Article(id=1215700945267245362, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1210938733613449225, issueId=1215700941538509036, articleNumber=null, orderNo=null, doi=10.19666/j.rlfd.202403052, pmid=null, cstr=null, oa=null, hot=null, price=null, onlineType=0, articleFormat=0, articleType=null, articleTypeStr=null, receivedDate=1710864000000, receivedDateStr=2024-03-20, revisedDate=null, revisedDateStr=null, acceptedDate=null, acceptedDateStr=null, onlineDate=1767775291983, onlineDateStr=2026-01-07, pubDate=1721836800000, pubDateStr=2024-07-25, doiRegisterDate=null, doiRegisterDateStr=null, onlineIssueDate=1767775291983, onlineIssueDateStr=2026-01-07, onlineJustAcceptDate=null, onlineJustAcceptDateStr=null, onlineFirstDate=null, onlineFirstDateStr=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, createTime=1767775291983, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1767775291983, updator=13701087609, issue=Issue{id=1215700941538509036, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1210938733613449225, year='2024', volume='53', issue='7', pageStart='1', pageEnd='158', issueExtLink='null', onlineDate='null', pubDate='null', beforeIssueId=null, nextIssueId=null, price=null, status=1, issueComplete=1, articleOrder=1, issueType=-1, specialIssue=null, createTime=1767775291094, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1767775458121, updator=13701087609, preIssue=null, nextIssue=null, ext={EN=IssueExt(id=1215701642159243949, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1210938733613449225, issueId=1215700941538509036, language=EN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=), CN=IssueExt(id=1215701642159243950, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1210938733613449225, issueId=1215700941538509036, language=CN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=)}, issueFiles=null}, startPage=24, endPage=33, ext={EN=ArticleExt(id=1215700946605228375, articleId=1215700945267245362, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1210938733613449225, language=EN, title=Research progress on calculation models of heat transfer characteristics of molten salt tower solar absorbers, columnId=1213131705389597040, journalTitle=Thermal Power Generation, columnName=Technical and economic review, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

The technology of concentrating solar power tower plant with molten salt is currently the predominant photothermal power generation technology globally. The performance of the molten salt receiver, which serves as the core device for converting solar energy into heat, directly influences the system’s power generation efficiency. Additionally, the safety of the receiver affects the operational hours of the power plant. Consequently, it is crucial to develop a heat transfer model for the molten salt receiver and ascertain its precise heat transfer characteristics. This paper systematically organizes the heat transfer calculation model for the mainstream external cylindrical molten salt receiver, delineating the calculation process and fundamental methods for input radiant energy, radiant heat loss, convective heat loss, and molten salt heat gain within the heat transfer model. Based on the refinement level of the calculation outcomes, the heat transfer model of the receiver is bifurcated into a detailed model and a simplified model. While the detailed model boasts high calculation accuracy, offering a comprehensive representation of the actual energy conversion process, it is computationally expensive and requires extended transient process calculations. Conversely, its specific working condition calculations serve as a verification reference for the simplified model’s results. The simplified model entails a judicious simplification of the theoretical model that describes the heat transfer characteristics of the molten salt receiver, facilitating faster calculations while maintaining accuracy. It is predominantly employed during the design phase. By comparing and contrasting the characteristics and performance of these models, technical guidance can be offered for selecting appropriate heat transfer models for thermal performance calculation processes in molten salt receivers.

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熔盐塔式太阳能热发电技术是目前国际主流的光热发电技术,熔盐吸热器作为将太阳能转换为热能的核心设备,其性能直接影响系统发电效率,吸热器安全性影响电厂运行小时数。因此,建立熔盐吸热器传热模型,获得准确的传热特性十分重要。对主流的外置圆柱式熔盐吸热器的传热计算模型进行了系统梳理,总结了传热模型中投入辐射能、辐射热损失、对流热损失及熔盐得热量的计算过程及基本方法。根据计算结果的精细程度,吸热器传热模型分为详细模型和简化模型。详细模型的计算精度高,能细致反映实际能量转换过程,但计算成本较高,瞬态过程计算耗时多,但其特定工况的计算结果可为简化模型提供计算结果的验证参考。简化模型是对描述熔盐吸热器传热特性的理论模型做合理简化,在较为准确地完成计算的同时具备较快的计算速度,多用于吸热器设计阶段。通过各模型特点及性能的总结对比,可为熔盐吸热器热性能计算过程的传热模型选择提供技术指导。

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白凤武(1975),男,博士,研究员,研究方向为太阳能热发电系统中的吸热和储热机理及技术研发、强化传热机理研究等,
, copyrightStatement=null, copyrightOwner=null, extLink=null, articleAbsUrl=null, sourceXml=ZzxGi+tZ5PCXcEfY6iq4Eg==, magXml=po8cPCKBkSdQ+//lTXqRNw==, pdfUrl=null, pdf=owF9ysoPGBYGqq/7JEzQgw==, pdfFileSize=1238153, pdfExtLink=null, richHtmlUrl=null, mobilePdfUrl=null, reviewReport=null, pdfFirstPage=null, abstractGraph=jt+bt/fyN9Zo9lpJNFifVQ==, abstractGraphContent=null, abstractVideo=null, citation=null, cebUrl=null, magXmlContent=ShyZ3dOCjvUp5gijJ+fNzg==, mapNumber=null, authorCompany=null, fund=null, authors=

唐宪友(1987),男,硕士,高级工程师,研究方向为太阳能热发电,

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唐宪友(1987),男,硕士,高级工程师,研究方向为太阳能热发电,

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唐宪友(1987),男,硕士,高级工程师,研究方向为太阳能热发电,

