Article(id=1236679387672793723, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1210938733613449225, issueId=1236679384321544791, articleNumber=null, orderNo=null, doi=10.19666/j.rlfd.202405116, pmid=null, cstr=null, oa=null, hot=null, price=null, onlineType=0, articleFormat=0, articleType=null, articleTypeStr=null, receivedDate=1717084800000, receivedDateStr=2024-05-31, revisedDate=null, revisedDateStr=null, acceptedDate=null, acceptedDateStr=null, onlineDate=1772776942412, onlineDateStr=2026-03-06, pubDate=1735056000000, pubDateStr=2024-12-25, doiRegisterDate=null, doiRegisterDateStr=null, onlineIssueDate=1772776942412, onlineIssueDateStr=2026-03-06, onlineJustAcceptDate=null, onlineJustAcceptDateStr=null, onlineFirstDate=null, onlineFirstDateStr=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, createTime=1772776942412, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1772776942412, updator=13701087609, issue=Issue{id=1236679384321544791, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1210938733613449225, year='2024', volume='53', issue='12', pageStart='1', pageEnd='160', issueExtLink='null', onlineDate='null', pubDate='null', beforeIssueId=null, nextIssueId=null, price=null, status=1, issueComplete=1, articleOrder=1, issueType=-1, specialIssue=null, createTime=1772776941614, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1772777031740, updator=13701087609, preIssue=null, nextIssue=null, ext={EN=IssueExt(id=1236679762404504298, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1210938733613449225, issueId=1236679384321544791, language=EN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=), CN=IssueExt(id=1236679762404504299, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1210938733613449225, issueId=1236679384321544791, language=CN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=)}, issueFiles=null}, startPage=57, endPage=67, ext={EN=ArticleExt(id=1236679388679426709, articleId=1236679387672793723, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1210938733613449225, language=EN, title=Effect of bypass current on coulombic efficiency of vanadium redox flow battery, columnId=1236679385139434073, journalTitle=Thermal Power Generation, columnName=Special topic of low-carbon power technology, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

In order to improve the performance and efficiency of the battery in vanadium redox battery (VRB) system, a multi-stack equivalent loss circuit model is developed based on the composition and principles of VRBs, which includes electrochemical, hydrodynamic, temperature, bypass current, and vanadium batteries. Moreover, the effects of pumping loss and bypass current on vanadium batteries in the pipeline system of all-vanadium flow batteries are investigated. The relationship between pumping loss and pumping current, the bypass current model, and the equivalent circuit model of vanadium battery with multiple stacks connected in series are established, and the core mechanism of the vanadium battery taking into account the dynamic response is elaborated by transforming each model into a whole. The key factors involved in modelling of the VRB, including the pumping loss and bypass current, are discussed in detail. The influencing factors of battery performance and efficiency are also analyzed. The results show that, parameters such as the length and cross-sectional area of the pipeline affect the pipeline resistance, and the resistance of longer main and branch pipes will reduce the bypass current but increase the pumping loss current. Longer and thicker pipelines are conducive to the simultaneous reduction of both the bypass current and the pumping loss, which improves the energy efficiency of the battery. The research provides an idea for design of the manufacturer’s pipeline.

