Article(id=1295068191470940266, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1210938733613449225, issueId=1295068190569164906, articleNumber=null, orderNo=null, doi=10.19666/j.rlfd.202510048, pmid=null, cstr=null, oa=null, hot=null, price=null, onlineType=0, articleFormat=0, articleType=null, articleTypeStr=null, receivedDate=1761148800000, receivedDateStr=2025-10-23, revisedDate=1763654400000, revisedDateStr=2025-11-21, acceptedDate=1764777600000, acceptedDateStr=2025-12-04, onlineDate=1786697918050, onlineDateStr=2026-08-14, pubDate=1782316800000, pubDateStr=2026-06-25, doiRegisterDate=null, doiRegisterDateStr=null, onlineIssueDate=1786697918050, onlineIssueDateStr=2026-08-14, onlineJustAcceptDate=null, onlineJustAcceptDateStr=null, onlineFirstDate=null, onlineFirstDateStr=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, createTime=1786697918050, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1786697918050, updator=13701087609, issue=Issue{id=1295068190569164906, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1210938733613449225, year='2026', volume='55', issue='6', pageStart='1', pageEnd='192', issueExtLink='null', onlineDate='null', pubDate='1782316800000', pubDateStr='2026-06-25', beforeIssueId=null, nextIssueId=null, price=null, status=1, issueComplete=1, articleOrder=1, issueType=1, specialIssue=null, createTime=1786697917835, creator='13701087609', updateTime=1786698816898, updator='13701087609', preIssue=null, nextIssue=null, articleTotal=null, ext={EN=IssueExt(id=1295071961596584952, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1210938733613449225, issueId=1295068190569164906, language=EN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=), CN=IssueExt(id=1295071961596584953, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1210938733613449225, issueId=1295068190569164906, language=CN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=)}, issueFiles=null, downloadFileDto=null}, startPage=1, endPage=14, ext={EN=ArticleExt(id=1295068192276246636, articleId=1295068191470940266, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1210938733613449225, language=EN, title=Research progress on electrically heated solid particle thermal energy storage technology, columnId=1295068192175583339, journalTitle=Thermal Power Generation, columnName=Technical and economic reciew, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=
[Objective]

With the rapid growth of renewable energy under the goals of carbon peaking and carbon neutrality, power systems face increasing demand for long-duration energy storage and flexible peak regulation. Electrically heated solid particle thermal energy storage (TES) is a promising option because it offers high operating temperature, wide storage temperature range, low-cost storage media, good thermal stability, clean electric-to-thermal conversion, and strong potential for integration with renewable energy systems and coal-fired power plants. This paper aims to clarify the research progress, major bottlenecks, and future directions of this technology.

[Analysis]

This paper reviews electrically heated solid particle TES from the perspectives of heating principles, representative devices, application scenarios, and key scientific and engineering issues. Two major routes, resistance heating and induction heating, are discussed in detail. For resistance heating, both indirect and direct modes are considered. Indirect resistance heating transfers heat from electric heating elements to particles through conduction, convection, and radiation. It has advantages such as simple structure, mature equipment, and good controllability, but it also suffers from additional thermal resistance and heat loss. Direct resistance heating allows conductive particles or conductive particle networks to generate Joule heat directly, which improves heating compactness and electric-to-thermal efficiency, while also introducing challenges related to conductivity stability, local overheating, oxidation resistance, and the formation of reliable conductive paths. Induction heating provides non-contact heating and rapid thermal response, and is attractive for high-temperature applications. However, its performance depends strongly on frequency, magnetic field intensity, coil design, particle size, electrical conductivity, magnetic permeability, and temperature-dependent material properties. In addition, induction heating systems often face higher equipment cost, cooling demand, and lower overall efficiency in practical applications. Representative devices for solid particle heating, including tubular heaters, plate heaters, fluidized-bed heaters, and moving-bed heaters, are also summarized. Tubular and plate heaters are relatively mature and suitable for small- and medium-scale systems, whereas fluidized-bed and moving-bed configurations show better heat transfer performance and greater potential for high-power and continuous operation. At the same time, they involve more complex issues such as particle flow stability, pressure drop, abrasion, temperature uniformity, and model accuracy. This paper further discusses key challenges, including high-temperature particle flow and heat transfer mechanisms, optimization of electric heating efficiency, durability of particle materials under thermal cycling, cost control, and coordinated operation with coal-fired power plants.