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Journal of Renewable and Sustainable Energy, 2020, 12(4): 043705., articleTitle=Experimental and numerical evaluation of a lab-scale external solar receiver, refAbstract=null), Reference(id=1215700960874251068, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1210938733613449225, articleId=1215700945267245362, doi=null, pmid=null, pmcid=null, year=2017, volume=157, issue=null, pageStart=1130, pageEnd=1144, url=null, language=null, rfNumber=[29], rfOrder=32, authorNames=SÁNCHEZ-GONZÁLEZ A, RODRÍGUEZ-SÁNCHEZ M R, SANTANA D, journalName=Solar Energy, refType=null, unstructuredReference=SÁNCHEZ-GONZÁLEZ A, RODRÍGUEZ-SÁNCHEZ M R, SANTANA D. Aiming strategy model based on allowable flux densities for molten salt central receivers[J]. Solar Energy, 2017, 157: 1130-1144., articleTitle=Aiming strategy model based on allowable flux densities for molten salt central receivers, refAbstract=null), Reference(id=1215700960966525757, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1210938733613449225, articleId=1215700945267245362, doi=null, pmid=null, pmcid=null, year=2020, volume=272, issue=null, pageStart=null, pageEnd=null, url=null, language=null, rfNumber=[30], rfOrder=33, authorNames=WANG W Q, YU Q, LI M J, journalName=Applied Energy, refType=null, unstructuredReference=WANG W Q, YU Q, LI M J, et al. Coupled optical and thermal performance of a fin-like molten salt receiver for the next-generation solar power tower[J]. Applied Energy, 2020, 272: 115079., articleTitle=Coupled optical and thermal performance of a fin-like molten salt receiver for the next-generation solar power tower, refAbstract=null), Reference(id=1215700961079771966, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1210938733613449225, articleId=1215700945267245362, doi=null, pmid=null, pmcid=null, year=2015, volume=74, issue=null, pageStart=576, pageEnd=587, url=null, language=null, rfNumber=[31], rfOrder=34, authorNames=SÁNCHEZ-GONZÁLEZ A, SANTANA D, journalName=Renewable Energy, refType=null, unstructuredReference=SÁNCHEZ-GONZÁLEZ A, SANTANA D. Solar flux distribution on central receivers: a projection method from analytic function[J]. 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province=null, city=null, postcode=null, companyName=null, departmentName=null, remark=3.中国科学院大学,北京 100190)])], figs=[ArticleFig(id=1215700953219646076, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1210938733613449225, articleId=1215700945267245362, language=EN, label=Fig.1, caption=Schematic diagram of the external cylindrical receiver, figureFileSmall=spoIlfToy8F9CjZeqUT9sQ==, figureFileBig=jt+bt/fyN9Zo9lpJNFifVQ==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1215700953320309378, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1210938733613449225, articleId=1215700945267245362, language=CN, label=图1, caption=外置圆柱式吸热器示意, figureFileSmall=spoIlfToy8F9CjZeqUT9sQ==, figureFileBig=jt+bt/fyN9Zo9lpJNFifVQ==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1215700953513247370, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1210938733613449225, articleId=1215700945267245362, language=EN, label=Fig.2, caption=Schematic diagram of heat transfer process in the receiver, figureFileSmall=2EVv3E92JZ4KWtkXkhl3sw==, 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figureFileBig=tMHqBC1uPT2kAEtgVE7sNQ==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1215700955715257025, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1210938733613449225, articleId=1215700945267245362, language=EN, label=Tab.1, caption=

The convective heat transfer coefficients obtained by CFD at different wall temperatures and wind speeds

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
风速/(m·s–1)不同壁面温度下的平均对流换热系数
30 ℃200 ℃400 ℃
118.3018.0117.90
332.7532.3732.28
650.5050.1049.82
962.4063.4062.15
1275.3074.6274.45
1587.9086.9688.77
1899.7098.5398.34
21111.20109.75109.57
24122.10120.46120.31
27132.60131.05130.82
30142.90141.08140.83
), ArticleFig(id=1215700955799143109, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1210938733613449225, articleId=1215700945267245362, language=CN, label=表1, caption=

不同风速及壁温下CFD得到的对流换热系数

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
风速/(m·s–1)不同壁面温度下的平均对流换热系数
30 ℃200 ℃400 ℃
118.3018.0117.90
332.7532.3732.28
650.5050.1049.82
962.4063.4062.15
1275.3074.6274.45
1587.9086.9688.77
1899.7098.5398.34
21111.20109.75109.57
24122.10120.46120.31
27132.60131.05130.82
30142.90141.08140.83
), ArticleFig(id=1215700955920777932, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1210938733613449225, articleId=1215700945267245362, language=EN, label=Tab.2, caption=

Calculation methods of each part of the thermal model of molten salt tower solar receiver and the models performance

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
文献模型方法热边界条件模型维度计算公式模型性能
辐射热损失对流热损失熔盐得热量
[28]简化模型(HTM)均匀壁面温度二维(轴向、周向)(6)(13) 搭建了实验平台,在基本工况100%光功率、无风、2.3 kg/s质量流量、400 ℃入口温度下:数值模拟比热像仪测得壁面最高温度高约8 ℃,偏差为1.8%;仿真结果比热电偶测量的熔盐出口温度高约0.9 ℃,偏差为0.22%;将实验和模拟的吸热器背侧管道温度进行比较,选择的大多数点的温度在385~415 ℃之间
11个测量点中有10个测量点偏差为5%,1个测量点偏差不超过10%;在不同的质量流量、光功率和风速条件下,实验结果与仿真结果吻合较好,误差均小于5%
[13]多截面集总参数法辐射-对流耦合边界条件一维(轴向)(8)根据表1作插值(25)与Solar Two电站报告中1999年3月22日和24日100%负荷下实验数据对比;相同输入条件下,出口温度与实验数据相差小于1 ℃,吸热器效率比实验值约低0.4%~0.5%
[8]数值积分法求解瞬态模型均匀投入热流密度一维(轴向)(8)(18)—(19)(23)与文献[29]进行对比验证;选取瞬态过程结束后吸热器达到稳态平衡时的温度分布;模拟了2个工况;得到各管段处熔盐温度误差在±5 ℃以内;相对误差都在±1.5%以内
[9]均匀投入热流密度三维(26)同样选取瞬态过程结束后吸热器达到稳态平衡时的温度分布与文献[29]进行对比,得到的沿流动方向熔盐温度分布误差在±6 ℃以内
[20]集总参数法(LPM)均匀投入热流密度零维(8)(13)(27)与Solar Two实验数据比较。LPM模型和CFD模型计算结果与实验数据的差异很小;最大相对偏差均小于2.0%;将LPM模型和CFD模型进行对比,结果显示:瞬态过程CFD模型预测的出口温度上升时间是LPM模型的2倍以上;2个模型在稳态过程可得到基本相同的出口温度,绝对误差小于2.0 ℃
CFD投入辐射能作为体积热源三维CFD
[30]CFD同[20]三维CFD与Solar Two实验数据进行比较,采用文献[31]的多目标点瞄准策略,瞄准系数1.5;计算结果与实验结果的最大偏差小于1.0%,吻合较好
[4]有限元模型使用CFD计算得到的吸热器外表面与空气的对流换热系数;辐射-对流耦合边界条件二维(轴向、周向)(6) (29)与Solar Two实验数据比较,计算结果与实验数据吻合较好,中风速工况偏差较大
CFD三维CFD
[1,5]CFD 三维CFD 
简化模型(HTM)均匀壁面温度二维(轴向、周向)(6)(18)—(19)(25)或(26)与CFD模型进行对比,CFD模拟的熔盐出口温度略高于简化模型(HTM、HFFM),且每个管屏的误差几乎一致。HTM与CFD模拟最大熔盐温差位于吸热器出口处,约为17 ℃,相比于熔盐温升,温差约为7.5%;2个模型最大误差出现在最大风速工况,可能是因为外部对流换热系数计算差异导致,最小误差出现在质量流量最小时;HTM与CFD的管壁温度最大误差20 ℃,偏差2.5%
简化模型(HFFM)均匀投入热流密度
简化模型(SM)均匀投入热流密度一维(轴向)(8)与CFD模型进行对比。SM管壁温度至少偏差200 ℃,偏差30%,且最大管壁温度位置不同。太阳热通量越高,模型之间的差异就越明显
), ArticleFig(id=1215700956067578579, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1210938733613449225, articleId=1215700945267245362, language=CN, label=表2, caption=