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为提高全钒液流电池(VRB)系统中电池的性能和效率,根据VRB的组成及原理,建立了包括电化学、流体力学、温度、旁路电流、钒电池多堆等效损耗电路模型,并探究全钒液流电池管道系统中的泵送损耗与旁路电流对钒电池的影响。通过建立泵送损耗和泵损电流之间关系、旁路电流模型、多堆串联的钒电池等效电路模型,将各模型“化零为整”,阐述了计及动态响应的钒电池的内核机理。详细探讨了VRB建模中涉及的关键因素,包括泵送损耗、旁路电流,并分析了电池性能和效率的影响因素。研究表明,管道的长度与横截面积等参数影响着管路电阻,较长的主管与支管会减小旁路电流,但会增大泵损电流;较长和较粗的管道有利于同时减小旁路电流和泵送损耗,提高了电池的能量效率,这为厂家管路设计提供了思路。

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郑涛(1981),男,副研究员,主要研究方向为先进工业控制与优化,
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侯谋(1999),男,硕士研究生,主要研究方向为全钒液流电池建模,

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Parameters of VRB-5 kW

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项目数值
单堆额定功率Ps/kW5
单堆额定电压Us/V48.000
额定充放电电流Id/A105
电池充放电时间Td/h4
电堆中实际发生反应的体积Vs/L40
分配到每个堆储液罐体积Vt/L1 600
单堆电池单体个数Ncell/个39
离子交换膜厚度d/dm2.54×10–3
法拉第常数F/(C·mol–1)96 485.0
转移电子数z/1
膜面积S/dm210
欧姆内阻R00.079 2
电堆1—3反应内阻R1Rn0.0200/0.0250/0.0230
主管管道长度L与横截面积A之比/dm–1460
支管管道长度L与横截面积A之比/dm–14 600
动态响应Ce/F0.154
黏度μ/(mPa·s)3.455
标准电极电势Ueq/V1.259
钒电解液浓度c/(mol·L–1)1.5
电极长度Le/cm50
Kozeny-Carman常数K4.28
碳毡纤维直径df/μm17.6
孔隙率ε0.93
循环泵效率ηp0.8
电极横截面积Ae/μm2243
电解液比热容Cp/(J·(g·K)–1)3.2
V2+反应焓变化ΔH2/(kJ·mol-–1)-220.0
V3+反应焓变化ΔH3/(kJ·mol–1)-64.0
VO2+反应焓变化ΔH4/(kJ·mol–1)-91.2
VO2+反应焓变化ΔH5/(kJ·mol–1)-246.8
), ArticleFig(id=1236679403577594150, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1210938733613449225, articleId=1236679387672793723, language=CN, label=表1, caption=

VRB-5 kW全钒液流电池参数

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项目数值
单堆额定功率Ps/kW5
单堆额定电压Us/V48.000
额定充放电电流Id/A105
电池充放电时间Td/h4
电堆中实际发生反应的体积Vs/L40
分配到每个堆储液罐体积Vt/L1 600
单堆电池单体个数Ncell/个39
离子交换膜厚度d/dm2.54×10–3
法拉第常数F/(C·mol–1)96 485.0
转移电子数z/1
膜面积S/dm210
欧姆内阻R00.079 2
电堆1—3反应内阻R1Rn0.0200/0.0250/0.0230
主管管道长度L与横截面积A之比/dm–1460
支管管道长度L与横截面积A之比/dm–14 600
动态响应Ce/F0.154
黏度μ/(mPa·s)3.455
标准电极电势Ueq/V1.259
钒电解液浓度c/(mol·L–1)1.5
电极长度Le/cm50
Kozeny-Carman常数K4.28
碳毡纤维直径df/μm17.6
孔隙率ε0.93
循环泵效率ηp0.8
电极横截面积Ae/μm2243
电解液比热容Cp/(J·(g·K)–1)3.2
