Article(id=1236679390763995918, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1210938733613449225, issueId=1236679384321544791, articleNumber=null, orderNo=null, doi=10.19666/j.rlfd.202406145, pmid=null, cstr=null, oa=null, hot=null, price=null, onlineType=0, articleFormat=0, articleType=null, articleTypeStr=null, receivedDate=1718121600000, receivedDateStr=2024-06-12, revisedDate=null, revisedDateStr=null, acceptedDate=null, acceptedDateStr=null, onlineDate=1772776943149, onlineDateStr=2026-03-06, pubDate=1735056000000, pubDateStr=2024-12-25, doiRegisterDate=null, doiRegisterDateStr=null, onlineIssueDate=1772776943149, onlineIssueDateStr=2026-03-06, onlineJustAcceptDate=null, onlineJustAcceptDateStr=null, onlineFirstDate=null, onlineFirstDateStr=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, createTime=1772776943149, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1772776943149, updator=13701087609, issue=Issue{id=1236679384321544791, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1210938733613449225, year='2024', volume='53', issue='12', pageStart='1', pageEnd='160', issueExtLink='null', onlineDate='null', pubDate='null', beforeIssueId=null, nextIssueId=null, price=null, status=1, issueComplete=1, articleOrder=1, issueType=-1, specialIssue=null, createTime=1772776941614, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1772777031740, updator=13701087609, preIssue=null, nextIssue=null, ext={EN=IssueExt(id=1236679762404504298, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1210938733613449225, issueId=1236679384321544791, language=EN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=), CN=IssueExt(id=1236679762404504299, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1210938733613449225, issueId=1236679384321544791, language=CN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=)}, issueFiles=null}, startPage=1, endPage=9, ext={EN=ArticleExt(id=1236679391107928871, articleId=1236679390763995918, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1210938733613449225, language=EN, title=Key technologies and current applications of high-temperature Carnot batteries, columnId=1236679385139434073, journalTitle=Thermal Power Generation, columnName=Special topic of low-carbon power technology, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

With the rapid development of renewable energy, the demand for grid-scale energy storage solutions is increasing to address the challenges posed by intermittent and variable power generation. As an integration of various mature electrothermal conversion and storage technologies, Carnot battery is gaining increasing attentions due to its scalability and independence from geographical constraints. The fundamental principles, key technologies, application prospects and current research status of Carnot battery are reviewed. The definition of high-temperature Carnot battery technology and the operational characteristics and technical challenges of related key equipment such as compressors and expanders are discussed. Additionally, practical application cases and technological prospects of Carnot battery systems based on electric heating and bidirectional cycles (such as Brayton and Rankine cycles) are analyzed, providing a reference for future research and technological development.

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随着可再生能源的快速发展,为应对间歇性和可变电力生产带来的挑战,电网侧能源存储解决方案的需求不断增加。卡诺电池作为多种成熟电热转换和存储技术的集成,因其可扩展性和不受地理限制的优势,正受到越来越多的关注。综述卡诺电池的基本原理、关键技术、应用前景及当前研究现状;探讨了高温卡诺电池技术的定义,以及关键设备如压缩机和膨胀机的运行特性与技术挑战;分析了基于电加热和双向循环(如布雷顿循环和朗肯循环)的卡诺电池系统的实际应用案例和技术前景,为未来研究和技术开发提供参考。

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张磊(1986),男,博士,讲师,主要研究方向为热力系统仿真和优化,
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封官斌(1969),男,硕士,高级工程师,主要研究方向为储能系统管理,

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tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1210938733613449225, articleId=1236679390763995918, language=CN, label=图7, caption=双向布雷顿循环, figureFileSmall=91fuT+XXjgI1WAn3GolBmQ==, figureFileBig=oC5YvbJErYgzVgSoONEWzQ==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1236679403267215644, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1210938733613449225, articleId=1236679390763995918, language=EN, label=Tab.1, caption=