熔盐塔式太阳能吸热器热模型各部分计算方法及模型性能

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
文献模型方法热边界条件模型维度计算公式模型性能
辐射热损失对流热损失熔盐得热量
[28]简化模型(HTM)均匀壁面温度二维(轴向、周向)(6)(13) 搭建了实验平台,在基本工况100%光功率、无风、2.3 kg/s质量流量、400 ℃入口温度下:数值模拟比热像仪测得壁面最高温度高约8 ℃,偏差为1.8%;仿真结果比热电偶测量的熔盐出口温度高约0.9 ℃,偏差为0.22%;将实验和模拟的吸热器背侧管道温度进行比较,选择的大多数点的温度在385~415 ℃之间
11个测量点中有10个测量点偏差为5%,1个测量点偏差不超过10%;在不同的质量流量、光功率和风速条件下,实验结果与仿真结果吻合较好,误差均小于5%
[13]多截面集总参数法辐射-对流耦合边界条件一维(轴向)(8)根据表1作插值(25)与Solar Two电站报告中1999年3月22日和24日100%负荷下实验数据对比;相同输入条件下,出口温度与实验数据相差小于1 ℃,吸热器效率比实验值约低0.4%~0.5%
[8]数值积分法求解瞬态模型均匀投入热流密度一维(轴向)(8)(18)—(19)(23)与文献[29]进行对比验证;选取瞬态过程结束后吸热器达到稳态平衡时的温度分布;模拟了2个工况;得到各管段处熔盐温度误差在±5 ℃以内;相对误差都在±1.5%以内
[9]均匀投入热流密度三维(26)同样选取瞬态过程结束后吸热器达到稳态平衡时的温度分布与文献[29]进行对比,得到的沿流动方向熔盐温度分布误差在±6 ℃以内
[20]集总参数法(LPM)均匀投入热流密度零维(8)(13)(27)与Solar Two实验数据比较。LPM模型和CFD模型计算结果与实验数据的差异很小;最大相对偏差均小于2.0%;将LPM模型和CFD模型进行对比,结果显示:瞬态过程CFD模型预测的出口温度上升时间是LPM模型的2倍以上;2个模型在稳态过程可得到基本相同的出口温度,绝对误差小于2.0 ℃
CFD投入辐射能作为体积热源三维CFD
[30]CFD同[20]三维CFD与Solar Two实验数据进行比较,采用文献[31]的多目标点瞄准策略,瞄准系数1.5;计算结果与实验结果的最大偏差小于1.0%,吻合较好
[4]有限元模型使用CFD计算得到的吸热器外表面与空气的对流换热系数;辐射-对流耦合边界条件二维(轴向、周向)(6) (29)与Solar Two实验数据比较,计算结果与实验数据吻合较好,中风速工况偏差较大
CFD三维CFD
[1,5]CFD 三维CFD 
简化模型(HTM)均匀壁面温度二维(轴向、周向)(6)(18)—(19)(25)或(26)与CFD模型进行对比,CFD模拟的熔盐出口温度略高于简化模型(HTM、HFFM),且每个管屏的误差几乎一致。HTM与CFD模拟最大熔盐温差位于吸热器出口处,约为17 ℃,相比于熔盐温升,温差约为7.5%;2个模型最大误差出现在最大风速工况,可能是因为外部对流换热系数计算差异导致,最小误差出现在质量流量最小时;HTM与CFD的管壁温度最大误差20 ℃,偏差2.5%
简化模型(HFFM)均匀投入热流密度
简化模型(SM)均匀投入热流密度一维(轴向)(8)与CFD模型进行对比。SM管壁温度至少偏差200 ℃,偏差30%,且最大管壁温度位置不同。太阳热通量越高,模型之间的差异就越明显
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熔盐塔式太阳能吸热器传热特性计算模型研究进展
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唐宪友 1 , 张亚南 1 , 李欣怡 2, 3 , 白凤武 2, 3 , 王志峰 2, 3
热力发电 | 技术经济综述 2024,53(7): 24-33
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热力发电 | 技术经济综述 2024, 53(7): 24-33
熔盐塔式太阳能吸热器传热特性计算模型研究进展
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唐宪友1 , 张亚南1, 李欣怡2, 3, 白凤武2, 3 , 王志峰2, 3
作者信息
  • 1.中国广核新能源控股有限公司,北京 100160
  • 2.中国科学院电工研究所,北京 100190
  • 3.中国科学院大学,北京 100190
  • 唐宪友(1987),男,硕士,高级工程师,研究方向为太阳能热发电,

