中的AGGGG和CCCCT[9]。Msn2的活性已被证实是通过多种信号通路,包括HOG1、Snf1、cAMP-PKA信号通路的磷酸化及去磷酸化来调节的[52-53]。cAMP-PKA通路通过调控Msn2氨基酸序列上的S66、S452和S500磷酸化位点来调控Msn2的亚细胞定位,从而调控其功能[54]。Yang等通过实验证明了cAMP-PKA信号通路对于普鲁兰多糖合成的负调控作用:当在A. melanogenum P16菌株中敲除cAMP-PKA通路中的某些基因使得PKA活性增高时,突变体基本失去产普鲁兰多糖的能力,此时Msn2定位于细胞质;当敲除某些基因使得PKA活性降低时,普鲁兰多糖产量上升,此时Msn2定位于细胞核[54]UGP1编码的UDPG-焦磷酸化酶是普鲁兰多糖生物合成的限速酶,UGP1基因受Msn2激活调控[54]。当Msn2定位于细胞质或Msn2缺失时,UGP1基因无法正常表达,进而导致UDP-葡萄糖的形成大大减少。UDP-葡萄糖是普鲁兰多糖生物合成的前体,因此普鲁兰多糖的生物合成受损[54]
TORC1信号通路可以感知培养基中的氮源,如培养基中的首选氮(谷氨酰胺、铵和氨基酸)或非首选氮(脯氨酸)。在酿酒酵母中,TORC1信号通路中的关键成分包括TORC1 (氮刺激的关键调节因子,可磷酸化激活Sch9、Gat1、Gln3和Msn2/4 (转录激活因子)、Deh1和Dal80 (转录抑制因子)[9]。在丰富的氮源和氨基酸存在下,TORC1使转录激活因子磷酸化和转录抑制因子去磷酸化。磷酸化的转录激活因子定位在细胞质中,而去磷酸化的转录抑制因子定位在细胞核中,抑制许多与氮抑制相关的基因的表达[53]。激活的氮信号通路抑制许多应激相关基因的表达,而失活的氮信号通路刺激许多应激相关基因的表达。在短梗霉中,只有一个GATA型转录激活因子AreA,相当于酿酒酵母中的Gat1或Gln3,当氮源缺乏时,AreA激活其调控基因的转录;在富氮条件下,AreA被转移至细胞质中,失去激活作用[9]。还有一个GATA型转录抑制因子AreB,相当于S. cerevisiae中的Deh1或Dal80[55],其对AREA基因具有负调控作用[56]。这两种转录因子调控细胞对氮源的利用[55]A. pullulans的普鲁兰多糖合成受氮浓度影响,当培养基中有氮源存在时,碳通量会优先流向生物质生产,使得细胞生物量增加,进而抑制了普鲁兰多糖的合成[57]。在A. melanogenum P16野生型菌株中,随着培养基中氮源浓度的增加,普鲁兰多糖的产量不断降低[55],这表明A. melanogenum P16中也存在氮抑制现象。菌株的生长需要氮源,但氮源又会抑制普鲁兰多糖的合成。在P16菌株中敲除AREAAREB基因后,表达具有非磷酸化残基的AREA基因,使得转录激活因子AreA始终定位于细胞核内,进而发挥转录激活作用,这样充分解除了氮源阻遏效应[55]。实验结果显示,突变菌株普鲁兰多糖的产量和普鲁兰多糖合成相关基因的表达量明显上升,且生物量并未受到显著影响[55]。这表明解除氮阻遏效应可以促进普鲁兰多糖的合成。
在短梗霉中,负责HOG1信号通路的蛋白为Sln1;Sln1是一种能够感知渗透压等胞外信号的跨膜蛋白,是一种负调节因子;在正常情况下,Sln1具有激酶活性,可导致自磷酸化,磷酸基团通过磷酸化蛋白Ypd1传递给反应调节蛋白Ssk1,Ssk1通过磷酸化保持无活性状态;在有渗透压胁迫时,Sln1失活,Ypd1和Ssk1去磷酸化;在去磷酸化状态下,Ssk1与Ssk2和Ssk22相互作用,并减轻其自身抑制作用;Ssk2和Ssk22可自磷酸化并激活自身,使得它们能够激活Pbs2[58-59]。激活的Pbs2使Hog1 (Hog1通路中的另一个重要蛋白)磷酸化;活化后的Hog1在细胞核内积累,刺激了甘油生物合成的高渗透胁迫基因GPD1GPP1GPP2,以及转录激活因子SKO1HOT1MSN2等基因的表达[60-61]GPD1基因编码的甘油-3-磷酸脱氢酶,GPP1GPP2基因编码的甘油-3-磷酸酶,都与甘油生物合成有关;积累的甘油在高渗透压胁迫下可以发挥重要作用[58]。