Commercial electrically heated Carnot battery companies

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
公司/系统储能技术放电方式循环效率/%工程状态
Siemens Gamesa ETES[49]火山岩,最高温度750 ℃蒸汽朗肯循环25~40示范阶段
RWE, Store2Power[50]熔融盐,400 ℃以上蒸汽朗肯循环~40未公布具体状态
E2S Power[51]铝-石墨合金(MGA),温度达到700 ℃蒸汽朗肯循环25~40概念验证阶段
247Solar, Heat2Power Turbine[52]硅砂,最高温度970 ℃布雷顿循环30概念设计阶段
1414Degrees, TESS[53]硅基合金,熔点1 414 ℃朗肯、布雷顿、斯特林已完成示范,规划电网规模试点
Peregrine Turbine Technologies[54]铝-石墨合金(MGA),温度达到800 ℃二氧化碳布雷顿循环45二氧化碳涡轮/压缩机测试阶段
Azelio[55]铝基相变材料(PCM),达到600 ℃斯特林发动机~30多个试点、生产线、商业化
CCT Energy Storage[56]硅基相变材料(PCM),达到1 400 ℃斯特林发动机试点
TEXEL Energy Storage[57]金属氢化物(MH)/金属碳酸盐斯特林发动机40商业安装阶段
Kraftlagenn München[58]陶瓷系统,达到1 000 ℃斯特林发动机和有机朗肯循环试点
NREL ENDURING LDES (GE, PEI, Allied)[59]流化床,固体材料,温度达到1 100 ℃布雷顿循环和朗肯循环结合50~55部件原型、试点准备阶段
), ArticleFig(id=1236679403372073251, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1210938733613449225, articleId=1236679390763995918, language=CN, label=表1, caption=

商用电加热卡诺电池公司

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公司/系统储能技术放电方式循环效率/%工程状态
Siemens Gamesa ETES[49]火山岩,最高温度750 ℃蒸汽朗肯循环25~40示范阶段
RWE, Store2Power[50]熔融盐,400 ℃以上蒸汽朗肯循环~40未公布具体状态
E2S Power[51]铝-石墨合金(MGA),温度达到700 ℃蒸汽朗肯循环25~40概念验证阶段
247Solar, Heat2Power Turbine[52]硅砂,最高温度970 ℃布雷顿循环30概念设计阶段
1414Degrees, TESS[53]硅基合金,熔点1 414 ℃朗肯、布雷顿、斯特林已完成示范,规划电网规模试点
Peregrine Turbine Technologies[54]铝-石墨合金(MGA),温度达到800 ℃二氧化碳布雷顿循环45二氧化碳涡轮/压缩机测试阶段
Azelio[55]铝基相变材料(PCM),达到600 ℃斯特林发动机~30多个试点、生产线、商业化
CCT Energy Storage[56]硅基相变材料(PCM),达到1 400 ℃斯特林发动机试点
TEXEL Energy Storage[57]金属氢化物(MH)/金属碳酸盐斯特林发动机40商业安装阶段
Kraftlagenn München[58]陶瓷系统,达到1 000 ℃斯特林发动机和有机朗肯循环试点
NREL ENDURING LDES (GE, PEI, Allied)[59]流化床,固体材料,温度达到1 100 ℃布雷顿循环和朗肯循环结合50~55部件原型、试点准备阶段
), ArticleFig(id=1236679403476930853, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1210938733613449225, articleId=1236679390763995918, language=EN, label=Tab.2, caption=

Commercial high-temperature Carnot battery project with bidirectional Brayton cycle

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公司/系统储能技术循环效率/%工程状态
Malta,Pumped Heat Energy Storage[23]熔盐+防冻剂550 ℃概念设计阶段
Stiesdal, GridScale[64]破碎玄武岩填充床600 ℃最高60试点建设阶段
Enolcon, OPTES[65]硅砂填充床(硅砂、铁基砂、玄武岩)565 ℃58~66概念设计阶段(试点设计/建设中)
WindTP[66]砾石床,间接传热605 ℃最高85部件试验阶段
GE, AMSSES[61]熔盐,水箱570 ℃42~62概念阶段
), ArticleFig(id=1236679403577594152, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1210938733613449225, articleId=1236679390763995918, language=CN, label=表2, caption=