V2+反应焓变化ΔH2/(kJ·mol-–1)-220.0
V3+反应焓变化ΔH3/(kJ·mol–1)-64.0
VO2+反应焓变化ΔH4/(kJ·mol–1)-91.2
VO2+反应焓变化ΔH5/(kJ·mol–1)-246.8
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旁路电流对全钒液流电池库伦效率的影响
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侯谋 , 郑涛 , 贾泽峰 , 李俊伟 , 仇坤
热力发电 | 低碳电力技术研究专题 2024,53(12): 57-67
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热力发电 | 低碳电力技术研究专题 2024, 53(12): 57-67
旁路电流对全钒液流电池库伦效率的影响
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侯谋 , 郑涛 , 贾泽峰, 李俊伟, 仇坤
作者信息
  • 合肥工业大学电气与自动化工程学院,安徽 合肥 230009
  • 侯谋(1999),男,硕士研究生,主要研究方向为全钒液流电池建模,

通讯作者:

郑涛(1981),男,副研究员,主要研究方向为先进工业控制与优化,
Effect of bypass current on coulombic efficiency of vanadium redox flow battery
Mou HOU , Tao ZHENG , Zefeng JIA, Junwei LI, Kun QIU
Affiliations
  • School of Electrical and Automation Engineering, Hefei University of Technology, Hefei 230009, China
出版时间: 2024-12-25 doi: 10.19666/j.rlfd.202405116
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为提高全钒液流电池(VRB)系统中电池的性能和效率,根据VRB的组成及原理,建立了包括电化学、流体力学、温度、旁路电流、钒电池多堆等效损耗电路模型,并探究全钒液流电池管道系统中的泵送损耗与旁路电流对钒电池的影响。通过建立泵送损耗和泵损电流之间关系、旁路电流模型、多堆串联的钒电池等效电路模型,将各模型“化零为整”,阐述了计及动态响应的钒电池的内核机理。详细探讨了VRB建模中涉及的关键因素,包括泵送损耗、旁路电流,并分析了电池性能和效率的影响因素。研究表明,管道的长度与横截面积等参数影响着管路电阻,较长的主管与支管会减小旁路电流,但会增大泵损电流;较长和较粗的管道有利于同时减小旁路电流和泵送损耗,提高了电池的能量效率,这为厂家管路设计提供了思路。

全钒液流电池  /  旁路电流  /  泵送损耗  /  多堆建模  /  能量效率

In order to improve the performance and efficiency of the battery in vanadium redox battery (VRB) system, a multi-stack equivalent loss circuit model is developed based on the composition and principles of VRBs, which includes electrochemical, hydrodynamic, temperature, bypass current, and vanadium batteries. Moreover, the effects of pumping loss and bypass current on vanadium batteries in the pipeline system of all-vanadium flow batteries are investigated. The relationship between pumping loss and pumping current, the bypass current model, and the equivalent circuit model of vanadium battery with multiple stacks connected in series are established, and the