通讯作者:

白凤武(1975),男,博士,研究员,研究方向为太阳能热发电系统中的吸热和储热机理及技术研发、强化传热机理研究等,
Research progress on calculation models of heat transfer characteristics of molten salt tower solar absorbers
Xianyou TANG1 , Yanan ZHANG1, Xinyi LI2, 3, Fengwu BAI2, 3 , Zhifeng WANG2, 3
Affiliations
  • 1.CGN New Energy Holdings Co., Ltd., Beijing 100160, China
  • 2.Institute of Electrical Engineering, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, China
  • 3.University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, China
出版时间: 2024-07-25 doi: 10.19666/j.rlfd.202403052
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熔盐塔式太阳能热发电技术是目前国际主流的光热发电技术,熔盐吸热器作为将太阳能转换为热能的核心设备,其性能直接影响系统发电效率,吸热器安全性影响电厂运行小时数。因此,建立熔盐吸热器传热模型,获得准确的传热特性十分重要。对主流的外置圆柱式熔盐吸热器的传热计算模型进行了系统梳理,总结了传热模型中投入辐射能、辐射热损失、对流热损失及熔盐得热量的计算过程及基本方法。根据计算结果的精细程度,吸热器传热模型分为详细模型和简化模型。详细模型的计算精度高,能细致反映实际能量转换过程,但计算成本较高,瞬态过程计算耗时多,但其特定工况的计算结果可为简化模型提供计算结果的验证参考。简化模型是对描述熔盐吸热器传热特性的理论模型做合理简化,在较为准确地完成计算的同时具备较快的计算速度,多用于吸热器设计阶段。通过各模型特点及性能的总结对比,可为熔盐吸热器热性能计算过程的传热模型选择提供技术指导。

熔盐塔式太阳能热发电技术  /  外置圆柱式吸热器  /  计算模型  /  热性能参数

The technology of concentrating solar power tower plant with molten salt is currently the predominant photothermal power generation technology globally. The performance of the molten salt receiver, which serves as the core device for converting solar energy into heat, directly influences the system’s power generation efficiency. Additionally, the safety of the receiver affects the operational hours of the power plant. Consequently, it is crucial to develop a heat transfer model for the molten salt receiver and ascertain its precise heat transfer characteristics. This paper systematically organizes the heat transfer calculation model for the mainstream external cylindrical molten salt receiver, delineating the calculation process and fundamental methods for input radiant energy, radiant heat loss, convective heat loss, and molten salt heat gain within the heat transfer model. Based on the refinement level of the calculation outcomes, the heat transfer model of the receiver is bifurcated into a detailed model and a simplified model. While the detailed model boasts high calculation accuracy, offering a comprehensive representation of the actual energy conversion process, it is computationally expensive and requires extended transient process calculations. Conversely, its specific working condition calculations serve as a verification reference for the simplified model’s results. The simplified model entails a judicious simplification of the theoretical model that describes the heat transfer characteristics of the molten salt receiver, facilitating faster calculations while maintaining accuracy. It is predominantly employed during the design phase. By comparing and contrasting the characteristics and performance of these models, technical guidance can be offered for selecting appropriate heat transfer models for thermal performance calculation processes in molten salt receivers.