[Conclusion]

Electrically heated solid particle TES is a promising technical route for renewable energy integration, long-duration energy storage, and flexible operation of coal-fired power plants. Resistance heating is currently more mature and economically competitive, while induction heating has advantages in non-contact heating, rapid response, and high-temperature adaptability, but still requires progress in efficiency improvement, cost reduction, and particle material matching. Future research should focus on multi-field coupled particle flow and heat transfer, low-cost and high-performance particle materials, modular electric heating devices, heat loss control, and coordinated control strategies, so as to promote the scale-up, industrialization, and commercialization of this technology.

, authors=Yue YU1, 2, Guoliang SONG1, 2, authorsList=Yue YU, Guoliang SONG, authorCompany=null, correspAuthors=Guoliang SONG, authorNote=null, correspAuthorsNote=null, copyrightStatement=null, copyrightOwner=null, extLink=null, articleAbsUrl=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, pdfUrl=null, pdf=null, pdfFileSize=null, pdfExtLink=null, richHtmlUrl=null, mobilePdfUrl=null, reviewReport=null, pdfFirstPage=null, abstractGraph=null, abstractGraphContent=null, abstractVideo=null, citation=null, cebUrl=null, magXmlContent=null, mapNumber=null, fund=null), CN=ArticleExt(id=1295068196139200641, articleId=1295068191470940266, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1210938733613449225, language=CN, title=电加热固体颗粒储热技术研究进展, columnId=1213131706056491400, journalTitle=热力发电, columnName=技术经济综述, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=
【目的】

在“碳达峰”“碳中和”背景下,我国可再生能源装机规模持续攀升,但其间歇性、波动性特征,对电力系统长时储能能力和灵活调峰性能提出了更高要求。电加热高温固体颗粒储热技术凭借加热温度高、储热温区宽、材料成本低、介质热稳定性好、系统环境友好且与新能源和煤电系统耦合潜力突出等优势,受到行业广泛关注。为明确该技术的发展现状、关键瓶颈及未来研究方向,本文对其研究进展进行了系统梳理与综述。

【分析】

本文围绕电阻加热和感应加热两类典型方式,系统梳理了其基本原理、传热特征、适用颗粒材料及代表性装置核心参数,重点对比了间接电阻加热、直接电阻加热和感应加热三类技术在电热转换效率、温度均匀性、设备复杂度、材料适配性及工程放大可行性方面的差异;总结了管式、板式、流化床和移动床等典型加热装置的适用场景和技术特点;进一步分析了高温颗粒流动传热机理、电加热效率优化、颗粒材料高温稳定性、系统全生命周期成本控制以及与燃煤机组耦合运行过程中的关键问题。现有研究表明,电阻加热技术成熟度较高、结构相对简单,在大规模颗粒储热系统中具有较好的工程可实施性;感应加热具有非接触、响应速度快和高温适应性强等显著优势,但在当前仍存在电磁转换效率偏低、设备成本较高、线圈冷却难度大和材料选择受限等技术挑战。

【结论】

综上,电加热高温固体颗粒储热技术是支撑新能源高比例消纳和煤电灵活调峰改造的重要潜在技术路径。未来研究重点需要聚焦高温颗粒多场耦合流动与换热机理、低成本高性能颗粒材料开发、模块化电加热装置、高效保温与热损控制技术,以及储热系统多环节协同调控策略等核心方向,加快推动该技术实现规模化、工业化与商业化的应用发展。

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余跃(2002),男,硕士研究生,主要研究方向为固体颗粒储热技术,

