Article(id=1236693162111062676, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1210938733613449225, issueId=1236693158340383361, articleNumber=null, orderNo=null, doi=10.19666/j.rlfd.202407168, pmid=null, cstr=null, oa=null, hot=null, price=null, onlineType=0, articleFormat=0, articleType=null, articleTypeStr=null, receivedDate=1721750400000, receivedDateStr=2024-07-24, revisedDate=null, revisedDateStr=null, acceptedDate=null, acceptedDateStr=null, onlineDate=1772780226494, onlineDateStr=2026-03-06, pubDate=1737734400000, pubDateStr=2025-01-25, doiRegisterDate=null, doiRegisterDateStr=null, onlineIssueDate=1772780226494, onlineIssueDateStr=2026-03-06, onlineJustAcceptDate=null, onlineJustAcceptDateStr=null, onlineFirstDate=null, onlineFirstDateStr=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, createTime=1772780226494, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1772780226494, updator=13701087609, issue=Issue{id=1236693158340383361, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1210938733613449225, year='2025', volume='54', issue='1', pageStart='1', pageEnd='170', issueExtLink='null', onlineDate='null', pubDate='null', beforeIssueId=null, nextIssueId=null, price=null, status=1, issueComplete=1, articleOrder=1, issueType=-1, specialIssue=null, createTime=1772780225595, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1772780311062, updator=13701087609, preIssue=null, nextIssue=null, ext={EN=IssueExt(id=1236693516861100679, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1210938733613449225, issueId=1236693158340383361, language=EN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=), CN=IssueExt(id=1236693516861100680, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1210938733613449225, issueId=1236693158340383361, language=CN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=)}, issueFiles=null}, startPage=23, endPage=34, ext={EN=ArticleExt(id=1236693162475967132, articleId=1236693162111062676, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1210938733613449225, language=EN, title=Advances in steam humidity measurement techniques for power plant turbines, columnId=1213131705389597040, journalTitle=Thermal Power Generation, columnName=Technical and economic review, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

Accurate measurement of steam humidity is essential for safe and efficient operation of steam turbines, drawing significant interest from both academic and industrial communities. The primary techniques for measuring steam humidity in steam turbines are systematically reviewed, encompassing thermodynamic, optical, electrical, chemical, and ultrasonic methods. The principles, characteristics, and applicability of each humidity measurement technique are thoroughly examined, and their respective advantages and limitations are critically analyzed. Furthermore, development trends and future research directions in steam humidity measurement technology are explored. The research provides a robust theoretical foundation for selection and optimization of steam humidity measurement techniques.

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蒸汽湿度直接影响汽轮机的安全高效运行,其测量技术一直是学术界和工业界关注的重点。梳理了汽轮机湿蒸汽湿度的主要测量技术热力学法、光学法、电特性法、化学法和超声波法;探讨了各种蒸汽湿度测量技术的原理、特点及适用情况;分析了各种技术的优势与局限性,并对汽轮机湿蒸汽湿度测量技术的发展趋势和未来研究方向进行了展望。为汽轮机湿度测量技术的选择和优化提供理论依据。

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种道彤(1978),男,博士,教授,主要研究方向为能源动力系统及两相流,
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梁君(1995),男,工程师,主要研究方向为核电汽轮机设备运维,

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label=Fig.3, caption=Principle of measurement by optical method, figureFileSmall=KycWQlivWZ4XIjxycjSlCw==, figureFileBig=6r/UMSFbdjbL15TYMjifWw==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1236693171770544151, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1210938733613449225, articleId=1236693162111062676, language=CN, label=图3, caption=光学法测量原理, figureFileSmall=KycWQlivWZ4XIjxycjSlCw==, figureFileBig=6r/UMSFbdjbL15TYMjifWw==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1236693171854430240, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1210938733613449225, articleId=1236693162111062676, language=EN, label=Fig.4, caption=The measurements results of partial optical method, figureFileSmall=PIuYeTlh7LJ7E4b1JbV98w==, figureFileBig=kIwfz/p6IPNvH48GqGB80w==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1236693171929927719, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1210938733613449225, articleId=1236693162111062676, language=CN, label=图4, caption=部分光学法测量结果, figureFileSmall=PIuYeTlh7LJ7E4b1JbV98w==, 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tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1210938733613449225, articleId=1236693162111062676, language=CN, label=图6, caption=微波谐振法测量系统, figureFileSmall=Qo1VXWw5ku7B+jdNJLsUDQ==, figureFileBig=HciTOvfM2tuw6JNPVeNxFA==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1236693172378718278, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1210938733613449225, articleId=1236693162111062676, language=EN, label=Fig.7, caption=The tracer method measurement method, figureFileSmall=mXMnhelX5awmqTzhqXQFTg==, figureFileBig=s6wvmZjUHhyCn5bB4TScGA==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1236693172433244235, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1210938733613449225, articleId=1236693162111062676, language=CN, label=图7, caption=示踪剂法测量方法, figureFileSmall=mXMnhelX5awmqTzhqXQFTg==, figureFileBig=s6wvmZjUHhyCn5bB4TScGA==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1236693172533907538, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1210938733613449225, articleId=1236693162111062676, language=EN, label=Fig.8, caption=The ultrasonic measurement method, figureFileSmall=1pJQ8EBL+fBFyiLAkvdBlw==, figureFileBig=Rbhcsf5S5TUmv0e6fYuIVg==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1236693172605210712, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1210938733613449225, articleId=1236693162111062676, language=CN, label=图8, caption=超声波法测量方法, figureFileSmall=1pJQ8EBL+fBFyiLAkvdBlw==, figureFileBig=Rbhcsf5S5TUmv0e6fYuIVg==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1236693172693291099, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1210938733613449225, articleId=1236693162111062676, language=EN, label=Tab.1, caption=