core mechanism of the vanadium battery taking into account the dynamic response is elaborated by transforming each model into a whole. The key factors involved in modelling of the VRB, including the pumping loss and bypass current, are discussed in detail. The influencing factors of battery performance and efficiency are also analyzed. The results show that, parameters such as the length and cross-sectional area of the pipeline affect the pipeline resistance, and the resistance of longer main and branch pipes will reduce the bypass current but increase the pumping loss current. Longer and thicker pipelines are conducive to the simultaneous reduction of both the bypass current and the pumping loss, which improves the energy efficiency of the battery. The research provides an idea for design of the manufacturer’s pipeline.

vanadium redox battery  /  bypass current  /  pumping loss  /  multi-stack modeling  /  energy efficiency
侯谋, 郑涛, 贾泽峰, 李俊伟, 仇坤. 旁路电流对全钒液流电池库伦效率的影响. 热力发电, 2024 , 53 (12) : 57 -67 . DOI: 10.19666/j.rlfd.202405116
Mou HOU, Tao ZHENG, Zefeng JIA, Junwei LI, Kun QIU. Effect of bypass current on coulombic efficiency of vanadium redox flow battery[J]. Thermal Power Generation, 2024 , 53 (12) : 57 -67 . DOI: 10.19666/j.rlfd.202405116
在近年来的能源技术发展中,全钒液流电池(VRB)以其出色的可扩展性、长寿命以及优异的安全性特点,成为大规模储能系统中的一种重要解决方案。为了进一步优化这种电池系统的性能和经济效率,学术界和工业界都在不断探索提高其运行效率的方法。
文献[1-2]研究了电池建模相关知识,以及电化学储能系统标准现状与体系架构;文献[3]研究了全钒液流电池的多场耦合模型,将流体力学模型、电化学模型、温度模型、电路模型相结合,将VRB中的“三传一反”同电学关系结合,但仅限于单堆电池的小罐系统,该研究未考虑旁路电流模型对电池的影响;文献[4]研究了离子扩散和副反应对钒氧化还原液流电池容量损失影响的动态建模;文献[5-12]将旁路电流通道视为欧姆电阻,建立了旁路电流的电路等效模型,并研究了旁路电流对系统库伦效率和能量效率的影响,但是对电池的电化学模型、流体力学模型、温度模型、等效电路损耗模型并未建模,仅用直流电源代表电池,忽略了电池的复杂变化与耦合关系;文献[13]揭示了钒电池管道的相关参数对单堆全钒液流电池泵送损耗的影响;文献[14-27]研究了钒电池建模、结构及相关特性。
为了解在不同设计条件下VRB的旁路电流损耗,本文通过建立包括电化学模型、流体力学模型、温度模型、等效电路损耗模型的精细化钒电池模型来研究其对电池性能影响,通过MATLAB/ Simulink联合仿真分析和讨论全钒液流电池串联建模中,电池管路电解液(可等效为电阻)对旁路电流的影响;最后综合分析旁路电流、泵送损耗对电池性能的影响。仿真结果表明,在钒液流电池系统中,采用更长、更粗的管道可以有效减小由于电解液流动阻力引起的能量损失,同时可以降低因电解液流速过高引起的局部旁路电流;同时,系统设计时应考虑到电解液的流动特性、管道的摩擦阻力和系统的能效需求,合理选择管道的长度和直径,以确保较高的库伦效率。