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宋国良(1975),男,博士,研究员,主要研究方向为循环流化床锅炉深度灵活调峰技术,
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The Institute of Engineering Thermophysics has made new progress in the pilot-scale research on MW-class high-temperature solid particle thermal energy storage[EB/OL]. (2025-09-24) [2025-11-18]. http://www.etp.ac.cn/news/kyjz/202509/t20250924_7976813.html., articleTitle=The Institute of Engineering Thermophysics has made new progress in the pilot-scale research on MW-class high-temperature solid particle thermal energy storage, refAbstract=null)], funds=[Fund(id=1295068203340820660, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1210938733613449225, articleId=1295068191470940266, awardId=XDA29010100, language=EN, fundingSource=Strategic Priority Research Program of the Chinese Academy of Science(XDA29010100), fundOrder=null, country=null), Fund(id=1295068203412123829, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1210938733613449225, articleId=1295068191470940266, awardId=XDA29010100, language=CN, fundingSource=中国科学院战略性先导科技专项课题(XDA29010100), fundOrder=null, country=null)], companyList=[AuthorCompany(id=1295068196499910786, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1210938733613449225, articleId=1295068191470940266, xref=1., 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Reference physical properties of direct resistance heating materials

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
材料类型代表材料电学/热学参数适用性应用难点
碳基材料石墨室温电阻率为450~1 200 μΩ·m;热导率为40~130 W/(m·K)导电性好、升温快430~570 ℃开始出现明显氧化问题,1 000 ℃空气下不宜长期暴露应用
导电陶瓷碳化硅空气炉氛围下温度最高约为1 600 ℃抗氧化、耐高温电阻随温度和老化情况变化,需要可调节电源
金属材料不锈钢、铁基合金电阻率通常为10–7~10–6 Ω·m导电强,可快速导通电阻过低,容易短路和局部过热;高温氧化、烧结
复合材料SiC-石墨、陶瓷-碳可兼顾导电、储热、抗氧化性等特性制造工艺复杂,长期循环稳定性和磨损特性仍需验证
), ArticleFig(id=1295068201474355377, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1210938733613449225, articleId=1295068191470940266, language=CN, label=表1, caption=

直接电阻加热材料参考物性

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
材料类型代表材料电学/热学参数适用性应用难点
碳基材料石墨室温电阻率为450~1 200 μΩ·m;热导率为40~130 W/(m·K)导电性好、升温快430~570 ℃开始出现明显氧化问题,1 000 ℃空气下不宜长期暴露应用
导电陶瓷碳化硅空气炉氛围下温度最高约为1 600 ℃抗氧化、耐高温电阻随温度和老化情况变化,需要可调节电源
金属材料不锈钢、铁基合金电阻率通常为10–7~10–6 Ω·m导电强,可快速导通电阻过低,容易短路和局部过热;高温氧化、烧结
复合材料SiC-石墨、陶瓷-碳可兼顾导电、储热、抗氧化性等特性制造工艺复杂,长期循环稳定性和磨损特性仍需验证
), ArticleFig(id=1295068203147882674, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1210938733613449225, articleId=1295068191470940266, language=EN, label=Tab.2, caption=

Common electric heating devices for solid particles

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
加热装置参考传热系数/(W·m–2·K–1应用场景应用情况核心参数
管式加热器50~120小型储热系统、实验平台小规模套管式电加热器[42]设计加热温度:300~700 ℃
板式加热器100~250连续式换热模块、颗粒输送系统小规模板式颗粒电加热器[43]设计加热温度:700~800 ℃
流化床加热器200~400快速响应储热系统、大功率装置基于流化床的固体颗粒储能装置[44]小规模设计加热温度:1 000~1 500 ℃
集中式太阳能(CSP)的粒子电加热系统[37]设计规模:50~500 MW
设计加热温度:1 000~1 200 ℃
移动床加热器20~120工业级连续颗粒储热系统径向移动床反应装置[45]设计加热功率:40~3 400 kW
一种用于热能储存的移动床粒子电加热器[46]设计加热温度:500~1 200 ℃
设计加热功率:54 kW
), ArticleFig(id=1295068203231768755, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1210938733613449225, articleId=1295068191470940266, language=CN, label=表2, caption=