Characterization of thermodynamic humidity measurement methods

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
测量方法测量原理特点测量精度/%测量误差来源适用性
加热法[3,7-9]将试样加热至过热状态,测量其质量流量、加热量及加热前后热力参数变化,计算推导出主汽流湿度不受加热后过热蒸汽压力偏低的限制,较好地避免了部分加热损失1.8加热量、散热损失、取样量对于汽轮机末级排汽湿度的测量更为适用
节流法[3,10-11]试样通过节流阀充分减压后转化至过热状态,在此将节流过程简化为等焓变化;通过测定过热蒸汽的温度和压力,可据此算出主汽流的湿度会遇到低压流动湿蒸汽节流后受到的过热蒸汽压力偏低的限制1.0散热损失适用于测量汽轮机入口蒸汽湿度,但不适用于低压区汽流的湿度测量以及湿度大于8%的湿
蒸汽
凝结法[3,12-15]将试样放热并完全凝结为水,测量其质量流量、液相质量、液相进出口温度,以及取样点压力对应的饱和水焓和汽化潜热,计算主流蒸汽的湿度对冷却水量及冷却水温的影响非常敏感,在实际使用时还要修正热量损失的影响8.7冷却水温、水量、
取样量
目前已不常见
蒸汽-空气
混合法[16]
在绝热条件下,将试样与外部干空气混合,测量湿蒸汽的压力和温度、湿空气混合前后的压力和温度等参数,根据质能守恒原理,计算出主流蒸汽的湿度无需对被抽取蒸汽量及热空气量进行测量;但为了保证在混合室出口处空气中的水分含量未达到饱和,必须送入大量的热空气2.3出口压力损失适用于汽轮机的特定部位,如低压区时,需要装置1台容量很大的真空泵
), ArticleFig(id=1236693172785565793, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1210938733613449225, articleId=1236693162111062676, language=CN, label=表1, caption=

热力学湿度测量方法特性

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
测量方法测量原理特点测量精度/%测量误差来源适用性
加热法[3,7-9]将试样加热至过热状态,测量其质量流量、加热量及加热前后热力参数变化,计算推导出主汽流湿度不受加热后过热蒸汽压力偏低的限制,较好地避免了部分加热损失1.8加热量、散热损失、取样量对于汽轮机末级排汽湿度的测量更为适用
节流法[3,10-11]试样通过节流阀充分减压后转化至过热状态,在此将节流过程简化为等焓变化;通过测定过热蒸汽的温度和压力,可据此算出主汽流的湿度会遇到低压流动湿蒸汽节流后受到的过热蒸汽压力偏低的限制1.0散热损失适用于测量汽轮机入口蒸汽湿度,但不适用于低压区汽流的湿度测量以及湿度大于8%的湿
蒸汽
凝结法[3,12-15]将试样放热并完全凝结为水,测量其质量流量、液相质量、液相进出口温度,以及取样点压力对应的饱和水焓和汽化潜热,计算主流蒸汽的湿度对冷却水量及冷却水温的影响非常敏感,在实际使用时还要修正热量损失的影响8.7冷却水温、水量、
取样量
目前已不常见
蒸汽-空气
混合法[16]
在绝热条件下,将试样与外部干空气混合,测量湿蒸汽的压力和温度、湿空气混合前后的压力和温度等参数,根据质能守恒原理,计算出主流蒸汽的湿度无需对被抽取蒸汽量及热空气量进行测量;但为了保证在混合室出口处空气中的水分含量未达到饱和,必须送入大量的热空气2.3出口压力损失适用于汽轮机的特定部位,如低压区时,需要装置1台容量很大的真空泵
), ArticleFig(id=1236693172886229094, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1210938733613449225, articleId=1236693162111062676, language=EN, label=Tab.2, caption=

Characterization of optical humidity measurement methods

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
测量方法测量原理特点测量误差来源适用性
角散射法[2428]通过测量水滴在某一角度下的散射光强或某
一空间立体角内的散射光通量,按Mie理论、
反演算法等计算被测汽流中水滴平均直径、
水滴数量,进而求得蒸汽湿度
改变装置入射光和接收视场方向可
改变其测量范围,并且能分别测量
出每个小区域内的水滴大小和湿
度等参数
光源稳定性、
光学系统性能、测量角度和光
路径
可以测汽轮机蒸汽湿
度,但更多用于测量
一次水滴、二次水滴
尺寸和分布情况
全散射法[26,29-30]
(消光法)
通过测量湿蒸汽对入射光的衰减来确定水
滴直径和蒸汽湿度
对光电测量系统的灵敏度要求较低、
探针尺寸相对较小
光源稳定性、
光谱范围光学
系统的性能
以联合探针形式,适合
用于汽轮机末级中蒸汽
湿度测量
光脉动法[31-32]利用2束光束分别用于发射和接收,在测量区
域内设置,当水滴穿过这2束光束时,光信号
会发生瞬时变化形成光脉冲信号,通过分析这
些信号得到水滴的参数,进而确定蒸汽湿度
光脉冲信号的连续性、宽度取决于
通过水滴的数目、尺寸、速度
光源的稳定性、光学检测系统
的灵敏度和分
辨率
适用于测量汽轮机中由
粗水滴主导的湿度
光纤光栅法[33-36]湿敏材料吸收或释放水分,改变了光栅周围的
介电常数,监测光栅的反射光谱变化,从而计
算蒸汽湿度
湿度问题转化为微应变问题,光
纤制作和涂覆材料是人们关注的
重点
光纤结构性能、装置灵敏度适合测量汽轮机内部各
部分的蒸汽湿度,尤其
适用于需要长距离传输
且无法直接提取样本的
情况
全息法[37-38]利用全息技术记录微小水滴散射的光波,运用
干涉测量法将相位分布转换成辐照度模式记录
在感光胶片上,再通过处理胶片得到全息图像,
最后用图像检测算法识别出重建图像中聚焦
的液滴,以获得液滴的三维坐标和直径,从而
确定湿度
全息法有2种变体技术:数字在
线全息(DIH)和基于放大数字
在线全息技术(MDIH)
干涉条纹的清
晰度和稳定性
适用于测量汽轮机排汽
过程中的蒸汽湿度
表面等离子体共
振法(SPR)[39]
通过调节金属表面上的湿蒸汽湿度改变介质
的介电常数,从而影响SPR的共振角、共振
波长等参数,间接测出蒸汽湿度
当湿蒸汽的各项参数动态变化
时会造成等离子共振谱的偏移
光源稳定性、
界面状态、环
境条件
测量汽轮机中的高温高
压部位的蒸汽湿度,例
如汽轮机的高压缸或超
高压缸
), ArticleFig(id=1236693174345846893, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1210938733613449225, articleId=1236693162111062676, language=CN, label=表2, caption=