图1为全钒液流电池串联模型。全钒液流电池的核心部分是电堆,电堆通常由2块电极板(阳极和阴极)和1块离子交换膜构成。电极板一般由石墨毡或碳纸制成,具有良好的导电性和化学稳定性。离子交换膜通常采用质子交换膜如Nafion,它允许氢离子通过,但阻止其他离子的穿透。电解液存储系统包括2个独立的储液罐,分别存放正极电解液(含有VO2+/VO2+离子的溶液)和负极电解液(含有V2+/V3+离子的溶液)。这2个储液罐通过管道和泵与电堆相连,形成电解液循环系统。
全钒液流电池使用钒的氧化还原反应来储存和释放能量。电池系统包括2个电解槽,其中一个槽中装有含VO2+/VO2+离子的阳极溶液,另一个槽中装有含V3+离子的阴极溶液。这2种溶液之间由一种称为阳极液流循环体和阴极液流循环体的电解质流体相连。在充电过程中,外部电源施加电压使得氧合钒在阳极处氧化成钒离子,而三价钒在阴极处还原成金属钒。这些离子在溶液中流动,完成充电过程。在放电过程中,这些反应发生反向,钒离子在溶液中重新结晶成氧合钒或者金属钒,释放储存的能量。集流体(电极之间的液流循环体)在电池的工作中起着关键作用,它负责将电极反应产生的电子传递,从而实现能量储存和释放。
具体的反应式如下:
正极:VO2++H2OeVO2++2H+
负极:V3++eV2+
在电池串联配置中,使用大罐存储电解液是必要的。大罐电解液能够为整个系统提供更多的活性物质,这意味着可以在单次充放电周期内存储和释放更多的能量,与配置多个小罐相比,使用单个或几个大罐可以降低制造和维护的成本,方便统一管理电解液的状态,如浓度、温度和化学纯度。但在电池串联配置中,旁路电流(即绕过正常电化学反应路径的电流)是一个必须考虑的关键问题,因为它会导致能量损失和系统效率下降。为了有效管理和优化电池串联系统,建立一个准确的串联模型至关重要。
通过建立液流电池电堆与管路部分的等效电路模型,并根据基尔霍夫电流和电压定律建立线性方程组,求解出旁路电流。图2图1中电池系统的电堆与管路部分的等效电路,图2中下标m表示主管,c表示支管;Ri为电池内阻;RNmRNcRPmRPc分别为负极主管、负极支管、正极主管、正极支管的等效电阻。由图2可见,每个电池等效为1个电源和1个电阻,每段充满电解液的管路等效为1个电阻[7],由于主管和支管的长度、直径不同,主管与支管简化为等效电阻R后,主管与支管的欧姆损耗大小不同。
图2每个节点的电流满足基尔霍夫电流定律:
mkim=0
式中:m为节点处支路数。
主管和支管的等效电阻满足:
Rk=ρLkAk=ρ4LkπDk2
式中:ρ为电解液电阻率;LkAk为管道k长度与横截面积。
在VRB的电化学过程中,数学模型能够帮助理解和预测电池的性能。以下介绍主要的电化学反应模型和一些重要的方程,包括能斯特方程、钒离子浓度在储液罐和电堆中的动态微分方程式。
Us=Ueq+RTstackzFln(cs2cs5cs3cs4)
式中:Us为电池的单堆电压;Ueq为标准电极电势;Tstack为流入电堆电解液温度;R为通用气体常数;z为电化学反应电子转移数;cs2cs5cs3cs4分别为电堆中钒离子浓度,下标数字代表反应离子价态,其中输入为离子价态,其变化随电池充放电、电解液循环、离子跨膜反应变化。
钒离子在储液罐和电堆中的浓度由其动态微分方程组决定,计算公式为:
{Vt2dct2dt=Q(cs2ct2)Vt2dct3dt=Q(cs3ct3)Vt2dct4dt=Q(cs4ct4)Vt2dct5dt=Q(cs5ct5)
{Vs2dcs2dt=Q(ct2cs2)Ncell(k2Scs2d+2k5Scs5d+k4Scs4dIdzF)Vs2dcs3dt=Q(ct3cs3)Ncell(k3Scs3d3k5Scs5d2k4Scs4d±IdzF)Vs2dcs4dt=Q(ct4cs4)Ncell(k4Scs4d3k2Scs2d2k3Scs3d±IdzF)Vs2dcs5dt=Q(ct5cs5)Ncell(k5Scs5d+2k2Scs2d+k3Scs3dIdzF)
式中:VsVt分别为电堆和储液罐体积;c为钒离子浓度;Q为流量;Ncell为单片电池数;k为钒离子扩散系数;S为离子交换膜面积;d为离子交换膜厚度;下标s和t分别代表电堆和储液罐,数字表示离子价态。
电解液在流过管道、电堆电极和电堆流道时会产生流动压降,进而产生泵功损失。本文考虑管道摩擦损耗压降与管道的长度Lk、管道直径Dh、摩擦系数fd、电解液流速v、电导率ρ、管道设计等相关;电极流动压降与电极长度Le、横截面积Ae、渗透率Ke、电解液黏度μ、电极碳毡材料的纤维直径df、Kozeny-Carman常数K、电极的孔隙率ɛ有关;电堆流道相对复杂,文献[28]通过有限元方法简化流阻的计算方法,在此引用数据R˜A为管道的横截面积,L为管道长度,Rcell为流阻。表达式为:
Ke=df2ε316K(1ε)2
ΔPe=μLeQ0KeAe
ΔPp=fdLkρv22Dh
ΔPs=QnR˜
Ppump=ΔPQηp
Ip=Ppump Us=[2μ(LA)3Ncell +Rcell 0.7Ncell ]ηpUs×Q2×Ncell 
温度是全钒液流电池性能的重要参数之一。其主要对电解液黏度、密度、浓度、离子扩散速率有影响;电解液密度和黏度的变化主要影响流体力学模型中损耗的计算,而浓度、离子扩散系数主要影响电化学模型。
电堆内部电解液温度主要受堆罐中电解液运输的热量、外界空气温度、自放电反应以及自身产热量4个方面的影响。为了更好地理解和预测这些因素对电解液温度的影响,通过研究各个因素,建立一个描述电堆内部温度变化的模型:
CpρVsdTstack dt=2QCpρ(Tpipe Tstack )+Hs(Tair Tstack )+I2R+Ncell (cs2dk2S(ΔH2)+Cs3dk3S(ΔH3)+cs4dk4S(ΔH4)+cs5dk5S(ΔH5))
式中:Cp为电解液的比热容;Hs为电堆的总传热能力;ΔH2、ΔH3、ΔH4和ΔH5分别为自放电反应中不同钒离子的焓变;QCpρ(Tpipe-Tstack)为电解液从管道传至电堆过程中产生热量;Hs(Tair-Tstack)为外界空气温度对电堆中电解液温度的影响;I2R为电堆内部电阻产生的热量速率。
储液罐的温度主要受电解液运输热量与外界温度变化2个因素影响。温度变化公式为:
CpρVtdTtank dt=QCpρ(Tpipe Ttank )+Hn(Tair Ttank )
式中:Hn为储罐总体传热能力;Hn(Tair-Tstack)为外界温度对储罐中电解液温度的影响。
电解液密度主要受钒离子浓度、硫酸浓度与温度影响,电解液浓度受钒离子浓度、温度影响。由于数量关系复杂,因此,A.Mousa根据实验数据,提出了电解液密度与浓度的经验公式[29]如式(14)、式(15)所示:
ρ=A1+B1cV2++c1(cV2+)2+D1cSO42+E1(cSO42)2+F1T
式中:A1B1C1D1E1F1均为经验系数,分别取1.003 20、0.163 22、-0.006 56、0.073 63、-0.004 91、-0.000 61;cV2+为二价钒离子浓度;cSO42为硫酸浓度。
μ=1+A2c+B2c+D2c2+E2c7+F2c7
式中:A2B2D2E2F2均为经验系数分别取0.838 8、–1.324 6、1.130 0、–0.096 9、0.001 3;c为钒离子浓度。
离子交换膜无法做到完全隔绝正负极活性物质,故各价钒离子存在相应的离子扩散系数,其与温度间的关系式为:
k=A0eEaRTstack
式中:A0为前置因子;Ea为扩散过程的活化能。
图3为计及旁路电流的全钒液流电池串联混合模型。等效损耗电路模型主要反映电池运行过程中各部件的电学关系,主要包括充放电电流Id;泵损电流Ipump由电解液在电池内部循环时泵的功耗引起,与电解液的流速、黏度以及管道的设计密切相关;旁路电流Ishunt为电池之间的电压差异导致部分电流绕过电极而流过电解液或其他导电路径的损耗,与电堆设计、管道结构有关;固定损耗Rf为电池管理系统(BMS)的能耗、控制器的功耗以及冷却系统的功耗等;电池材料(离子交换膜、电极、双极板、电解液等)产生的电阻总和欧姆内阻R0和由于化学反应引起的反应内阻R1RnC1Cn为电堆电容,反映了电池充过放电过程中的动态响应;Us1Usn为电池的电堆电压,由电化学模型决定。
全钒液流电池系统中,各模型之间相互耦合,共同影响电池的性能和效率。电化学反应速率受温度影响,温度越高反应速率越快,但过高温度可能导致副反应增加,影响电池效率和寿命。电化学反应产生的热量会改变系统温度,进而影响电解液的黏度和电导率。电解液流动速率影响电极表面钒离子浓度梯度,进而影响电化学反应效率,而流体力学模型提供的流量和压力信息用于计算电化学反应速率和泵送损耗。等效损耗电路模型中的欧姆损耗和泵送损耗产生的热量会影响系统温度,而温度变化会改变电解液的电导率和流动阻力,从而影响这些损耗。电解液流动产生的泵送损耗影响系统能量消耗,管道设计和流速则影响旁路电流的大小,进而影响系统效率。