常用的固体颗粒电加热装置

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
加热装置参考传热系数/(W·m–2·K–1应用场景应用情况核心参数
管式加热器50~120小型储热系统、实验平台小规模套管式电加热器[42]设计加热温度:300~700 ℃
板式加热器100~250连续式换热模块、颗粒输送系统小规模板式颗粒电加热器[43]设计加热温度:700~800 ℃
流化床加热器200~400快速响应储热系统、大功率装置基于流化床的固体颗粒储能装置[44]小规模设计加热温度:1 000~1 500 ℃
集中式太阳能(CSP)的粒子电加热系统[37]设计规模:50~500 MW
设计加热温度:1 000~1 200 ℃
移动床加热器20~120工业级连续颗粒储热系统径向移动床反应装置[45]设计加热功率:40~3 400 kW
一种用于热能储存的移动床粒子电加热器[46]设计加热温度:500~1 200 ℃
设计加热功率:54 kW
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电加热固体颗粒储热技术研究进展
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余跃 1, 2 , 宋国良 1, 2
热力发电 | 技术经济综述 2026,55(6): 1-14
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热力发电 |技术经济综述 2026 , 55 (6) : 1 -14
电加热固体颗粒储热技术研究进展
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余跃1, 2 , 宋国良1, 2
作者信息
  • 1.中国科学院工程热物理研究所煤炭高效低碳利用全国重点实验室,北京 100190
  • 2.中国科学院大学工程科学学院,北京 100049
通讯作者:
宋国良(1975),男,博士,研究员,主要研究方向为循环流化床锅炉深度灵活调峰技术,
作者简介:

余跃(2002),男,硕士研究生,主要研究方向为固体颗粒储热技术,

Research progress on electrically heated solid particle thermal energy storage technology
Yue YU1, 2 , Guoliang SONG1, 2
Affiliations
  • 1.State Key Laboratory of Coal Conversion, Institute of Engineering Thermophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, China
  • 2.School of Engineering Science, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
出版时间: 2026-06-25 doi: 10.19666/j.rlfd.202510048
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【目的】

在“碳达峰”“碳中和”背景下,我国可再生能源装机规模持续攀升,但其间歇性、波动性特征,对电力系统长时储能能力和灵活调峰性能提出了更高要求。电加热高温固体颗粒储热技术凭借加热温度高、储热温区宽、材料成本低、介质热稳定性好、系统环境友好且与新能源和煤电系统耦合潜力突出等优势,受到行业广泛关注。为明确该技术的发展现状、关键瓶颈及未来研究方向,本文对其研究进展进行了系统梳理与综述。

【分析】

本文围绕电阻加热和感应加热两类典型方式,系统梳理了其基本原理、传热特征、适用颗粒材料及代表性装置核心参数,重点对比了间接电阻加热、直接电阻加热和感应加热三类技术在电热转换效率、温度均匀性、设备复杂度、材料适配性及工程放大可行性方面的差异;总结了管式、板式、流化床和移动床等典型加热装置的适用场景和技术特点;进一步分析了高温颗粒流动传热机理、电加热效率优化、颗粒材料高温稳定性、系统全生命周期成本控制以及与燃煤机组耦合运行过程中的关键问题。现有研究表明,电阻加热技术成熟度较高、结构相对简单,在大规模颗粒储热系统中具有较好的工程可实施性;感应加热具有非接触、响应速度快和高温适应性强等显著优势,但在当前仍存在电磁转换效率偏低、设备成本较高、线圈冷却难度大和材料选择受限等技术挑战。

【结论】

综上,电加热高温固体颗粒储热技术是支撑新能源高比例消纳和煤电灵活调峰改造的重要潜在技术路径。未来研究重点需要聚焦高温颗粒多场耦合流动与换热机理、低成本高性能颗粒材料开发、模块化电加热装置、高效保温与热损控制技术,以及储热系统多环节协同调控策略等核心方向,加快推动该技术实现规模化、工业化与商业化的应用发展。

电加热  /  固体颗粒储热  /  电阻加热  /  感应加热
[Objective]

With the rapid growth of renewable energy under the goals of carbon peaking and carbon neutrality, power systems face increasing demand for long-duration energy storage and flexible peak regulation. Electrically heated solid particle thermal energy storage (TES) is a promising option because it offers high operating temperature, wide storage temperature range, low-cost storage media, good thermal stability, clean electric-to-thermal conversion, and strong potential for integration with renewable energy systems and coal-fired power plants. This paper aims to clarify the research progress, major bottlenecks, and future directions of this technology.