molten salt tower solar thermal power generation technology  /  external cylindrical heat absorber  /  computational model  /  thermal performance parameters
唐宪友, 张亚南, 李欣怡, 白凤武, 王志峰. 熔盐塔式太阳能吸热器传热特性计算模型研究进展. 热力发电, 2024 , 53 (7) : 24 -33 . DOI: 10.19666/j.rlfd.202403052
Xianyou TANG, Yanan ZHANG, Xinyi LI, Fengwu BAI, Zhifeng WANG. Research progress on calculation models of heat transfer characteristics of molten salt tower solar absorbers[J]. Thermal Power Generation, 2024 , 53 (7) : 24 -33 . DOI: 10.19666/j.rlfd.202403052
太阳能热发电是绿色低碳的电网友好型电源,兼具调峰电源和储能的双重功能,可以为电力系统提供更好的长周期调峰能力和转动惯量,具备在部分区域作为调峰和基础性电源的潜力,是新能源安全可靠替代传统能源的有效手段,是加快规划建设新型能源体系的有效支撑。国家发改委、国家能源局、财政部等九部委印发《“十四五”可再生能源发展规划》提出:有序推进长时储热型太阳能热发电发展。在青海、甘肃、新疆、内蒙古、吉林等资源优质区域,发挥太阳能热发电储能调节能力和系统支撑能力,建设长时储热型太阳能热发电项目,推动太阳能热发电与风电、光伏发电基地一体化建设运行,提升新能源发电的稳定性和可靠性。发展光热发电能够保障可再生能源消纳、促进可再生能源更大规模接入电网。
熔盐塔式太阳能热发电系统可分为聚光、吸热、储换热和发电四大单元,主要由定日镜、吸热塔、吸热器、高低温熔盐储罐、蒸汽发生器和汽轮发电机组等组成。由于熔盐具有导热性好、热稳定性好、比热容大、黏度低、价格便宜等特点,目前工业上常选用二元硝酸熔盐由质量分数60% NaNO3和40% KNO3组成,将其作为传热流体和储热材料。
在熔盐塔式太阳能热发电系统中,定日镜场将太阳光反射汇聚到吸热塔顶部的吸热器上,熔盐吸收热量温度升高。熔盐吸热器是将太阳能转换为热能的核心设备,其性能直接影响系统的发电效率,其安全性影响电厂运行小时数。目前电站中使用的熔盐吸热器为外置圆柱式,吸热面由大量的吸热管排并联和串联组成,运行过程中,吸热器外表面需要耐受非稳定、非均匀的高通量太阳辐射能流的持续加热,通过吸热管内快速流过的熔盐进行冷却将热量带走。工作热环境恶劣,一旦吸热管表面超过许用温度或者吸热管内流动的熔盐超过使用温度,都会带来安全隐患。
本文系统梳理了外置圆柱式熔盐吸热器的传热过程,总结了计算过程的主要方法。
图1为外置圆柱式吸热器示意,外置圆柱式熔盐吸热器由数块吸热管屏组成,各管屏间采用串联方式,蛇形布置于吸热塔外表面(图1a))。每块吸热管屏由数根吸热管组成,同一管屏内各吸热管并联布置(图1b))。管屏两端布置进出口联箱,用于均匀熔盐温度。吸热管外表面涂有选择性吸收涂层,常选用高吸收率、低反射率的材料,更好地吸收太阳能量同时降低辐射热损失。根据运行需要,熔盐以一定质量流量从吸热器入口流入,流经各吸热管并与管壁发生对流换热,被加热升温,实现太阳能至熔盐热能的转换。
外置圆柱式熔盐吸热器的横截面如图2所示,一个完整的吸热器模型应该能描述图2中的物理过程,包括太阳辐射能投入吸热器表面的被吸收和被反射过程、吸热器外表面与外环境间的辐射换热、吸热器外表面同大气中空气的对流换热过程、吸热管内的导热过程以及吸热管内壁面与管内熔盐的对流换热。吸热管背侧设置保温层,在保温良好的情况下,吸热管与保温层间空气层导热损失通常较小,可以忽略。
上述物理过程所涉及的物理量可通过能量守恒方程建立联系:
Qinc=Qref+Qrad+Qcon+Qw+Qf
式中:Qinc为投入辐射能;Qref为反射热损失;Qrad为辐射热损失;Qcon为对流热损失;Qw为吸热管获得热量;Qf为熔盐获得热量;以上单位均为W。
将熔盐得热量与吸热器表面投入辐射能的比值称为吸热器热效率。当吸热器达到稳态时,管壁温度不再改变,即吸热管得热量为0,此时吸热器热效率计算公式为:
η=α1+Qrad+QconQf
式中:α为选择性吸收涂层的吸收率。
熔盐得热量使用进出口焓差进行计算:
Qf=m˙f(houthin)
式中:m˙f为熔盐质量流量,kg/s;hinhout分别为熔盐进口焓值及出口焓值,J/kg。
当吸热器受到外部干扰时,如投入辐射能、熔盐质量流量发生变化,其出口温度也会随之改变,达到另一稳定状态。将吸热器出口温度从新稳定值的10%上升到90%所需的时间称为上升时间τr
太阳射线在定日镜场中的传播过程如图3所示。由图3可见,太阳光线照射到定日镜表面,经反射投入吸热器表面,即为投入辐射能。通过光学模型进行模拟可以得到吸热器表面热流密度分布,作为边界条件添加到热模型中,投入辐射能计算公式为:
Qinc=qincA
式中:qinc为投入辐射热流密度,W/m2A为吸热器接收太阳辐照面积,m2
投射至吸热器表面的能量仅部分被吸收,其余能量被反射到环境,可由公式(5)计算:
Qref=(1α)Qinc
图1所示,吸热管环绕柱体表面垂直布置。吸热管背侧为绝热层,无辐射换热;前侧朝向外界,吸收太阳能,吸热器外表面与环境存在较大温差,吸热器向环境辐射能量,形成辐射热损失。由于吸热管表面为曲面,使相邻吸热管的管段间也存在辐射换热过程,准确地建立吸热器各表面间的辐射换热模型对吸热器热性能评估十分重要。
最常见的吸热器辐射换热模型是考虑管壁温度轴向和周向变化的二维模型[1]图4),研究单元由2个面对面的半管、1个绝热后表面(保温层)及1个假设对太阳辐射完全透明的前表面组成。通过前表面辐射至环境的能量即为辐射热损失。
模型假设辐射换热仅存在于相邻管子之间,使用辐射因子计算相邻2个吸热管间的辐射换热。由于网格高度与宽度的比值较大,将网格视为无限长区域,即2根无限长的直线,采用Modest MF[2]的十字交叉法计算辐射换热因子,然后根据净辐射法采用式(6)计算各表面间的辐射换热。基于每个轴向步长Δz内研究单元中各表面向外辐射能量的平衡,建立辐射平衡方程(式(6))。对每个轴向步长分别求解该方程:
m=0,1,...,Ns+1[δm,0ε0(1ε01)Fm,0]q0''σ+j=1Ns[δm,jεj(1εj1)Fm,j]qj''σ[δm,Ns+1Fm,Ns+1]TNs+14=[δm,0Fm,0]T04+j=1Ns[δm,jFm,j]Tj4[δm,Ns+1εNs+1(1εNs+11)Fm,Ns+1]qNs+1''σFm,0qh""σα
式中:保温层和环境对应的角标分别为Ns+1和0;T为表面温度,K;δ为克罗内克函数;F为辐射换热因子;ε为不同表面的发射率;σ为Stefan-Boltzmann常数,取5.67×10-8 W/(m2·K⁴);模型认为保温层绝热,因此qNs+1''设为0;qh''为投入辐射热流密度,W/m2q0''为吸热管与环境间单位面积上辐射换热量,即为单位面积辐射热损失,W/m2
环境温度T0根据Berger等人[3]提出的式(7)进行计算:
T04=εskyTsky4+εgrTgr4εsky+εgr
式中:εskyεgr分别为天空和地面的发射率;TskyTgr分别为天空和地面的温度,K。
图5为吸热管屏模型微元。Fritsch等人[4]将上述模型进行简化,将吸热管离散为投影表面,使吸热管屏简化为矩形面板,称为准一维模型(图5b))。由于各管段及保温层间不存在辐射因子,即仅考虑了管屏与环境间的辐射换热过程。将该模型与图5a)中的二维模型进行对比。
需保证准一维模型的矩形面板和吸热管的壁厚及横截面积一致。另外,由于吸热管为圆柱形,2个模型的受热面积存在差异,需通过修正因子补足该差异。将准一维模型的入射辐射能乘以π/2、对流换热系数乘以π/2、管内强制对流换热系数乘以πdi/da,从而统一模拟条件。对比结果显示:准一维模型的辐射热损失明显更高。这是因为该模型仅考虑了受辐照侧的轴向温度差异,使得参与辐射换热的有效辐射温度较高,辐射热损失与有效辐射温度的四次方成正比,导致了准一维模型更高的辐射热损失。
更简化的模型仅考虑轴向上的温度差异,称为一维模型,可由式(8)计算辐射热损失。研究表明,该模型由于低估了壁面温度,会导致辐射热损失计算结果偏低[5]
Qrad=εσA(Two4T04)
式中:A为管壁与空气接触面积,m2,即前侧表面积;Two为吸热管外壁面温度,K。
SAM软件[6]在式(8)的基础上引入辐射换热因子。从吸热塔到周围环境的一个圆柱体(吸热管)的辐射换热因子使用EES(engineering equation solver)进行计算。模型如图6[6]所示,圆柱体两侧与相同直径的平行圆柱体相邻,所有柱体位于一个平面上。计算得到的辐射换热因子为0.636 6。假设相邻吸热管非常靠近或互相接触,将管的有效面积调整为管的投影面积(外径乘以管的高度)。
此外,同时考虑环境空气温度和有效天空温度。采用式(9)—式(11)进行计算:
Qrad,0=εσAF0(Two4T04)
Qrad,sky=εσAFsky(Two4Tsky4)
Tsky=T0(0.711+5.6×103Tdew+7.3×105Tdew2+0.013cos((18015h180)π))14
式中:Qrad,0Qrad,sky分别为吸热管与环境空气和天空的辐射换热量,W;F0Fsky分别为吸热管与环境和天空的辐射换热因子;Tsky为有效天空温度,K;Tdew为露点温度,K;h为时间点。
外置圆柱式熔盐吸热器的管屏直接暴露在空气中,吸热管外壁面与空气进行对流换热造成热损失。除壁面温度、环境温度和吸热器几何尺寸外,风速的变化也对对流热损失存在一定影响。传热模型常综合考虑自然对流换热和强制对流换热,利用混合换热系数表示吸热器外表面与环境空气间的对流换热强度。假设对流换热系数在吸热管表面均匀分布,强制对流和自然对流的流动方向彼此垂直,由平均混合对流换热系数计算对流热损失[7]
Qcon=hm¯A(TwoT0)
hm¯=(hfc¯a+hnc¯a)1a
式中:hm为平均混合对流换热系数,W/(m2·K);A为换热面,m2,取πDHD为吸热器直径,m;H为吸热器高度,m;hfc为平均强制对流换热系数,W/(m2·K);hnc为平均自然对流换热系数,W/(m2·K);圆柱式吸热器取系数a=3.2[7]
对流换热系数一般可以通过经验公式或计算流体动力学(CFD)模型计算得到。
在无风状态下,认为吸热器表面仅存在自然对流换热过程。Siebers等人[7]以及徐立等[8-9]将外置圆柱式吸热器看作多个具有垂直肋骨的高温竖直曲面,考虑圆柱效应曲率的影响,采用式(14)计算自然对流换热的努塞特数(Nu),式(14)与实验数据拟合范围在±6%以内[10];王沛[11]将吸热管屏表面的自然对流过程简化为平板大空间的自然对流换热,使用式(15)进行计算。
NuH=0.098π2GrH13(TwoT0)0.14
NuH=0.11(GrHPr)13
GrH=gβ(TwoT0)H3υ2
hnc¯=kNuHH
式中:GrH为以吸热器高度H作为特征长度的无量纲数;取空气膨胀系数β=1/T0νk分别为空气运动黏度(m2/s)及导热系数(W/(m·K));上述参数均以环境温度T0作为特征温度。
在有风状态下,一般采用空气横掠单管模型模拟外置圆柱式吸热器与空气间的强制对流换热过程。Achenbach E[12]采用式(18)计算空气横掠光滑柱体的强制对流的Nu
NuD=0.18ReD0.63
考虑到吸热器柱体表面有吸热管半圆柱凸出,引入相对粗糙度ζ(吸热管半径与吸热器直径的比值)。不同的相对粗糙度在一定ReD范围内使用不同的经验公式进行计算:
{ζ=75×105:NuD=0.00257ReD0.98,1×106<ReD4×106ζ=300×105:NuD=0.01350ReD0.89,3×105<ReD4×106ζ=900×105:NuD=0.04550ReD0.81,3×105<ReD4×106
若强制对流的雷诺数小于公式(19)中各式ReD的下限值,则使用式(18)进行计算。
Siebers等人[7]根据式(18)及表1中经验公式采用插值的方法得到强制对流的Nu计算公式。用美国SolarTwo塔式电站吸热器的几何参数举例,相对粗糙度约为4.31×10–3,则使用经验公式进行插值,即通过式(20)、式(21)计算得到Nu
NuD=K×0.0135ReD0.89+(1K)×0.0455ReD0.81
K=(431300)/600
得到强制对流的Nu后,可通过式(22)计算平均强制对流换热系数:
hfc¯=kNuDD
式中:NuD为以吸热器直径D作为特征长度的无量纲数;上述参数均以吸热管外壁面温度和环境温度的算术平均值作为特征温度。
对于设计完成的吸热器,即吸热器结构尺寸确定,建立详细的CFD模型模拟吸热器与环境空气间的对流换热过程,得到不同风速及壁面温度对应的对流换热系数,用于计算该吸热器在不同工况下的对流热损失。Yu等人[13]选择30 ℃壁温作为代表温度,基于特定吸热器结构使用表1[14]中数据,通过插值的方法计算对流换热系数。