光学湿度测量方法特性

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
测量方法测量原理特点测量误差来源适用性
角散射法[2428]通过测量水滴在某一角度下的散射光强或某
一空间立体角内的散射光通量,按Mie理论、
反演算法等计算被测汽流中水滴平均直径、
水滴数量,进而求得蒸汽湿度
改变装置入射光和接收视场方向可
改变其测量范围,并且能分别测量
出每个小区域内的水滴大小和湿
度等参数
光源稳定性、
光学系统性能、测量角度和光
路径
可以测汽轮机蒸汽湿
度,但更多用于测量
一次水滴、二次水滴
尺寸和分布情况
全散射法[26,29-30]
(消光法)
通过测量湿蒸汽对入射光的衰减来确定水
滴直径和蒸汽湿度
对光电测量系统的灵敏度要求较低、
探针尺寸相对较小
光源稳定性、
光谱范围光学
系统的性能
以联合探针形式,适合
用于汽轮机末级中蒸汽
湿度测量
光脉动法[31-32]利用2束光束分别用于发射和接收,在测量区
域内设置,当水滴穿过这2束光束时,光信号
会发生瞬时变化形成光脉冲信号,通过分析这
些信号得到水滴的参数,进而确定蒸汽湿度
光脉冲信号的连续性、宽度取决于
通过水滴的数目、尺寸、速度
光源的稳定性、光学检测系统
的灵敏度和分
辨率
适用于测量汽轮机中由
粗水滴主导的湿度
光纤光栅法[33-36]湿敏材料吸收或释放水分,改变了光栅周围的
介电常数,监测光栅的反射光谱变化,从而计
算蒸汽湿度
湿度问题转化为微应变问题,光
纤制作和涂覆材料是人们关注的
重点
光纤结构性能、装置灵敏度适合测量汽轮机内部各
部分的蒸汽湿度,尤其
适用于需要长距离传输
且无法直接提取样本的
情况
全息法[37-38]利用全息技术记录微小水滴散射的光波,运用
干涉测量法将相位分布转换成辐照度模式记录
在感光胶片上,再通过处理胶片得到全息图像,
最后用图像检测算法识别出重建图像中聚焦
的液滴,以获得液滴的三维坐标和直径,从而
确定湿度
全息法有2种变体技术:数字在
线全息(DIH)和基于放大数字
在线全息技术(MDIH)
干涉条纹的清
晰度和稳定性
适用于测量汽轮机排汽
过程中的蒸汽湿度
表面等离子体共
振法(SPR)[39]
通过调节金属表面上的湿蒸汽湿度改变介质
的介电常数,从而影响SPR的共振角、共振
波长等参数,间接测出蒸汽湿度
当湿蒸汽的各项参数动态变化
时会造成等离子共振谱的偏移
光源稳定性、
界面状态、环
境条件
测量汽轮机中的高温高
压部位的蒸汽湿度,例
如汽轮机的高压缸或超
高压缸
), ArticleFig(id=1236693174496841842, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1210938733613449225, articleId=1236693162111062676, language=EN, label=Tab.3, caption=

Performances of the electrical characteristics measurement methods

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
测量方法测量原理特点测量误差来源适用性
电容法[61-64]在电容结构固定的情况下,
湿蒸汽的介电常数变化会引
起电容量的改变,间接测量
蒸汽湿度
温度稳定性好、适应性强、动
态响应好,可通过特定的电路
设计来克服局限性
介电常数的不确定性、寄生
电容、边缘效应、测量线路
布置
适用于核电高压汽轮机
进口蒸汽湿度
微波谐振法[65-68]通过测量干饱和蒸汽与饱和
水滴组成的汽水混合物在不
同汽液比例及温度(压力)
下表现出的等效介电常数不
同来进行湿度测量
水对不同频率微波的吸收特性
相差较大,测量时要选择适当
的频率,使以得测量结果具有
较高的精度,并且需要进行误
差补偿分析
腔体热变形、水膜沉积、频
率监控系统的精度、跟踪系
统的稳定性、非等动能取样
误差
适用于汽轮机末级排汽
的湿度测量
), ArticleFig(id=1236693174589116537, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1210938733613449225, articleId=1236693162111062676, language=CN, label=表3, caption=