[Analysis]

This paper reviews electrically heated solid particle TES from the perspectives of heating principles, representative devices, application scenarios, and key scientific and engineering issues. Two major routes, resistance heating and induction heating, are discussed in detail. For resistance heating, both indirect and direct modes are considered. Indirect resistance heating transfers heat from electric heating elements to particles through conduction, convection, and radiation. It has advantages such as simple structure, mature equipment, and good controllability, but it also suffers from additional thermal resistance and heat loss. Direct resistance heating allows conductive particles or conductive particle networks to generate Joule heat directly, which improves heating compactness and electric-to-thermal efficiency, while also introducing challenges related to conductivity stability, local overheating, oxidation resistance, and the formation of reliable conductive paths. Induction heating provides non-contact heating and rapid thermal response, and is attractive for high-temperature applications. However, its performance depends strongly on frequency, magnetic field intensity, coil design, particle size, electrical conductivity, magnetic permeability, and temperature-dependent material properties. In addition, induction heating systems often face higher equipment cost, cooling demand, and lower overall efficiency in practical applications. Representative devices for solid particle heating, including tubular heaters, plate heaters, fluidized-bed heaters, and moving-bed heaters, are also summarized. Tubular and plate heaters are relatively mature and suitable for small- and medium-scale systems, whereas fluidized-bed and moving-bed configurations show better heat transfer performance and greater potential for high-power and continuous operation. At the same time, they involve more complex issues such as particle flow stability, pressure drop, abrasion, temperature uniformity, and model accuracy. This paper further discusses key challenges, including high-temperature particle flow and heat transfer mechanisms, optimization of electric heating efficiency, durability of particle materials under thermal cycling, cost control, and coordinated operation with coal-fired power plants.

[Conclusion]

Electrically heated solid particle TES is a promising technical route for renewable energy integration, long-duration energy storage, and flexible operation of coal-fired power plants. Resistance heating is currently more mature and economically competitive, while induction heating has advantages in non-contact heating, rapid response, and high-temperature adaptability, but still requires progress in efficiency improvement, cost reduction, and particle material matching. Future research should focus on multi-field coupled particle flow and heat transfer, low-cost and high-performance particle materials, modular electric heating devices, heat loss control, and coordinated control strategies, so as to promote the scale-up, industrialization, and commercialization of this technology.