双向布雷顿循环的商业高温卡诺电池项目

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
公司/系统储能技术循环效率/%工程状态
Malta,Pumped Heat Energy Storage[23]熔盐+防冻剂550 ℃概念设计阶段
Stiesdal, GridScale[64]破碎玄武岩填充床600 ℃最高60试点建设阶段
Enolcon, OPTES[65]硅砂填充床(硅砂、铁基砂、玄武岩)565 ℃58~66概念设计阶段(试点设计/建设中)
WindTP[66]砾石床,间接传热605 ℃最高85部件试验阶段
GE, AMSSES[61]熔盐,水箱570 ℃42~62概念阶段
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高温卡诺电池关键技术及应用现状
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封官斌 1 , 李跃林 2 , 程孝峰 2 , 侯冰 2 , 曲大伟 2 , 徐冉 3 , 张磊 3
热力发电 | 低碳电力技术研究专题 2024,53(12): 1-9
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热力发电 | 低碳电力技术研究专题 2024, 53(12): 1-9
高温卡诺电池关键技术及应用现状
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封官斌1 , 李跃林2, 程孝峰2, 侯冰2, 曲大伟2, 徐冉3, 张磊3
作者信息
  • 1.国家能源集团山东电力有限公司,山东 济南 250000
  • 2.国家能源蓬莱发电有限公司,山东 烟台 265800
  • 3.北京低碳清洁能源研究院,北京 102211
  • 封官斌(1969),男,硕士,高级工程师,主要研究方向为储能系统管理,

通讯作者:

张磊(1986),男,博士,讲师,主要研究方向为热力系统仿真和优化,
Key technologies and current applications of high-temperature Carnot batteries
Guanbin FENG1 , Yuelin LI2, Xiaofeng CHENG2, Bing HOU2, Dawei QU2, Ran XU3, Lei ZHANG3
Affiliations
  • 1.National Energy Group Shandong Electric Power Co., Ltd., Jinan 250000, China
  • 2.National Energy Penglai Power Generation Co., Ltd., Yantai 265800, China
  • 3.National Institute of Clean-and-Low-Carbon Energy, Beijing 102211, China
出版时间: 2024-12-25 doi: 10.19666/j.rlfd.202406145
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随着可再生能源的快速发展,为应对间歇性和可变电力生产带来的挑战,电网侧能源存储解决方案的需求不断增加。卡诺电池作为多种成熟电热转换和存储技术的集成,因其可扩展性和不受地理限制的优势,正受到越来越多的关注。综述卡诺电池的基本原理、关键技术、应用前景及当前研究现状;探讨了高温卡诺电池技术的定义,以及关键设备如压缩机和膨胀机的运行特性与技术挑战;分析了基于电加热和双向循环(如布雷顿循环和朗肯循环)的卡诺电池系统的实际应用案例和技术前景,为未来研究和技术开发提供参考。

储能技术  /  卡诺电池  /  高温技术  /  热泵  /  朗肯循环

With the rapid development of renewable energy, the demand for grid-scale energy storage solutions is increasing to address the challenges posed by intermittent and variable power generation. As an integration of various mature electrothermal conversion and storage technologies, Carnot battery is gaining increasing attentions due to its scalability and independence from geographical constraints. The fundamental principles, key technologies, application prospects and current research status of Carnot battery are reviewed. The definition of high-temperature Carnot battery technology and the operational characteristics and technical challenges of related key equipment such as compressors and expanders are discussed. Additionally, practical application cases and technological prospects of Carnot battery systems based on electric heating and bidirectional cycles (such as Brayton and Rankine cycles) are analyzed, providing a reference for future research and technological development.