电特性测量方法特性

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
测量方法测量原理特点测量误差来源适用性
电容法[61-64]在电容结构固定的情况下,
湿蒸汽的介电常数变化会引
起电容量的改变,间接测量
蒸汽湿度
温度稳定性好、适应性强、动
态响应好,可通过特定的电路
设计来克服局限性
介电常数的不确定性、寄生
电容、边缘效应、测量线路
布置
适用于核电高压汽轮机
进口蒸汽湿度
微波谐振法[65-68]通过测量干饱和蒸汽与饱和
水滴组成的汽水混合物在不
同汽液比例及温度(压力)
下表现出的等效介电常数不
同来进行湿度测量
水对不同频率微波的吸收特性
相差较大,测量时要选择适当
的频率,使以得测量结果具有
较高的精度,并且需要进行误
差补偿分析
腔体热变形、水膜沉积、频
率监控系统的精度、跟踪系
统的稳定性、非等动能取样
误差
适用于汽轮机末级排汽
的湿度测量
), ArticleFig(id=1236693174677196929, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1210938733613449225, articleId=1236693162111062676, language=EN, label=Tab.4, caption=

Characteristics of the tracer measurement method

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
测量方法测量原理特点测量误差来源适用性
示踪剂法[71-72]通过向二回路给水添加易溶于水
且不溶于蒸汽的示踪剂,测定蒸
汽发生器汽水分离界面的示踪剂
浓度及饱和蒸汽中示踪剂含量,
进而计算饱和蒸汽湿度
示踪剂分为放射性和非放射性,
放射性示踪剂测量精度更高但
对循环系统和人员的负面影响
更大;需注意示踪剂的添加量
对水质可能产生的影响
示踪剂浓度控制、
示踪剂分析装置的
灵敏度、示踪剂混
合的均匀性
在压水堆核电厂中,示踪剂
法主要用于测量从蒸汽发生
器到汽轮机入口之间的蒸汽
湿度
), ArticleFig(id=1236693174798831749, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1210938733613449225, articleId=1236693162111062676, language=CN, label=表4, caption=

示踪剂法测量技术

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
测量方法测量原理特点测量误差来源适用性
示踪剂法[71-72]通过向二回路给水添加易溶于水
且不溶于蒸汽的示踪剂,测定蒸
汽发生器汽水分离界面的示踪剂
浓度及饱和蒸汽中示踪剂含量,
进而计算饱和蒸汽湿度
示踪剂分为放射性和非放射性,
放射性示踪剂测量精度更高但
对循环系统和人员的负面影响
更大;需注意示踪剂的添加量
对水质可能产生的影响
示踪剂浓度控制、
示踪剂分析装置的
灵敏度、示踪剂混
合的均匀性
在压水堆核电厂中,示踪剂
法主要用于测量从蒸汽发生
器到汽轮机入口之间的蒸汽
湿度
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电站汽轮机蒸汽湿度测量技术进展
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梁君 1 , 陈言文 2 , 刘斌 1 , 孙浩 3 , 朱珂皓 3 , 石嘉宝 3 , 种道彤 2
热力发电 | 技术经济综述 2025,54(1): 23-34
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热力发电 | 技术经济综述 2025, 54(1): 23-34
电站汽轮机蒸汽湿度测量技术进展
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梁君1 , 陈言文2, 刘斌1, 孙浩3, 朱珂皓3, 石嘉宝3, 种道彤2
作者信息
  • 1.中核运维技术有限公司,浙江 杭州 311215
  • 2.西安交通大学能源与动力工程学院,陕西 西安 710049
  • 3.中核核电运行管理有限公司,浙江 嘉兴 314300
  • 梁君(1995),男,工程师,主要研究方向为核电汽轮机设备运维,

通讯作者:

种道彤(1978),男,博士,教授,主要研究方向为能源动力系统及两相流,
Advances in steam humidity measurement techniques for power plant turbines
Jun LIANG1 , Yanwen CHEN2, Bin LIU1, Hao SUN3, Kehao ZHU3, Jiabao SHI3, Daotong CHONG2
Affiliations
  • 1.China Nuclear Power Operation Technology Co., Ltd., Hangzhou 311215, China
  • 2.School of Energy and Power Engineering, Xi’an Jiaotong University, Xi’an 710049, China
  • 3.China Nuclear Power Operation Management Co., Ltd., Jiaxing 314300, China
出版时间: 2025-01-25 doi: 10.19666/j.rlfd.202407168
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蒸汽湿度直接影响汽轮机的安全高效运行,其测量技术一直是学术界和工业界关注的重点。梳理了汽轮机湿蒸汽湿度的主要测量技术热力学法、光学法、电特性法、化学法和超声波法;探讨了各种蒸汽湿度测量技术的原理、特点及适用情况;分析了各种技术的优势与局限性,并对汽轮机湿蒸汽湿度测量技术的发展趋势和未来研究方向进行了展望。为汽轮机湿度测量技术的选择和优化提供理论依据。

汽轮机  /  湿蒸汽  /  蒸汽湿度  /  测量

Accurate measurement of steam humidity is essential for safe and efficient operation of steam turbines, drawing significant interest from both academic and industrial communities. The primary techniques for measuring steam humidity in steam turbines are systematically reviewed, encompassing thermodynamic, optical, electrical, chemical, and ultrasonic methods. The principles, characteristics, and applicability of each humidity measurement technique are thoroughly examined, and their respective advantages and limitations are critically analyzed. Furthermore, development trends and future research directions in steam humidity measurement technology are explored. The research provides a robust theoretical foundation for selection and optimization of steam humidity measurement techniques.