electric heating  /  solid particle thermal energy storage  /  resistance heating  /  induction heating
余跃, 宋国良. 电加热固体颗粒储热技术研究进展. 热力发电, 2026 , 55 (6) : 1 -14 . DOI: 10.19666/j.rlfd.202510048
Yue YU, Guoliang SONG. Research progress on electrically heated solid particle thermal energy storage technology[J]. Thermal Power Generation, 2026 , 55 (6) : 1 -14 . DOI: 10.19666/j.rlfd.202510048
目前,我国正处于新能源转型的重要阶段,2024年我国水电、核电、风电、太阳能发电等清洁能源发电量为37 126亿千瓦时,较上年增长16.4%,可再生能源已成为保障电力供应的重要力量[1]。然而,可再生能源的间歇性与不稳定性一直是新型能源系统面临的主要挑战。为应对这一难题并提升能源利用效率,储能系统发挥了重大作用,在以热能需求为核心的地区,储热技术至关重要[2]。储热技术通过高效、可靠地实现热能的存储与释放,有助于解决清洁能源供应的不稳定问题,并提升能源利用效率。特别是在大规模的储热系统中,高温颗粒储热技术具有储热温度高、储能密度大、成本低等优势,在可再生能源消纳、电网调峰等领域具有广阔的应用前景[3-5]
固体颗粒储热材料以其优异的物理化学稳定性、良好的热性能及经济成本优势,成为一类极具应用前景的储热介质。相较于熔盐、相变材料等其他类型储热材料,基于固体颗粒构建的储热系统在运行温度范围上具有显著优势,能够实现更高的储热温度水平;同时,该系统对换热介质的兼容性更强,支持更频繁的介质更换操作。
上述特性表明,固体颗粒加热系统需优先采用接触式换热模式,以满足其性能要求。在电加热系统中,此类换热方式能够有效强化固-气与固-固两相间的传热传质过程,从而在确保系统稳定运行性的同时,显著提升整体换热效率与换热速率。电加热技术的发展,为固体颗粒储热技术在中高温能源存储场景中的规模化应用奠定了关键基础。
近年来,我国大力发展的可再生能源技术大幅降低了平均电力的价格,使得可再生能源电力在成本上具备与化石燃料电力竞争的能力。然而,由于可再生能源在时间和空间上具有不稳定性,全球多地出现了零电价乃至负电价的情况,因此,当前需要发展一种长时储能技术,来应对可再生能源的不稳定性,实现系统调峰与电力平衡。电力资源是适应于长时储能系统的能源之一,将电储热应用到规模化的长时储能领域,有助于缓解我国可再生能源的不稳定性问题。此外,电加热是目前最简单、经济且清洁的高温加热方式[6],常用的烟气或蒸汽加热通常难以到达1 000 ℃的高温,而电加热通过调节功率可以准确高效地控制温度和加热速率,是非常有效的加热方式。根据原理不同,固体颗粒的电加热技术可分为电阻加热和感应加热。
综上所述,电加热高温固体颗粒储热技术在新能源耦合和调峰领域具有广阔的应用前景。本文聚焦电加热高温固体颗粒储热技术,依据加热原理进行分类,系统阐述了其工作原理、加热装置及发展情况和关键核心问题。探讨了该技术在未来的发展方向,以推动电加热固体颗粒技术的发展,为其规模化、工业化、商业化应用提供理论和技术参考。
电阻加热基于焦耳原理,当电流通过具有一定电阻的导体时,电子与导体中的原子发生碰撞,将电能转化为热能,并以热量的形式释放。所产生的热量(Q)与电流的平方(I2)、导体的电阻(R)以及通电时间(t)成正比,具体见式(1):
Q=I2Rt
电阻加热设备通常由电加热元件(电阻丝、发热板、导电颗粒床等)、电源系统和温控系统组成,具有结构简单、控制灵活、加热效率高(理论上可达100%)的特点。固体颗粒储热系统中,颗粒既可直接作为受热介质,也可作为发热体。在恒压输入的电加热系统中,电阻热的大小仅取决于电热元件的电阻值(式(2))。
Q=U2Rt
电阻加热系统的研究核心在于电热元件。根据颗粒在电加热系统中的作用,电加热固体颗粒系统分为间接电阻加热和直接电阻加热。这两种加热方式在加热机理和传热行为上存在本质区别。
间接电阻加热通过独立电阻元件产生热量,然后通过传导、对流、辐射的方式传递给颗粒介质,具体如图1所示。