Hog1信号通路已被证明主要感知和响应高渗透压,也能够感知和响应高ROS浓度、细胞壁损伤和热应激[52]。在天然的高渗透压耐受性菌株A. melanogenum TN3-1中同时敲除VSP11VSP12基因,发现双敲除菌株的普鲁兰多糖产量显著下降,甘油积累量和渗透压耐受性也降低[9]。然而,双敲除突变菌株失去了在质量体积分数40%葡萄糖培养基上生长的能力,而野生型菌株能够在质量体积分数60%葡萄糖培养基上生长[62]。这些结果表明,受HOG1信号通路控制的细胞内甘油的合成对于在高浓度葡萄糖条件下生长的A. melanogenum TN3-1菌株的高普鲁兰多糖产量和渗透压耐受性中发挥了关键作用。
真菌中的Snf1信号通路能够感知和响应培养基中不同浓度的葡萄糖,是低浓度葡萄糖条件下利用半乳糖、蔗糖、麦芽糖和不可发酵碳源(乙酸、甘油和乙醇等)所必需的。据报道,普鲁兰多糖的生产通常在含有高浓度蔗糖的培养基中进行,而非葡萄糖[63]。这是由于普鲁兰多糖的合成相关基因受到高浓度葡萄糖的抑制[64]。在短梗霉中,编码葡萄糖阻遏因子的是CREA基因;CreA是C2H2型锌指蛋白,能够结合多种受葡萄糖阻遏的基因(包括普鲁兰多糖合成基因)启动子中的5′-SYGGRG-3′序列[53, 65-66],研究发现CREA基因的敲除会使菌株的普鲁兰多糖产量显著上升[64]。因此,葡萄糖阻遏是调节普鲁兰多糖生物合成的途径之一。此外,Hxk2 (己糖激酶)、Reg1-Glc7 (蛋白激酶)、Med8、Cyc8-Tup1、Snf1 (蛋白激酶)、Adr1和Cat8都参与了葡萄糖阻遏与去阻遏[53]
普鲁兰多糖应用广泛,为提高其产量并降低成本,以及满足不同应用场景的多糖分子量需求,当前对普鲁兰多糖生产菌株的代谢工程改造受到越来越多研究者的关注。例如,在A. melanogenum P16菌株中同时敲除cAMP-PKA通路中的关键基因TPK1TPK2,普鲁兰多糖的产量提高12%;当敲除编码腺苷酸环化酶的基因AC后,普鲁兰多糖的产量提高9%,cAMP-PKA通路的改造对于促进普鲁兰多糖的生物合成有重要意义[54]。当敲除A. melanogenum P16菌株中编码葡萄糖阻遏因子的CREA基因,菌株的普鲁兰多糖产量为65 g/L,而野生型菌株的产量仅为52 g/L[64],表明在Snf1通路中抑制葡萄糖对普鲁兰多糖合成的影响可提高其产量,这也为利用基因工程技术提高普鲁兰多糖的工业化生产提供了可能。P16菌株只有1个GATA型转录激活因子AreA和1个GATA型转录抑制因子AreB,在对这2个转录因子进行同时敲除,并表达一个无磷酸化残基的AreA后,普鲁兰多糖的产量提高了21%,这是首次报道的通过解除氮阻遏效应来促进普鲁兰多糖的生物合成[55]。在A. melanogenum P16菌株中分别过表达优化后的异源血红蛋白(VHb)和天然黄素血红蛋白(FHb)能够使普鲁兰多糖的产量由野生菌株的72 g/L提高到102 g/L和101 g/L[49],普鲁兰多糖的产量、生产力和糖利用率得到显著提高,这是提高氧利用率和普鲁兰多糖生物合成的一种高效、经济的改造方法。通过在A. melanogenum P16菌株中过表达AmAGS2基因,突变体PA-8普鲁兰多糖的产量由野生型菌株的53.7 g/L上升至72.5 g/L[34];在过表达编码葡萄糖基转移酶基因UGT1后,P16菌株的普鲁兰多糖产量上升23.1%[41],这对开展代谢工程和利用分子编辑技术来修饰普鲁兰的产物及其理化性质也具有重要意义。在A. melanogenum P16菌株中敲除编码α-淀粉酶、葡糖淀粉酶和普鲁兰多糖酶的基因,获得的三突变体DT15的普鲁兰多糖分子量由2.6×106 Da上升至3.02×106 Da[67];在A. melanogenum TN3-1中敲除编码α-淀粉酶的基因AMY1和负责黑色素生成的PKS1基因,突变体AMY-PKS-11的普鲁兰多糖产量由72 g/L提升至104 g/L,分子量也由1.6×105 g/mol提升至3.2×105 g/mol[25],经改造后所得的高分子量普鲁兰多糖是一种良好的生物材料,在食品和制药工业有很大的应用潜力。