steam turbine  /  wet steam  /  steam humidity  /  measurement
梁君, 陈言文, 刘斌, 孙浩, 朱珂皓, 石嘉宝, 种道彤. 电站汽轮机蒸汽湿度测量技术进展. 热力发电, 2025 , 54 (1) : 23 -34 . DOI: 10.19666/j.rlfd.202407168
Jun LIANG, Yanwen CHEN, Bin LIU, Hao SUN, Kehao ZHU, Jiabao SHI, Daotong CHONG. Advances in steam humidity measurement techniques for power plant turbines[J]. Thermal Power Generation, 2025 , 54 (1) : 23 -34 . DOI: 10.19666/j.rlfd.202407168
汽轮机作为火力发电站、核能发电站及地热发电站的核心组件,其性能直接影响发电效率及系统的整体可靠性。在汽轮机中,蒸汽膨胀做功导致温度和压力下降,在一定过饱和度下自发凝结形成水滴。这些水滴对汽轮机的性能存在双重不利影响[1-2]:1)湿蒸汽可能导致叶片水蚀,影响汽轮机的安全运行;2)湿蒸汽损失会降低能源转换效率。湿蒸汽中水滴的含量通常用湿度来量化,火电机组凝汽式汽轮机末级排汽湿度可达到10%左右[3],而地热电站和水冷堆核电站的汽轮机排汽湿度一般控制在15%以内[4]。根据Baumann[5]效率公式估算,平均湿度每增加1%,可能导致汽轮机级的效率下降约1%[6]。因此,精确地监测和计算蒸汽湿度,对提高发电系统的整体性能和经济性,具有重要的学术价值和实际应用意义。
随着对汽轮机性能优化的不断追求,国内外科研工作者致力于蒸汽湿度测量技术的研究与开发。经过深入地实验研究和理论分析,测量蒸汽湿度的方法有热力学法、光学法、电特性法、化学法和超声波法。热力学法能够直接测量蒸汽的湿度值,具有成本低廉和环境适应性强的特点;光学法具有非接触特性,在设备紧凑性和操作简便性方面也具有优势;电特性法结构简单、成本相对较低,在特定条件下具有实现在线监测的潜力;化学法主要用于蒸汽发生器和锅炉,为汽轮机提供进汽湿度数据,在核电站中应用较为广泛;超声波法以其快速响应特性,也为实时监测提供了有效的非接触性手段。
尽管这些方法在实验室环境中已展现各自的潜力和优势,但在工业应用中的技术成熟度和普适性仍面临挑战。目前,尚未能在精确性、效率和广泛应用性方面完全满足工业需求,这突显了电站汽轮机蒸汽湿度测量领域亟待填补的技术空白。因此,本文重点梳理电站汽轮机蒸汽湿度测量技术的研究进展,总结各类技术的原理与特点,结合当前行业发展需求,分析各种技术的实用性及改进方法。
湿蒸汽作为气液两相物质,其内部水蒸气与液态水存在动态平衡,这种平衡导致湿蒸汽的温度和压力之间表现出复杂的热力学耦合关系,即温度和压力并非独立参数,对湿度测量技术提出了挑战。在相同的温度和压力下,不同液态水含量的湿蒸汽也会呈现不同的状态,进一步增加了测量的复杂性。
准确测定湿蒸汽中的液态水含量是实现精确测量的关键,而蒸汽湿度的定义提供了量化湿蒸汽中饱和水含量的方法。质量湿度是热力学分析和能量平衡计算中最常用的湿度表示方法,定义为湿蒸汽中饱和水的质量与系统总质量的比值。其表达式为:
y=mwmw+mv
式中:y为湿蒸汽的质量湿度;mwmv分别为湿蒸汽中饱和水、饱和蒸汽的质量,kg。
干度表征了系统中干蒸汽的质量或体积占总质量或总体积的比例,关系式为:
x=1y
式中:x为湿蒸汽的质量干度。
热力学法始于20世纪60年代,基本思想从主汽流中抽取适量蒸汽试样,利用不同的热力学过程将其转变为可测量的状态,其测量原理如图1所示。根据不同的热力学过程,热力学法可以细分为加热法、节流法、凝结法以及蒸汽-空气混合法。
热力学湿度测量方法的特性见表1[3,7-16]。热力学法作为汽轮机蒸汽湿度测量的关键技术,其技术发展是通过一系列创新研究逐步实现的。Moore[3]开发了一种加热探针技术。西安交通大学和东北电力大学针对Moore探针的散热损失和加热均匀性问题进行了改进,分别提出了双层套管加热法和双区加热法[8,17-18]。王升龙等[18]在华能营口电厂对双区变界加热法探针进行了工业试验,试验结果如图2a)所示。证实了该技术适用于汽轮机关键部位的蒸汽湿度测量。此外,文献[19]和文献[20]分别对微波加热法和螺旋加热法进行了研究,进一步优化了加热方式。在节流法方面,德国在kahl核电站和Biblis核电站曾使用节流式量热计测量蒸汽发生器出口的蒸汽湿度[21]。然而,该方法不适用于低压区汽流湿度或湿度大于8%的湿蒸汽测量[9]。张兆基等[22]开发了一种具有多级节流孔的汽道结构,以扩大湿度测量范围。将加热法与节流法相结合,实现了在较低能耗下对大流量、高湿度流动饱和蒸汽湿度的准确测定[11]。凝结法在热力学法中的测量精度相对较低,英国通用电气公司GEC曾研制出一种凝结式热量计,但目前该技术并不常见。蒸汽-空气混合法在汽轮机的低压区进行测量,需要配备大容量真空泵。高琳锋等[16]对该方法进行了实验测试,结果如图2b)所示。德国汉诺威工业大学在1977年研制出一种汽-气混合式热量计,并成功应用于365 MW和515 MW汽轮机中[9]。2023年,中国辐射防护研究院环境工程技术研究所进一步发展了蒸汽凝结法和气-汽混合法技术,实现了在模拟温度(130±2)℃、压力(399±5)kPa、相对湿度(95±3)%高温放射性蒸汽环境中,对蒸汽相对湿度的有效测量。