由于颗粒不直接参与电流传导,系统的电气结构更易于控制且稳定性较高。因此,在工业应用中,采用间接电阻加热方式。美国可再生能源实验室在2020年提出,采用电阻加热颗粒储热系统用于聚光太阳能发电或电网储能[7-8]。该系统在经济方面已被证实具有显著的成本优势,解决了储能系统设计和经济可行性的初步探索问题,为后续研究奠定了基础。然而,由于间接电阻加热需要通过额外的传热路径将热量传递至颗粒介质,系统会产生一定的热阻和能量损失,导致整体效率不高。
间接电阻加热系统的性能主要受以下因素影响:加热元件材料的电热物性、热传递路径与界面接触大小以及系统结构的保温特性。
1)加热元件材料
电阻材料的电阻率和导热性能直接影响加热系统的加热效率;加热元件的高温稳定性能则是决定了加热系统的使用寿命。
电阻加热元件的材料需具备良好的电导率和耐高温性能。对电阻热元件的研究,主要集中在研发新型基体材料、优化合金成分、引入高性能填料及采用先进表面改性技术等方面,旨在以应对高温环境下所面临的热机械负荷与氧化侵蚀。
耐高温性能是电阻热元件材料的关键性能指标。在高温条件下,材料需维持其结构稳定性、力学性能和电学性能。镍铬合金作为一种常见的电阻加热元件材料,具有较高电阻率和良好的高温稳定性。通过热喷涂技术,可在钢基体上制备厚度约35 μm的镍铬合金涂层,并利用绝缘Al2O3层进行电绝缘和热管理,从而实现电阻加热功能[9]
高温氧化是导致电阻热元件材料失效的主要原因之一。在高温空气或蒸汽环境中,材料表面会形成氧化层,影响材料的性能[10]。采用氧化防护涂层技术可有效提高颗粒材料的抗氧化性[11]
2)热交换路径
加热元件的布置方式直接影响加热炉的温度均匀性和加热效率。例如,在大型热处理电炉中,通过计算流体动力学模拟来优化加热元件的布置,可以发现,将加热元件布置在两侧炉壁上能有效提高温度均匀性[12]
加热元件的位置与数量是影响电阻加热系统的关键因素。在加热功率固定的情况下:加热器数量决定了设备的安全性,而对系统效率无显著影响[13];加热器的径向位置对加热时间影响较小,其主要影响加热器内的热流场分布;加热器高度与加热炉高度的比值会很大程度影响温度的均匀性。
3)储热颗粒材料
颗粒材料的性能直接影响储热效率和系统稳定性。理想的颗粒材料应具有良好的热稳定性、较高的比热容与热导率,同时还具有低成本等特点。目前,针对颗粒材料的优化研究也主要围绕上述方面展开。常用的储热颗粒材料包括天然矿石、工业废渣、人工合成颗粒等。孙丽伟等[14]对沙漠沙、石英砂、玄武岩及气化粗渣四种典型无机非金属颗粒材料,开展了宽温度区间内的物理性能与热力学性能的研究。结果表明,玄武岩颗粒是综合性能更优的颗粒储热材料。
在颗粒储热材料的性能优化领域,表面功能化修饰(如涂层改性)与掺杂改性是当前主要的技术,其关键在于通过调控颗粒表面理化特性或内部微观结构,实现储热容量提升、热传导效率增强及热循环稳定性的改善,进而延长储热系统的使用寿命并提高能量利用效率[15]
为进一步突破现有材料的储热密度瓶颈并优化储热系统的温度场分布的均匀性,潜热储热材料与热化学储热材料也是电阻加热颗粒材料的重要发展方向[16]
直接电阻加热是指固体颗粒自身作为电阻体,电流通过颗粒床层时,颗粒因电阻效应产生焦耳热,从而实现自发热功能(图2),通过热传递将导电颗粒的热量传递给高热容的储热颗粒。
热量在颗粒内部直接产生,使得电能到热能的转换效率接近100%,且无需通过额外传热过程,从而降低了因热阻导致的能量损失。颗粒本身即是加热体也是储热介质,这一体化设计使系统结构更加紧凑,热响应速度更快,尤其适用于高温、大功率的储热场景。
直接电阻加热系统的性能受储热材料与颗粒堆积的影响。
1)颗粒材料
直接电阻加热产生的热量源自颗粒导电过程,其中在颗粒内部或表面会形成显著的局部过热现象,导致颗粒的温度远高于颗粒床的整体温度。一般而言,局部电热颗粒的温度能够达到3 000 ℃[17],这对颗粒材料的高温耐性提出了较高的要求。目前,常用的颗粒导电改造的方法包括石墨或焦炭的掺杂[18],或直接选用石墨作为颗粒介质进行导电加热。这两种加热方式都需在还原性气氛中进行,以降低石墨颗粒的氧化损耗。表1为常用于直接电阻加热的颗粒材料的参考物性参数。
2)颗粒尺寸与比例