CFD建模过程中为了更好地模拟边界层,靠近吸热器外壁面的网格必须非常精细,模型计算量巨大。为了降低计算成本,可以对详细CFD模型进行部分简化。Uhilg R等[15]提出了3种不同精度的CFD计算模型模拟不同风速下的Nu,并与经验公式计算结果进行对比。结果显示:当忽略吸热器的有限长度及端部绝热条件时,对流换热系数增高,且其差异几乎与风速成线性相关(5 m/s相差5%、20 m/s相差15%);当忽略由吸热管曲面造成的不平整结构,风速为20 m/s时,计算得到的Nu将降低20%。
熔盐在吸热管中流动过程与管道内壁面发生对流换热,从管壁带走热量提升温度。由于吸热管的管径较小,多数模型忽略了熔盐径向温度差异,认为熔盐径向温度分布均匀。仅考虑管内熔盐沿轴向温度传递过程,即为一维模型。各文献使用的经验公式略有不同,多为基于经典的管内单相流体对流换热计算公式,部分通过与以熔盐作为传热工质的实验数据对比修正,得到适用于圆管内熔盐对流换热计算的经验公式。将所涉及公式总结如下:
Xu等人[8]使用了典型光滑圆管内充分发展湍流方程Dittus-Boelter公式[16],该公式的适用范围为:0.6≤Pr≤160,Re≥104H/d≥10。
Nu=0.023Re0.8Pr0.4
常春[17]对公式(23)进行了修正,得到了适用于变物性熔盐在非均匀受热圆管内对流换热的公式:
Nu(θ)={Re0.49(PrPr*)0.2(0.78+0.91sinθ),3 410<Re<1×104Re0.54(PrPr*)0.2(0.75+0.88sinθ),1×104Re<9×104
式中:Pr*为熔盐在425 ℃时的普朗特数。
Yu等人等[13]使用了适用于熔盐在吸热管内流动状态达充分发展湍流的Gnielinski公式[18],该公式的适用范围为:0.6<Pr≤105,2 300<Re<106
{Nu¯=(f/8)(Re1000)Pr[1+(di/L)2/3]1+12.7(Pr2/31)f/8(PrPrw)0.1f=1(1.82lgRe1.64)2
Xu[9]和Wang[19]等均使用了适用于0.5≤Pr≤2 000,3 000≤Re≤5×106的Gnielinski湍流经验公式[16]
{Nu=(f/8)(Re1000)Pr1+12.7(Pr2/31)f/8f=1(0.79lnRe1.64)2
Wang等人[20]使用了适用于较宽Re数范围及温度区间的熔盐的对流换热公式[21],该公式适用范围为:3.3≤Pr≤34,104Re≤105,1.01≤μ/μw≤1.31。
Nu=0.0154Re0.853Pr0.35(μμw)0.14
王沛[11]使用了根据实验结果修正的可适用于熔盐的Sieder-Tate公式[22],该公式适用于12.7≤Pr≤14.7,1.7×104Re≤4.5×104
Nu=0.024Re0.81Pr1/3(μμw)0.14
Fritsch等人[4]使用了采用VDI得到的实验相关性经验公式[23],该公式的适用范围为:0.1≤Pr≤1 000,104Re≤106
{Nu=(f/8)RePr[1+(di/L)2/3]1+12.7(Pr2/31)f/8f=1(1.8lgRe1.5)2
得到吸热管内对流换热Nu后,代入式(30)、式(31),即可得到熔盐得热量:
h=Nukdi
Qf=hA(TwiTf)
式中:h为管内对流换热系数,W/(m2·K);k为熔盐导热系数,W/(m·K);di为吸热管内径,m;Twi为管内壁面温度,K;Tf为熔盐温度,K。
研究表明,熔盐内部温度变化对吸热器热性能存在一定影响。Fritsch等人[4]使用详细的CFD模型和一维简化有限元模型模拟单根吸热管,结果显示:管壁热通量不变的稳态过程差异很小,仅在吸热管受热侧存在较小的壁面温度差异;改变热通量的瞬态过程2个模型均能很好地适应表面热通量的突变,相比之下有限元模型比CFD模型效果更好。因此,熔盐内部温度变化对单根吸热管的热性能影响不大。然而单管与真正的吸热器仍存在较大差异,Wang等人[20]使用集总参数模型与详细的CFD模型对吸热器的稳态和瞬态性能进行了预测,结果显示:用CFD模型预测的出口温度达到稳态所需的时间是集总参数模型预测的2倍以上,说明熔盐内部温度分布对吸热器瞬态热性能的影响较大、对稳态过程影响很小。
太阳能热发电站的设计和分析中,有详细模型和简化模型[24] 2种主要的模拟技术。
在吸热器结构参数的约束下,依据高时间、空间精度的瞬时气候、太阳通量分布及吸热器工作状态等条件,详细模拟多物理场的变化过程。详细模型在本质上属于数值型传热模型,依赖于商业CFD模拟软件的计算速度,需经数千次迭代计算解决管内熔盐流动换热、管壁热传导及与环境间热能交换的耦合过程,对数值计算方法提出了较高要求[25]。CFD模拟的计算成本与网格元素的数量成正比,对于塔式光热电站中规模较大的吸热器,对其进行瞬态分析需要求解的模型计算成本过高。在实际工程应用中,吸热器的测量费用十分昂贵,甚至无法直接测量,且简化模型对于吸热器表面的局部热斑块呈现存在一定偏差。因此,数值模拟常使用CFD模型探究单根吸热管或单块管屏的稳态及瞬态热力学特性、整个吸热器的稳态热力学特性,并用作简化模型的可靠性验证。
CFD模型将流体力学控制方程中的积分、微分项近似地表示为离散的代数形式,使其成为代数方程组,再通过计算机求解该代数方程组。控制方程包括连续性方程、能量方程、动量方程及能量耗散方程。其中能量耗散方程由于吸热器管内流动的熔盐Re数在1 126~26 299内,为湍流流动,且湍流工程计算中使用最广泛的双方程模型为标准k-ε湍流模型,该模型更易于计算近壁面场[26],因此采用该模型进行计算。完整的控制方程如下。
连续性方程:
ρt+(ρu)x+(ρv)y+(ρw)z=0
式中:ρ为熔盐密度,kg/m3t为时间,s;uvw分别为xyz轴上的速度分量,m/s。
能量方程:
(ρcpT)t+(ρuicpT)xi=xi[cp(μPr+μtPrt)Txi]+ST
式中:xi (i=1, 2, 3)分别代表xyz轴;cp为熔盐定压比热容,J/(kg·K);T为熔盐温度,K;μμt分别为熔盐黏性系数和湍流黏性系数,kg/(m2·s);PrPrt分别为熔盐普朗特数和湍流普朗特数;ST为源项。
动量方程:
(ρui)t+(ρuiuj)xj=pxi+xj[μ(uixj+ujxi23ulxlδij)]+xj[μt(uixj+ujxi)23(ρk+uixi)δij]
式中:uiuj(i, j=1, 2, 3)分别为ij方向上的速度分量,m/s;p为熔盐压力,Pa;k为湍流动能,m2/s2δij(当i=j时,δij=1;当ij时,δij=0)为克罗内克δ函数。