energy storage technology  /  Carnot battery  /  high-temperature technology  /  heat pump  /  Rankine cycle
封官斌, 李跃林, 程孝峰, 侯冰, 曲大伟, 徐冉, 张磊. 高温卡诺电池关键技术及应用现状. 热力发电, 2024 , 53 (12) : 1 -9 . DOI: 10.19666/j.rlfd.202406145
Guanbin FENG, Yuelin LI, Xiaofeng CHENG, Bing HOU, Dawei QU, Ran XU, Lei ZHANG. Key technologies and current applications of high-temperature Carnot batteries[J]. Thermal Power Generation, 2024 , 53 (12) : 1 -9 . DOI: 10.19666/j.rlfd.202406145
随着可再生能源的不断发展,电网侧能源存储解决方案的需求也不断增加,以应对间歇性和可变电力生产带来的挑战。尽管受地理限制,抽水蓄能和压缩空气储能由于成本低、效率高,已在大规模应用中得到商业化部署。电化学电池(如锂离子电池和液流电池)适用于中小规模应用,但面临安全性、高成本和寿命短等挑战[1]
卡诺电池作为多种成熟电热转换和存储技术(压缩热能存储、液态空气储能等)的组合,因其可扩展性和不受地理限制的优势,正受到越来越多的关注,有望成为未来能源系统中重要的低成本、长时储能解决方案。卡诺电池的历史发展可以追溯到19世纪和20世纪初。1833年,埃里克森(Ericsson)首次探索了这一技术[2],随后在1924年,弗里茨·马格尔(Fritz Marguerre)为热能存储方案申请了专利[3]。然而,直到最近10年,由于电力生产的高度波动与需求的不匹配,卡诺电池才引起了关注。卡诺电池是一种热力学能量存储系统,其核心思想是通过热力循环将电能转换成热能并存储,再通过逆热力学循环将热能转换回电能。在更加广义角度下,卡诺电池可理解为以热能为能量存储方式,充放电过程主要通过多类型热力循环的电能存储释放系统。卡诺电池具有受地理和环境因素影响较小,较大储存容量,并且成本效益高的优势[4]。采用废热回收等创新设计可以进一步提高其效率和环境影响[5]。尽管与电化学储能选项相比效率较低,但由于其技术成熟、安全、低成本和长寿命,相较于其他储能形式仍旧具有竞争优势。
目前,卡诺电池相关研究已经逐渐成为热点,但高温卡诺电池的定义和应用开展的相关综述仍是空白。本文通过系统分析高温卡诺电池所涉及的关键技术和商业用现状,为进一步研究和技术开发提供参考。
卡诺电池涉及3个主要阶段:充电阶段、储能过程和放电阶段。在充电过程中,电能通过电加热器或热泵等设备转换成热能,并与储能系统进行热量交换。储能阶段热能以高温形式在热能存储系统中稳定保存,直到需要使用电能时。当需要电能时,储存的热能通过发电热力循环(朗肯循环或布雷顿循环)转换成机械能,随后转换成电能。卡诺电池系统组成如图1所示。
卡诺电池作为多种热电转换存储技术的集成,具有许多可能的技术变化。除了通过焦耳热效应进行热电转换的电加热方法外,任何热力学热泵循环都可以实现充电。放电过程则可通过布雷顿、朗肯或斯特林循环的多种热力过程单独或联合组成[6]
卡诺电池系统使用的储热技术主要依赖于其能够有效存储和释放热能的能力。储热技术可以大致分为显热存储(水、沙子、岩石和熔融盐等[7-8])、潜热存储(有机物质、无机盐、金属或金属合金[9-10])。结合上述中的一种或多种储热技术可优化储能性能和系统的热响应[11]
以上储热介质和技术具有各自的温度适用范围和应用场景,后面章节将对适用于高温卡诺电池的储热技术进行具体讨论。