目前,热力学测量蒸汽湿度技术主要处于研究和试验阶段,尚未实现大规模推广。为进一步提升热力学法在蒸汽湿度测量中的应用效能,后续研究工作应考虑:取样(如何有效获得蒸汽、雾滴和大液滴的代表性样本);热平衡校正(不完全相态混合和测量点与外部设备之间的连接管道存在散热损失);湿度测量结果的计算误差。这些方面的研究将有助于提升热力学法在工业应用中的实用性和准确性。
随着汽轮机级数的增加,过饱和蒸汽在低压级段可能冷凝成湿蒸汽,这些冷凝液滴根据其形成原理可以分为一次水滴(0.05~2.00 μm)和二次水滴(20~200 μm)[23],它们显著影响汽轮机的性能和安全。湿度测量技术若能准确测量和分析这些液滴的粒径分布和浓度对于优化汽轮机的性能更加有效。光学法是一种基于光学原理的湿度测量方法,通过分析这些液滴特性来间接确定蒸汽湿度(图3)。该方法主要分为光散射法和图像法。光散射法依据Mie散射理论,包括角散射法、全散射法、光脉动法以及利用布拉格散射效应的光纤光栅法。图像法主要有全息干涉法。此外,表面等离子共振(SPR)法结合了光学与电学特性,构成了一种独特的测量技术。各种光学测量法的特性见表2[24-39]
光学法探针技术自20世纪中叶以来,在蒸汽湿度测量领域取得了显著进展。最初,前苏联莫斯科动力学院开发的角散射式光学探针奠定了技术基础。德国阿亨工业大学和日本东芝公司的研究者随后扩展了其应用,使之能够测量汽轮机末级蒸汽中的二次液滴[40]。在此基础上,黄竹清等[25]利用激光角散射理论,克服了单角度测量局限,并在一定条件下实现了蒸汽湿度的在线测量。1979年,Walters等人[41]首次将全散射法应用于一次液滴测量,此后英国剑桥大学、法国电力公司EDF、莫斯科电力研究所等在不同机组上进行了湿度测量[42-44]。随着技术进步,白光光源的引入实现了多波长同时测量,被美国电力研究院EPRI、意大利电力公司ENEL、斯图加特大学热力透平机械研究所ITSM等研究机构应用于汽轮机内湿蒸汽分布实验研究[45-47]。对核电汽轮机高压湿蒸汽测量,法国电力公司EDF采用了多波长消光法探针。Kolovratník等人[48-49]开发了一种新型消光探头针,在2015年使用两种不同的光学探头对特梅林发电厂1 000 MW核电站最后一级蒸汽轮机前的湿蒸汽流场进行气动和光学测量。蔡小舒等[50]提出的集成全散射法和光脉动法探针,进一步丰富了光学法探针的应用。在光脉动法领域,杨斌等[51]通过优化算法,提高了数据处理精度。光纤光栅传感器的发展,特别是通过材料、结构和涂覆材料的优化,提高了传感器对湿度变化的响应灵敏度。盛德仁等[52]为光纤布拉格光栅(FBG)传感器的应用提供了实验基础。数字全息技术作为新兴测量手段,以全场、三维、瞬态、实时的优势,特别是数字在线全息(DIH)和基于放大数字在线全息技术(MDIH),已用于实验中研究测量蒸汽中微小水滴参数[38]。2014年,Li等人[39]利用Kretschmann几何结构激发的表面等离子体波,提出了基于表面等离子体共振(SPR)的实时在线湿度测量方法。1988年,德国、意大利、法国和中国等国曾合作尝试将消光法纳入低压汽轮机效率的ISO标准方法[30]。Bosdas等人[53-54]致力于开发适用于汽轮机的光学测湿探针,捷克学者们[55-57]对散射法和成像技术进行了深入研究,以及中国学者王乃宁[58]、蔡小舒[29]、盛德仁[52]、黄竹清[26]、黄雪峰[59]等的学术贡献,进一步推动了光学法探针技术的发展。特别是光纤光栅法,因在汽轮机蒸汽湿度测量中的高效性和准确性,已成为研究的热点。
光学法的优势在于其非接触性测量,能够实现在线实时监测,且装置紧凑、易于安装和操作,符合现代测量技术向微型化和智能化发展的趋势。然而,该技术在电站实际应用中仍面临若干挑战:光学法需要稳定的光源,而现场振动和环境因素可能干扰光路稳定性,影响测量精度;光学法对环境条件有严格要求,必须维持光学窗口的高洁净度,防止灰尘、水膜、油膜等污染物的干扰;光路的布置、信号处理和数据分析算法的实施在实际电站环境中可能面临空间限制和复杂性,增加了测量系统的安装和维护难度;湿蒸汽中液滴粒径和分布的不均匀性,光学法的测量结果易受随机性影响,增加了误差;光学测量设备的较高造价限制了其在电站测量中的普及性。这些都限制了光学法在实际电站测量中的应用与推广。
目前,光学法蒸汽湿度测量技术正处于技术研发和优化阶段,且多用于汽轮机中湿蒸汽产生的机理研究中,但仍存在持续优化和创新的空间。研究学者们集中精力解决关键技术问题,以提升该技术的性能和实用性。当前研究重点方向是:增强光源的稳定性,确保在多样化的工业场景中均能提供一致的测量结果;优化光学传感器的性能和结构设计,以提高其在复杂环境下的适用性和可靠性;关注温度、压力等外部条件变化对测量结果的影响,开发相应的校正算法,以提高测量数据的准确性。通过不断地改进和优化,光学法在蒸汽湿度测量领域将发挥更加重要和广泛的作用,为工程实践提供更可靠的技术支持。几种光学测湿方法在实际测量中的结果,如图4所示[26,33,39]