能量耗散方程:
(ρk)t+(ρkuj)xj=xj[(μ+μtσk)kxj]+μtuixj(uixj+ujxi)ρε
(ρε)t+(ρεuk)xk=xk[(μ+μtσε)εxk]+C1εkμtuixj(uixj+ujxi)C2ρε2k
μt=ρCμk2ε
式中:ε为湍流耗散率,m2/s3σkσεC1C2Cμ均为经验系数,通过与实验数据比对确定。
简化模型尝试依据塔式光热电站的运行过程,采用合理假设,忽略了大多数物理量的详细变化过程,从而以较低计算成本模拟吸热器运行的复杂变化过程。通常模型采用半经验公式,依据质量守恒和能量平衡方程建立。目前,最新的简化模型将电站的宏观分析与特定参数的具体模拟相结合,再现电站运行过程,为太阳能吸热器的分析与发展提供了重要信息[27]
表2为现有熔盐塔式太阳能吸热器热模型各部分计算方法及模型性能总结。
模型可靠性通常采用实验数据进行验证,为更直观地对比各模型性能,将采用美国Solar Two电站实验数据进行验证的计算模型各工况下热效率及热效率绝对误差区间分别总结于图7图8中。图7图8中包含了来源于4篇文献的5种吸热器热模型,各模型热效率计算结果与美国Solar Two电站实验数据的绝对误差均在±2%以内,均具有较高的准确性。热效率绝对误差显示文献[13]的多截面集总参数法的准确性最高。然而,由于每个模型进行可靠性验证的工况数量不同,以上5种模型的热效率绝对误差大小无法准确反映最优模型。文献[4]的有限元模型和文献[13]的多截面集总参数法采用2—3个实验数据点进行验证,后者对吸热器热效率的预测准确性更高,最大热效率绝对误差仅有–0.5%;文献[20]的集总参数法和CFD软件计算以及文献[30]的CFD计算采用5—7个数据点验证,集总参数法模拟得到的热效率绝对误差更小,最大热效率绝对误差仅-0.9%,而2个CFD模型的热效率绝对误差分布关于y=0.0近似对称,即误差在正半轴和负半轴均匀分布。
在外置圆柱式熔盐吸热器的数值模型中,CFD模拟过程的精度高、与实际情况偏差最小,但其较高的计算成本导致很难应用于吸热器的瞬态过程计算。在无法获得实验数据时,CFD的精确计算结果通常被用作简化模型的稳态工况或瞬态过程热性能计算结果正确性的验证依据。简化模型通常使用有限数量的离散节点单元,通过质量平衡和能量平衡方程来计算管道的温度及热损失,其精度取决于采用的模型分辨率及建模方法。简化模型在某些方面与详细模型相似,即将吸热器离散为局部单元的网格并经过多次迭代求解,但简化模型采用了部分经验公式处理吸热器表面给定热边界条件,而非在大的求解域上求解质量、动量和能量守恒方程,其计算节点更少、迭代收敛更快。因此,采用合理的简化模型可以为吸热器设计和分析提供较为精确的结果,计算成本更低,可以相对快速地计算吸热器表面温度、熔盐温度和热效率。
准确建立吸热器表面的热边界条件需建立三维简化模型(径向、轴向、周向),该模型能结合光学软件提供的真实热流密度分布作为吸热器表面添加的热边界条件,考虑了吸热器与定日镜场间的复杂联系,更贴近实际,是简化模型中准确度最高的模型。为保证吸热器安全运行,有效避免吸热管被腐蚀、热应力过大和产生疲劳等严重问题,需建立三维瞬态模型并根据吸热管内表面最大周向温差及最大径向温差对吸热器运行安全进行评估。
二维简化模型(轴向、周向)通过使用理想的热边界条件(均匀壁温、均匀热流密度)对单根吸热管的传热过程进行模拟,从而大大降低了模型计算成本。该模型能够准确计算出整个吸热器的温度场分布及热效率,计算速度优于三维模型,并且能够获得较为准确的管壁温度,有效预测膜温。可用于一般的机械可靠性分析及吸热器配置优化。
一维简化模型仅在轴向上将吸热管离散为多个单元,该模型仅能对吸热器热效率进行估算,其计算得到管壁温度存在较大误差,管壁温度约降低了30%[1]。因此不适于设计优化和机械可靠性研究。但一维模型可通过快速计算瞬态过程中的理想质量流量来辅助三维模型,加快三维模型计算速度。
通过对外置圆柱式熔盐吸热器传热特性计算模型调研发现:围绕塔式太阳能热发电系统中柱式吸热器展开的研究多为数值模型开发及结构优化,模型验证所采用实验数据多来源于美国Solar Two电站的技术报告,相对来说,可供模型参考的实验数据较少,期望今后研究中能更多关注柱式熔盐吸热器传热性能的实验研究,通过详尽的实验数据验证理论模型准确性,实验研究和计算模型研究互为补充,通过理论分析和精确计算指导工程应用。
  • 国家自然科学基金(51976213)
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2024年第53卷第7期
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doi: 10.19666/j.rlfd.202403052
  • 接收时间:2024-03-20
  • 首发时间:2026-01-07
  • 出版时间:2024-07-25
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  • 收稿日期:2024-03-20
基金
National Natural Science Foundation of China(51976213)
国家自然科学基金(51976213)
作者信息
    1.中国广核新能源控股有限公司,北京 100160
    2.中国科学院电工研究所,北京 100190
    3.中国科学院大学,北京 100190

通讯作者:

白凤武(1975),男,博士,研究员,研究方向为太阳能热发电系统中的吸热和储热机理及技术研发、强化传热机理研究等,
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2种不同金属材料的力学参数

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鹅膏菌科Amanitaceae 2 11 5.26 鹅膏菌属 Amanita 10 4.78
小菇科 Mycenaceae 2 12 5.74 丝盖伞属 Inocybe 5 2.39
多孔菌科 Polyporaceae 8 14 6.70 蜡蘑属 Laccaria 5 2.39
红菇科 Russulaceae 3 23 11.00 小皮伞属 Marasmius 6 2.87
小菇属 Mycena 11 5.26
光柄菇属 Pluteus 5 2.39
红菇属 Russula 17 8.13
栓菌属 Trametes 5 2.39
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