电加热技术是通过电阻加热元件直接将电能转换为热能的一种方法。在卡诺电池系统中利用电阻加热元件的电加热技术将电能转化为热能,能够快速加热储能介质,从而提高系统效率和响应时间。这种方法的优势在于设计简单、快速响应能力,以及适用于需要快速热调整的场景。通过将电加热集成到储能系统中(例如使用熔盐),该技术可以改善能源管理和整体系统性能,尤其是在需要快速热响应和高热容量材料的应用中[6]
布雷顿循环是一种以气体为工作介质的热循环,包括2个等压过程和2个绝热过程[12]。在卡诺电池应用中,充电采用逆向布雷顿循环实现热泵功能,通过压缩低温气体,然后在高压状态下加热、扩张并释放热量的方式,来实现热量从低温热源向高温热源的热量移动。
卡诺循环是理论上效率最高的热循环,包括2个等温过程和2个绝热过程。在热泵系统中,卡诺循环的热泵通过在较低温度下吸收热量并在较高温度下释放热量工作,其效率理论上是所有热泵中最高的。
除了以上涉及的关键技术,卡诺电池可以根据其基本原理进行扩展。例如液态压缩空气储能技术[13]和具有斯特林发电机的发电技术[14]都可包含进卡诺电池技术范畴。也有学者提出通过替代锅炉设备对燃煤电站进行卡诺电池化改造(图2)。将现有的燃煤电厂转换为储能系统,同时利用目前电厂现有基础设施和主要动力设备[6,15]
卡诺电池为多种已有技术的集合,温度作为系统设计中及其重要的参数,能够影响系统设计、储热过程和由此产生的操作。组成卡诺电池技术的储热技术、热泵技术和压缩储热技术中的高温定义目前并不统一。
Paul等人指出,储热技术可以根据其温度范围分为低(低温)、中等(中等温)、高(高温)和超高(超高温)4个阶段。超过600 ℃属于高温区间,而超过1 500 ℃的温度应被划分为超高温[16]。Kronhardt等人[17]提出,中等温度存储的范围应为100~500 ℃。而超过500 ℃的区间则被视为高温区域。Gil等人[8]指出储热系统工作在120~600 ℃应定义为高温系统。
在压缩储热研究中,大量学者认同应当将压缩机技术对于不同排气温度的成熟度作为高温区间的划分依据,并可以区分出3种过程类型:高温工艺(存储温度高于400 ℃)、中温工艺(储存温度在200~400 ℃)和储存温度低于200 ℃的低温工艺。目前,所采用的成熟压缩机技术,能够满足在400 ℃以下压缩储热系统的应用中,而不需要进行额外的技术开发,同时能够和多种广泛使用的储热技术配合使用[18]
目前,卡诺电池研究中为了追求更高的能量效率,多采用以压缩储、转热为基础的充电过程。故本文采用与压缩储热相同的温度划分方法,将400 ℃划分为高温区间。
在对于卡诺电池适用工质的研究中,涉及多种常见工质,包括氩气、空气、超临界二氧化碳、超临界氦、超临界氮等。通过对关键文献循环工质和储热温度范围的分析,获得常见工质对应的温度应用范围如图3所示。
通过分析文献中适用于高温储热的循环工质可以总结特性如下。
1)氩气 操作温度范围从-173~1 000 ℃,适用于极端低温和高温应用。研究显示,其在高温卡诺电池中的应用潜力最大。
2)氮气 适用于中低温储能系统,操作温度范围为-93~505 ℃,其在中温卡诺电池中的表现尤为出色。
3)二氧化碳 操作温度范围为-32~560 ℃,其在中高温卡诺电池中的广泛应用潜力。
4)氢气 操作温度范围为-150~480 ℃,适合低温至中高温储能系统,可应用在低温和中温卡诺电池中。
5)空气 适用于中高温储能系统,操作温度范围从环境温度到468 ℃,由于其易得的特性,在中高温卡诺电池中表现优异。
氩气、氮气、二氧化碳和氨气在广泛的温度范围内表现出色,能够满足卡诺电池在不同温度条件下的需求。
卡诺循环系统中的热能存储多种多样,包括显热、潜热和热化学方法。储存系统可以在多种温度下运行(包括环境温度和低温),具体取决于应用。可以使用多种存储介质,储热技术分为显热存储、潜热存储和热化学能存储。
显热存储通过增加单相材料(液体或固体)的温度来存储能量。相关储热介质可以分为液体介质和固体介质。液体介质包括导热油、加压水等,具有高体积热容量,但温度范围有限;而固体介质温度范围宽,但需要大体积和二次热传递流体。常用材料包括耐火材料、矿石、混凝土块、叠砖和钢块。技术包括床段分割、结合岩石床和潜热存储材料,使用各种形状和尺寸的填充床可提高效率和能量密度。