电特性法通过蒸汽湿度引起的介电常数变化或其他电特性的变动来测量湿度,主要包括电容法和微波谐振法。
图5a)为电容法原理的一种测量方法。传感器须与蒸汽管道垂直连接,湿蒸汽从上至下流过电容传感器,利用屏蔽电缆输送信号给测量电路。频率的输出可利用电子频率计数器直接读取,也可以采用数据采集板将输出频率值存储到计算机内进行处理。图5b)[16]为电容器测量蒸汽湿度实现了瞬态测量的功能。
图6为微波谐振原理的一种测量方法。由图6可见:计算机首先对系统初始化,设置信号源的中心频率及扫频带宽;然后由信号源输出扫频信号并通过隔离器输入微波谐振腔,由于蒸汽参数不同,对不同频率的微波功率在腔体中损耗程度也不同,在谐振频率时损耗达到极值;最后谐振腔输出的信号被送入频谱分析仪以测定功率损耗,所得数据随后输入计算机,在计算机中与其他参数进行综合分析处理。
表3为电容法和微波谐振法的特性。电容法和微波谐振法作为运用电特性法测量蒸汽湿度的技术,近年来在理论和实验研究中显示出了良好的应用前景。宁德亮等[60-62]的研究表明,电容法利用水和水蒸气介电常数的差异,通过电容传感器有效地测量饱和湿蒸汽的湿度。牛凤仙等[63]进一步分析了电容法在不同压力下的适用性,发现在压力15 MPa以下,传感器对湿度的测量响应随压力和湿度增加而增强。杜利鹏[64]深入探讨并验证了电容法测量蒸汽湿度的可行性及其传感器的稳定性。张鹏飞[65]改进了同轴式电容传感器设计,并通过实验与数值模拟验证了其性能。田海军等[66]开发的电容式湿度传感器在实验中展示了良好的线性响应特性。关于微波谐振法的研究,田松峰[67]研究了微波谐振腔微扰法,为汽轮机排汽湿度的在线监测提供了实验验证和理论支持。张淑娥等[68]设计并测试了基于微波谐振腔微扰法的汽轮机蒸汽湿度测量系统,实现了高精度的湿度测量。韩中合等[69]通过数值模拟方法深入分析了微波谐振腔测量蒸汽湿度的误差,为优化取样结构提供了理论依据。钱江波等[70]分析了微波谐振腔湿度测量的不确定度,为测量精度的确定提供了关键参考。还研究了盐分对测量精度的影响,确认了汽轮机排汽中盐分对湿度测量影响的微小性。
这类方法具有结构简单、成本相对较低、能够实现在线实时监测等优点,适用于汽轮机排汽湿度的测量。然而,电容法可能遇到输出阻抗高和负载能力限制的问题,微波谐振法则需解决谐振腔热变形和水膜沉积对测量精度的潜在影响。由于这些问题没有得到很好的解决,这两类方法只是停留在实验和仿真研究阶段,并没有实际的应用案例。
对电容法在之后的研究中可以考虑以下方面:优化传感器芯片的选择,以提高其灵敏度和稳定性;优化传感器的结构形状和材料选择,以提高其对湿度变化的响应速度和准确性;关注温度、压力等外部条件变化对测量结果的影响,并采取相应的校正措施。同样,对于微波谐振法之后的研究除了需关注优化谐振腔的设计结构、采取相应的补偿分析方法以外,还需改进传感器中的微波源和接收器,以提高其性能和信号处理能力。
化学法通过化学反应或化学标记的原理来间接测量蒸汽湿度,本文主要介绍示踪剂法测量技术。示踪剂法通过追踪添加到蒸汽系统中的特定化学物质,来确定蒸汽的湿度水平(图7)。该方法有两种注入示踪剂的方式:在凝结水泵入口注入示踪剂;在靠近蒸汽发生器入口的ARE管道注入示踪剂。示踪剂法的特性见表4
示踪剂法是核电厂采用较广泛的一种蒸汽湿度测量技术,经过不断优化,此方法已日趋成熟。在该技术中,示踪剂的选取至关重要,示踪剂主要分为两种:放射性和非放射性。国外核电厂有采用放射性示踪剂24Na法,西屋公司设计的三代核电AP1000机组采用的是高富集度6LiOH作为示踪剂,法国的核电站则倾向于采用Cs2CO3,国内二代压水堆核电厂M310机组、方家山和福清核电站也采用Cs2CO3进行主蒸汽含湿量试验。结合电感耦合等离子体质谱法(ICP-MS),该方法能以高准确度和效率测定铯元素含量。目前,国内ICP-MS技术已经较为成熟,示踪剂的添加量得以控制在蒸汽发生器的安全运行阈值内,确保对蒸汽发生器及其二回路水质的影响维持在可接受范围内[71,73]
虽然示踪剂法需要复杂的取样和分析过程,该方法因其较高的灵敏度和准确性在核电厂中得到广泛应用。但其受限于示踪剂的选择,需要综合考虑其对系统的影响及环境安全性。
示踪法已在核电站蒸汽湿度测量中得到应用,但仍需在以下几个关键方面进行技术强化与创新:优化示踪剂选择和添加策略,以减少水质影响并提升分析精度;提升氯根法的稳定性和精度,简化操作流程;研发新技术或改进现有方法以实现在线实时监测,增强测量的便捷性和时效性;加强专业培训和设备维护,确保测量标准化和结果可靠性;预防放射性污染,保障人员安全和环境保护。
声速法是通过测量声波在蒸汽中的传播速度来推算湿度的经典方法。2024年,Pei等人[72]提出了一种利用混合声速和工作温度计算水蒸气干度的方法,实验结果表明该方法具有较高的精度和可行性。与传统的声速法相比,近年来兴起的超声波法利用超声波在蒸汽与水滴中的传播速度存在差异的特性,通过发射超声波脉冲并测量其在蒸汽中的传播时间或衰减程度来实现湿度的定量分析,更加适用于高压高温蒸汽环境。
图8a)为超声波原理的一种测量方法。湿蒸汽进入测量段,超声波发射换能器发射不同频率的超声波,超声波穿过湿蒸汽后被超声波接收换能器采集,之后将信号实时同步传递给数据采集系统。数据采集系统还需对其余常规传感器所测的湿蒸汽的温度、压力和流量进行采集,最终计算湿蒸汽湿度的测量值。图8b)[74]为超声波法气液两相流湿度测量实验系统中湿度对介质声速的影响。