普鲁兰多糖完整的生物合成途径尚未被完全揭示,图2中AmAgs2各个结构域的具体功能有待利用分子生物学的方法进一步研究。此外,通过过表达AmAGS2基因有望大大提高短梗霉属菌株的普鲁兰多糖产量。为了获得所需的高质量药物胶囊和化妆品的活性成分,可以通过基因编辑的方法对编码α-淀粉酶、葡糖淀粉酶和异普鲁兰多糖酶的编码基因进行敲除。在调控方面,论述了普鲁兰多糖合成过程中受调控的主要信号通路,信号通路中的转录激活因子和转录抑制因子可以分别上调和下调许多基因的表达,因此,这些调控因子在代谢工程和合成生物学中具有许多潜在的应用前景。其他转录因子和信号传导途径对于普鲁兰多糖合成的调节还有待进一步阐明。
  • 国家重点研发计划(2021YFC2103200)
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2024年第64卷第10期
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doi: 10.13343/j.cnki.wsxb.20240218
  • 接收时间:2024-04-05
  • 首发时间:2026-03-21
  • 出版时间:2024-05-23
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  • 收稿日期:2024-04-05
  • 录用日期:2024-05-20
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National Key Research and Development Program of China(2021YFC2103200)
国家重点研发计划(2021YFC2103200)
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    1 中国海洋大学 海洋生命学院, 山东 青岛 266003
    2 海洋生物多样性与进化教育部重点实验室, 山东 青岛 266003

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2种不同金属材料的力学参数

Family
属数
Number of
genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of
total species (%)

Genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of total
species (%)
鹅膏菌科Amanitaceae 2 11 5.26 鹅膏菌属 Amanita 10 4.78
小菇科 Mycenaceae 2 12 5.74 丝盖伞属 Inocybe 5 2.39
多孔菌科 Polyporaceae 8 14 6.70 蜡蘑属 Laccaria 5 2.39
红菇科 Russulaceae 3 23 11.00 小皮伞属 Marasmius 6 2.87
小菇属 Mycena 11 5.26
光柄菇属 Pluteus 5 2.39
红菇属 Russula 17 8.13
栓菌属 Trametes 5 2.39
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