潜热存储利用相变材料在几乎恒定的温度下存储和释放热量。潜热存储体积和存储容量均高于显热存储(高出5~14倍)。常见材料包括NaNO3、NaNO3-KNO3共晶混合物和LiNO3等熔融盐,不同介质的储热温度范围如图4所示。
1)固体储热介质
耐火材料:最高温度1 000 ℃,具有高耐热性和热稳定性,适用于工业窑炉和高温反应器的保温储热。
碎石:最高温度500 ℃,因为廉价、易得,适用于中温储热系统,如太阳能热发电和地热储热系统。
玄武岩:最高温度560 ℃,为天然材料,具有高热稳定性和高导热性能,适用于中高温储热。
铁矿石:最高温度500 ℃,具有高密度和较好的热容量,适用于中高温储热系统,常用于热电联产和工业加热。
砾石:最高温度727 ℃,为天然材料,适用温度范围广,常用于地热储热系统。
2)液体储热介质
熔融盐:最高温度560 ℃,具有高热容量和导热性能,适用于宽温度范围的储热系统,特别适用于太阳能热发电和高温工业过程。
导热油:最高温度468 ℃,适用于宽温度范围的储热系统,广泛用于工业过程加热和太阳能热发电。
卡诺电池循环中使用的关键设备主要包括压缩机、膨胀机和换热器。目前,换热器已经能够实现成熟地工业应用;膨胀机技术来源于燃气轮机能够承受约1 000 ℃的工质温度;而压缩机是制约高温卡诺电池发展关键,其所涉及的形式和功率范围如图5所示。
压缩膨胀设备可以根据工作原理分为容积式和透平式2类。容积式包括活塞式、螺杆式、涡旋式、回转叶片式和罗茨式等,而透平式包括离心式和轴流式2种类型。透平式设备适用于大流量和高功率需求,且具有较高的工作速度。离心式设备在高压下性能更优,适合大型工业应用,但对运行条件变化较为敏感。轴流式则以高效率和低维护成本著称,但其压缩比相对较低。容积压设备通常适用于需要高压缩比和高排气压力的场合。
由于工作特性和高温燃气轮机技术多年的积累,目前膨胀设备能够满足不同储热温度下的高效稳定运行要求。但压缩机受到了温度的严重制约。Périlhon等人[37]指出,考虑到预期的寿命和可靠性目标,实际应用中认为实用的最高温度应不超过950 ℃。目前,已有成熟技术可以满足透平式压缩机500 ℃的排气温度,而容积式压缩机通常用于200 ℃以下的低功率场景[38]。高温对于压缩机的影响主要体现在材料性能、机械部件稳定性、冷却需求和运行效率等方面。
1)材料性能下降
高温对压缩机材料的性能有显著影响,包括强度降低、氧化和腐蚀。许多金属材料在高温下会发生蠕变,导致其强度和硬度降低,影响机械部件的稳定性和耐久性。高温加速了材料的氧化和腐蚀过程,削弱材料的结构完整性和寿命[39]
2)热膨胀和机械应力
高温会导致压缩机部件热膨胀,可能引起部件之间的配合松动或过紧,影响机械运转的平稳性[40]。由于热膨胀不均匀,部件之间的应力增加,可能导致机械疲劳、裂纹和最终的机械失效[41]
3)冷却需求增加
高温条件下,压缩机需要更高效的冷却系统来保持运行温度在安全范围内,这增加了冷却系统的设计复杂性和成本[42]。冷却不充分会导致压缩机部件过热,进一步降低效率和寿命[43]
4)运行效率降低
高温引起的材料性能下降和热膨胀问题会导致压缩机效率降低。由于压缩机的效率与其温度密切相关,温度过高会导致多变过程和等熵效率下降[43]。高温导致的能量损耗,不仅表现在热传导和散热中,还表现在由于材料性能下降引起的机械能损失中[44-47]
解决高温影响的方法包括:使用镍基超合金等材料[44]、在金属基材上涂覆陶瓷层[45]、在压缩机叶片内部设计冷却通道[37]等。由于技术成熟且具有较高的能量转换效率,换热设备在卡诺电池研究中并不作为重点研究对象。常规换热设备包括:壳管式换热器、板翅式换热器螺旋盘管换热器,而其他类型换热器诸如印刷电路换热器、陶瓷换热器、混合换热器等常用于储热系统换热,也同样适用于卡诺电池。
壳管式换热器适用于大规模应用,温度范围为100~420 ℃,具有良好的热交换能力,但面临流动分布不均的问题,在大规模压缩空气储能技术所需的气/气换热中得到了大量应用[46]