电化学模型通过式(4)、式(5)得到各价钒离子浓度,并通过式(3)能斯特方程得到电堆的单堆电压Us1Usn并反馈到等效损耗电路中,从而将电化学模型与等效损耗电路模型耦合;温度模型影响的电解液浓度和密度等,作为流体力学模型的输入影响着电池的总压强,再由泵损功率与电堆电压计算得到泵损电流并反馈到等效损耗电路模型,实现温度模型、流体力学模型与等效损耗电路模型的耦合;通过旁路电流模型计算得到的旁路电流输出反馈到等效损耗电路模型实现旁路电流模型与等效损耗电路模型的耦合作用;同时根据文献[3]的单堆电池模型串联,实现了钒电池多堆的建模。
根据图3所示:充电时,一部分电流绕过电池流入电解液回路;一部分由于电解液在管道以及电堆中流动的压力损耗,会影响泵损电流的大小;还有一部分储能系统的寄生损耗电流,导致实际流入电堆的电流变小,如式(17)所示,电池的实际充电电流小于名义上的充电电流。放电时,旁路电流、泵损电流以及寄生损耗电流将由电池提供,如式(18)所示,实际放电电流达不到名义上的放电电流。
Is=Id-If-Ipump-Ishunt
Is=Id+If+Ipump+Ishunt
Ptotal=Ppump+Pshunt+Pf+P1~n+P0
式中:PpumpPshuntPfP1~nP0分别为泵送损耗、旁路损耗、系统固定损耗、串联电池1~n的反应损耗和欧姆损耗。
在充电时,标称电流Inom指系统设计的正常充电电流。旁路电流的存在会导致实际进入电极参与化学反应的电流Ic变小。这意味着,每个电池实际上只能将小于Inom的电流转化为化学能进行储存。因此,每个电池的储能效率降低,不能完全利用充入的电量。放电时,理论上应该与充电时相同数量的电流Id从化学能转化回电能。然而,由于旁路电流的存在,实际参与化学反应释放的电流Id变大,超过了系统的标称电流Inom。这意味着,尽管电池试图释放更多的电能,但最终到达外部负载的电流仍然受到Inom的限制。
εη=1|Inom|td|Inom|tc=1i=1Nc|Ic.i|i=1Nc|Id.i|
式中:εη为库伦损失,这种损失降低了电池系统的能量效率和经济性;tdtc分别为充、放电时间。
本文采用VRB-15 kW系统,由3个VRB-5 kW串联而成,相应电池固定参数选用GEC-VRB-5 kW/20 kW·h VRB。
实验设备包括1台额定功率5 kW、储能容量为20 kW·h的全钒液流电池系统表1、充电设备、电池管理系统(battery management system,BMS)、计算机以及USB至RS-485通信模块。
充电设备主要是向VRB供能。BMS负责监控电池的运行状况,并实时收集关于电流、电压、温度和流体流动等参数的数据。实时仿真平台数据采集结构及实物如图4所示。
在充电过程中,电池两端的电极发生氧化还原反应,导致不同价态钒离子的浓度变化。正极(阳极):钒的+4价离子(VO2+)被氧化成+5价离子(VO2+)。这个反应消耗电子,并释放氢离子;负极(阴极):钒的+3价离子(V3+)被还原成+2价离子(V2+),这个反应获取电子。正极储液罐中+5价离子的浓度增加,而+4价离子浓度减少,负极储液罐中+2价离子的浓度增加,+3价离子浓度减少,放电反应相反。电堆中充电过程中,正极(阳极):+4价钒离子(VO2+)被氧化为+5价钒离子(VO2+),这个过程在阳极表面发生,消耗电子,从电极表面进入电解液;负极(阴极):+3价钒离子(V3+)被还原为+2价钒离子(V2+),这个反应在阴极表面进行,电子从电解液转移至电极表面。在电堆中,因为反应区域和流动电解液的密切接触,充电时+4价和+3价钒离子的浓度在电极表面逐渐减少,而+5价和+2价钒离子的浓度增加,储液罐与电堆各价钒离子浓度变化如图5所示,单堆的电堆电压如图6所示。
本节讨论在横截面积不变时主管长度的影响。旁路电流主要由电池堆之间的电压差和旁路路径的电阻决定。在充电的起始阶段,由于电池的动态响应,电堆电压不会显著提高,电堆之间的电压差也较小,在管路规格确定,也就是在旁路电阻的大小不变时,旁路电流较小,在不考虑泵损和系统损耗等前提下,绝大部分的充电电流用于实际充电,随着充电过程的进行,电堆之间的电压差会随之增大,电压也不再均衡,旁路电流也会随之增加,充电电流中用于实际充电的电流也会随之减小;在放电过程中,电池本身作为电源,随着放电的进行,电堆之间的电压差会随之减小,旁路电流的大小也会随之减小,这也意味着,要使电池实际放出的电流达到设定值,电池放电电流需要大于设定的电流值,且随着放电过程的进行,其值会慢慢减小,在图形上表现为电流放电电流值大于设定值逐渐减小,故而在设计时要留有余量。当管路长度为4 m时,图7为旁路电流的变化情况,图8为电堆电流变化情况。