超声波法作为一种新兴的技术,在汽轮机湿蒸汽特性测量已经吸引了研究人员的关注。胡雪音等[74-75]通过冷态实验认为声速法两相流湿度测量方具有一定的可行性。祝嘉鸿等[76]通过数值模拟和实验,验证了超声衰减法在线测量气液两相流液滴体积浓度的高灵敏度。Zhu等人[77-78]则基于超声波在介质中传播时能量衰减原理,对于超声波的衰减系数进行了深入研究。尽管超声波法在蒸汽湿度测量方面仍属于较新的科研领域,但其在精度、操作简便性和实时性方面已展现出潜力。
该方法目前处于研发阶段,具有非接触、快速实时监测的优势,但对较大粒径水滴的测量准确性受限,且可能受多相流信号干扰影响。超声波系统的复杂性可能导致成本较高,并需要定期校准和维护以确保测量精度。
为了推动超声波法在蒸汽湿度测量中的进一步发展,未来的研究方向可考虑:优化传感器设计以提高灵敏度和稳定性;改进传感器结构以适应环境变化;开发精确的信号处理技术以提升测量准确性。这些改进有望使超声波法在蒸汽湿度测量中发挥更重要作用。
本文综述了湿蒸汽湿度的多种测量技术,包括热力学法、光学法、电特性法、化学法和超声波法,介绍了各种湿度测量方法的原理,并探讨了在电站汽轮机测量中的适用性。对各种湿度测量方法进行了评估,比较了在实际应用中的优势与局限性。热力学法可以直接测量蒸汽湿度值,但面临在线测量和抽样代表性的挑战;光学法在应用中可能受到光源稳定性和测量环境的影响;电特性法需要解决电容介质极化和微波谐振腔体热变形的问题;示踪剂法主要用于蒸汽发生器和锅炉,为汽轮机提供进汽湿度数据,但对操作人员的技能要求较高;超声波法在测量过程中可能受到多相流信号干扰和传感器设计复杂性的影响。此外,还分析了各技术未来的研究方向和潜在的改进路径。
在未来的发展中,汽轮机蒸汽湿度测量技术的进步不仅要提升现有技术的准确性与可靠性,还应考虑新技术的集成。将大数据算法与现有测量技术相结合,并利用人工智能技术,有望实现更高效的在线监测。这种交叉集成方法可为汽轮机的安全和高效运行提供更为坚实的技术支撑。
  • 国家重点研发计划项目(2022YFB4202403)
  • 陕西省重点研发计划项目(2023-LL-QY-29)
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2025年第54卷第1期
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doi: 10.19666/j.rlfd.202407168
  • 接收时间:2024-07-24
  • 首发时间:2026-03-06
  • 出版时间:2025-01-25
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  • 收稿日期:2024-07-24
基金
National Key Research and Development Program(2022YFB4202403)
国家重点研发计划项目(2022YFB4202403)
Key Research and Development Program of Shaanxi Province(2023-LL-QY-29)
陕西省重点研发计划项目(2023-LL-QY-29)
作者信息
    1.中核运维技术有限公司,浙江 杭州 311215
    2.西安交通大学能源与动力工程学院,陕西 西安 710049
    3.中核核电运行管理有限公司,浙江 嘉兴 314300

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种道彤(1978),男,博士,教授,主要研究方向为能源动力系统及两相流,
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2种不同金属材料的力学参数

Family
属数
Number of
genus
种数
Number of
species
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Percentage of
total species (%)

Genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of total
species (%)
鹅膏菌科Amanitaceae 2 11 5.26 鹅膏菌属 Amanita 10 4.78
小菇科 Mycenaceae 2 12 5.74 丝盖伞属 Inocybe 5 2.39
多孔菌科 Polyporaceae 8 14 6.70 蜡蘑属 Laccaria 5 2.39
红菇科 Russulaceae 3 23 11.00 小皮伞属 Marasmius 6 2.87
小菇属 Mycena 11 5.26
光柄菇属 Pluteus 5 2.39
红菇属 Russula 17 8.13
栓菌属 Trametes 5 2.39
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