由于设计紧凑,具有高热传导效率,板翅式换热器适用于低于300 ℃的情况。但在快速冷却和加热过程中,钎焊接头易受热应力集中和热冲击影响,通过采用不锈钢、钛或者陶瓷技术,可以将换热温度提升至1 000 ℃以上[47]。但特种材料也面临成本高、制造困难,难以应用于大容量储能系统中的难题。
印刷电路换热器适用于高温、高压的情况,最高可达900 ℃,具有高机械强度和导热性。螺旋盘管换热器适用于耐受热冲击并快速启动的工况,但制造成本较高,适用于中小规模应用。
高温换热器应用中的技术挑战主要是材料选择和制造问题,高温应用需要耐高温材料,但这些材料成本较高。尽管陶瓷材料在高温下稳定且耐腐蚀,但其脆性和制造难度限制了应用推广。键合技术替代传统的垫片密封,可提高换热器的最高操作温度。采用新型陶瓷材料和陶瓷基复合材料,可解决传统陶瓷换热器的脆性问题。结合陶瓷和金属材料的优点开发混合换热器,有望实现低成本、易制造和高强度的目标。
基于电加热的卡诺电池技术,属于高温卡诺电池技术。电加热技术设备简单,同时能够为储热系统提供更高的温度以提升放电过程循环效率,进而弥补充电过程效率降低的不足,所以储热温度普遍高于400 ℃。1414Degrees公司的高温卡诺电池储能系统采用硅基合金,储热温度可达1 414 ℃,Store2Powe公司的高温卡诺电池储能系统采用基于熔融盐储热,其存储温度也在400 ℃以上。由于储热温度过高,所以基于有机工质的循环技术全部被排除在外[48]
由于技术成熟度高,电加热卡诺电池技术成为最受关注的技术,目前开展商业化应用的公司见表1。其中,Siemens Gamesa公司的卡诺电池储能系统已经进入示范阶段,2019年在汉堡建造的130 MW·h系统是目前最大规模的卡诺电池系统之一。
目前除了独立建造储能电站外,电加热系统可将燃煤电厂转换为储能系统,利用现有基础设施降低设备和场地投资,为老旧电厂转型提供了新的可能[15]
根据已公布数据,Siemens Gamesa公司所提出ETES系统(electric thermal energy storage,ETES)的系统回路效率约为25%(表1[49-59],而目前通过放电过程采用联合循环能够使最高循环效率达到约55%。对比同为长时物理储能技术的压缩空气储能将近70%的循环效率[60],ETES系统回路效率相对较低。为了实现高效率,必须达到更高的温度,这对材料提出了严苛的要求。目前,采用硅基合金材料的1414Degrees系统能够在1 414 ℃的高温下运行[52],而CCT Energy Storage的储热温度能够高达1 400 ℃[56],但也存在材料耐高温和抗腐蚀问题。
卡诺电池系统可以通过在放电阶段使用正向朗肯循环或卡诺循环技术,同时在充电过程采用基于逆向朗肯循环的热泵技术或逆向布雷顿循环的压缩制热技术,进行效率提升,可以在理论上实现多种技术配置。通用电气利用二氧化碳雷顿循环作为热泵进行充电,蒸汽朗肯循环放电,并使用熔盐储存70 ℃高温热,水箱储存低温热,设计功率输出为20~100 MWe,循环效率42%~62%[61]。但在实际商用过程中,科技公司倾向于采用图6图7所示的双向朗肯/布雷顿循环作为卡诺电池技术,以实现关键设备的复用,减少设备总体投资。
目前,有多家商业公司采用双向朗肯循环作为商业系统的循环基础,但受限于充电过程为热泵循环技术限制,多采用适于低于400 ℃的中低温技术,以有机工质循环和二氧化碳循环为代表。而同为卡诺电池范畴的液态空气能量存储技术,其唯一已实现商业化应用的系统Highview Power存储温度也约为200 ℃,处于中低温储热技术范畴[62]。非电加热高温卡诺电池技术几乎全部采用基于逆布雷顿循环的双向循环技术(表2[63])。其中,Stiesdal公司的GridScale系统技术成熟度最高,其通过1个可逆布雷顿循环卡诺电池,使用低成本的碎石床作为热储存,充电时将热能从冷储罐泵送到热储罐。计划在丹麦Olland建造1个4 MWe/2 MWe充、放电功率和10 MWe·h储存容量的示范项目[63],其循环效率预计达到60%。其他公司的技术往往都处于设计实验阶段。分析所有商用高温卡诺电池的储热温度发现,600 ℃的储热温度可用来平衡系统效率和高温带来的技术复杂度和成本的升高。