为减小电池的旁路电流,需要对管路进行优化,由式(2)可知长而细的管道可以增加管路的等效电阻。当管道长度增加时,流阻增加。这是因为液体在更长的距离上遇到更多的摩擦,导致总的能量损失增加。在电阻的类比中,这相当于电阻管路两端的距离增加,导致电阻值增大。增加管道的直径会显著减少流阻,所以在不考虑泵损电流时,图9为主管长度分别为2.0、2.5、3.0、3.5、4.0、4.5 m时旁路电流、电堆电流、存在旁路电流与无旁路电流时的电堆电压差、存在旁路电流与无旁路电流时的开路电压差随着电池充放电的变化。
图9a)、图9b)所示,充电时,旁路电流实际上是从流入电流中绕过电极而流入电解液的电流,因此会减小电堆电流的大小,所以小于105 A的设定值,放电时,因为旁路电流的存在,导致电堆电流的增大,高于105 A。管长增加时,管路等效电阻增加,旁路电流减小,随着充放电时旁路电流先增加后减小,所以电堆电流充放电时均缓慢减小。
旁路电流的存在会导致电池电堆电压、开路电压小于理想状态下无旁路电流的电堆电压、开路电压,图9c)、图9d)反映当存在旁路电流时,电池充放电,旁路电流对电堆电压、开路电压的影响情况。
放电过程中,如果存在显著的旁路电流,那么部分电能将被旁路电流消耗,导致电池的有效输出电压下降。旁路电流的存在减少了可用于外部负载的实际电能,从而影响电池的性能和输出电压,充电时相反。图10为管路长度在4 m时电堆电压和开路电压。
管路长度的增加会直接提高流体流经管路时的总摩擦阻力。在流体力学中,摩擦阻力与管路长度成正比,即压力损失随管道长度增加而增加。这种压力损失可视为流体流动的“等效电阻”。理论上,增加管路的横截面积可以降低单位长度的压降,因为流速会降低,从而减少流体的湍流程度和摩擦损失,泵提供较小的压力来克服阻力,从而需要更少能量。因此,泵的功率需求减小,导致泵损电流减小。然而,总体的摩擦阻力仍取决于管路的整体设计和流体的黏度。图11为不同管路横截面积下的泵损电流变化情况。
图12为设计前后旁路电流与泵损电流的变化情况,图13为设计前后电堆电流与库伦效率情况。由图12图13可见,长粗的管道设计减小了系统的总压降,减轻了泵的负担,降低了能量损耗。这一变化不仅减少了泵损电流,也有效控制了旁路电流,从而直接提高了电池的库伦效率和整体能效。设计前主管长度为3.5 m、横截面积为0.076 1 dm2,设计后主管长度为4.5 m、横截面积为0.097 8 dm2。通过计及旁路电流的多堆仿真模型,设计长而粗的管路,15 kW 4 h全钒液流电池的库伦效率由86.27%提高到87.04%。
图14为实验与仿真结果的对比结果,泵损电流由泵功率与实验测得的电堆电压相除得到,旁路电流由电流互感器经过通信得到。由图14可知,模型具有一定的准确性。
本研究通过精细化建模技术详细描绘了全钒液流电池系统在复杂物理量变化下的离子浓度和电堆电压的动态变化。通过模拟不同管路配置对泵损电流和旁路电流的影响,深入分析了这些电流的生成机制及其对电池性能的影响。通过仿真发现,适当增加主管的长度和横截面积,可以有效减少这2种类型的电流。
通过计及旁路电流的多堆仿真模型,设计长而粗的管路,15 kW 4 h全钒液流电池的库伦效率由86.27%提高到87.04%。本研究的模型和结论旨在为全钒液流电池系统的设计和优化提供理论支持和实践指导。
  • 国家自然科学基金项目(62202138)
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2024年第53卷第12期
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doi: 10.19666/j.rlfd.202405116
  • 接收时间:2024-05-31
  • 首发时间:2026-03-06
  • 出版时间:2024-12-25
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  • 收稿日期:2024-05-31
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National Natural Science Foundation of China(62202138)
国家自然科学基金项目(62202138)
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    合肥工业大学电气与自动化工程学院,安徽 合肥 230009

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郑涛(1981),男,副研究员,主要研究方向为先进工业控制与优化,
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