本文对卡诺电池的概念、技术原理及其在高温储热系统中的应用进行了综述研究,获得如下结论。
1)显热存储技术相比于潜热存储,具有更多的可选择工质,和更宽的温度适用范围,但对比潜热存储技术其储能密度相对较低。
2)电加热技术具有技术难度低、响应快速和工作温度高的特点,但其商用系统循环效率为25%~40%,相对较低。
3)双向朗肯循环和布雷顿循环技术在卡诺电池中具有重要应用,通过单一设备实现压缩和膨胀过程,实现降低设备投资成本、提高系统效率。
4)压缩机和膨胀机在高温条件下的运行效率和可靠性是卡诺电池系统性能的关键。采用镍基超合金、陶瓷涂层和先进冷却技术,可以有效提升设备在高温环境下的耐久性和性能。
5)目前,商用技术倾向于将卡诺电池应用于独立电站,而燃煤机组改造未开始商业化应用。
卡诺电池技术在电网侧长时储能中的应用前景广阔,其地理独立性、环境友好性和高储能密度,使其在可再生能源与电网的整合中具有显著优势。目前,多项商业化和试点项目正在全球范围内进行,有望推动该技术的进一步发展和应用。
  • 国家能源集团科技项目(GJNY-23-74)
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2024年第53卷第12期
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doi: 10.19666/j.rlfd.202406145
  • 接收时间:2024-06-12
  • 首发时间:2026-03-06
  • 出版时间:2024-12-25
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  • 收稿日期:2024-06-12
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Technology Project of CHN ENERGY(GJNY-23-74)
国家能源集团科技项目(GJNY-23-74)
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    1.国家能源集团山东电力有限公司,山东 济南 250000
    2.国家能源蓬莱发电有限公司,山东 烟台 265800
    3.北京低碳清洁能源研究院,北京 102211

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张磊(1986),男,博士,讲师,主要研究方向为热力系统仿真和优化,
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2种不同金属材料的力学参数

Family
属数
Number of
genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of
total species (%)

Genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of total
species (%)
鹅膏菌科Amanitaceae 2 11 5.26 鹅膏菌属 Amanita 10 4.78
小菇科 Mycenaceae 2 12 5.74 丝盖伞属 Inocybe 5 2.39
多孔菌科 Polyporaceae 8 14 6.70 蜡蘑属 Laccaria 5 2.39
红菇科 Russulaceae 3 23 11.00 小皮伞属 Marasmius 6 2.87
小菇属 Mycena 11 5.26
光柄菇属 Pluteus 5 2.39
红菇属 Russula 17 8.13
栓菌属 Trametes 5 2.39
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