颗粒的几何尺寸会影响电流路径和热量分布。当颗粒的粒径减少时,单位体积内颗粒接触点增多,从而形成更密集的电流路径,会使整体的电阻加热更均匀;然而,过小的颗粒粒径会导致颗粒床层的孔隙率下降,增加短路风险。在实际应用中,不同加热设备一般会采用不同的颗粒粒径:固定床加热器常采用0.2~10.0 mm的颗粒粒径[19-20];而流化床加热器为达到流化状态,常选用更细的颗粒粒径,一般为0.025~2.000 mm[21]
导电颗粒的比例是影响加热系统稳定性的关键因素。当导电颗粒在绝缘基体中达到一定比例时,才能形成有效的导电网络,从而使系统获得导电性并产生焦耳热;然而,过高的导电颗粒比例会降低系统的储热密度。在固定床电加热系统中,导电颗粒的占比至少需达到33.4%才能形成连续的导电网络[19]
交变电流通过电子线路板产生交变磁场。当铁质容器置于磁场上方时,容器表面切割交变磁力线,从而在容器金属部分产生交变电流。涡流使容器底部的载流子作高速无规则运动,载流子与原子相互碰撞、摩擦并产生热能,由此加热容器内的介质,实现间接感应加热,其加热原理如图3所示。
电磁感应加热无需加热器和介质,直接接触便可实现加热,且加热内部介质无需接线。其具有工作电压高、绝缘性能好、加热速度快、使用寿命长等优点。电磁感应加热装置可通过控制线圈数量、电流大小来控制感应强度,从而便捷地调控加热速度和最终温度。然而,其成本相较于电阻式加热较高,且加热效率较低。若被加热介质本身具有磁性,且尺寸符合特定要求,可在介质内产生感应电流,从而实现直接感应加热。相比间接感应加热,该方式具有较高的加热效率,但对被加热介质的要求更高。近年来,有更多学者对该技术原理进行了研究[22-23]
感应加热系统的性能受电磁参数、颗粒物理特性、系统结构及运行条件的影响。
1)频率(f
磁场频率是决定加热性能的关键参数。高频磁场可导致更高的涡流损耗和更快的加热速率,尤其适用于加热小尺寸颗粒或实现表面加热(趋肤效应)[24-25]。趋肤效应指电磁感应加热中能量在颗粒内部的渗透深度,即交变电磁场在导电材料中强度衰减至初始值1/e(约37%)时的距离。其计算公式为:
δ=2ρωμ=ρπfμ
式中:δ为电磁穿透深度,m;ρ为材料电阻率,Ω·m;f为磁场频率,Hz;ω=2πf为角频率;μ=μ0μr为材料磁导率(μ0为真空磁导率,常数,4π×10–7H/m;μr为相对磁导率,无量纲),H/m。式(3)表明:颗粒材料的电阻率越高,磁导率越低;电磁感应频率越低则穿透深度越大,磁场可渗入的区域就更深。在实际工程应用中,选择颗粒粒径与穿透深度相匹配(当颗粒半径(a)与穿透深度(δ)满足a=2.41δ时,颗粒表面与内部的能量吸收效率最高),以保证涡流的有效分布,又避免了内部温度梯度过大。通常,颗粒较大时选择低频加热,颗粒较小时选择高频加热。此外,高温下材料电阻率和磁导率会随温度变化,会导致电磁穿透深度相应改变,因此在高温颗粒加热过程中,加热频率设计应综合考虑温度耦合效应下的颗粒参数。
2)磁场强度(B)与线圈设计
磁场强度越大,感应电动势(ε)和涡流越强,加热功率越高(式(4)、式(5))。而线圈匝数(N)、形状和几何布局会直接影响磁场分布和穿透性(式(6))[26]
Φ=BAcosθ
式中:Φ为穿过颗粒的磁场,Wb;A为回路垂直面积,m2
I=εR=NRdΦdt
B=μ0NI
式中:μ0为真空磁导率;N为线圈匝数;I为线圈内电流,A。由式(6)可见:感应电流由交变磁场产生,磁场由通电导线产生;通电线圈的匝数越多,感应电流越强,加热效果越好。所以工程上在保证安全的前提下,会尽量对通电线圈进行密排。
1)电导率和磁导率
颗粒材料的电导率直接影响感应电流的大小,从而影响感应加热的效果;高磁导率的颗粒能够增强磁场耦合,并提高加热效率。但仍需考虑颗粒材料的居里温度,一旦超过该温度,颗粒材料的磁性会消失,导致加热效率下降。因此,在选择颗粒材料时,要尽量选择居里温度下的颗粒材料进行加热。常见磁性材料的居里温度:铁约为770 ℃;镍约为358 ℃。
2)颗粒粒径
颗粒的粒径与形状会通过影响磁场穿透深度和涡流路径,进而对加热效率和均匀性产生影响[24]。例如,在微孔注射成型过程中,聚醚醚酮颗粒的尺寸会对泡孔密度和尺寸产生影响[27]
在工业应用中,颗粒粒径的选择通常需综合考虑电磁穿透深度、导电网络连续性、床层流动性或充填密度、热传导与温度均匀性,以及相应颗粒粒径的制造成本等因素,具体计算流程如图4所示。
目前,电磁感应加热高温固体颗粒储热技术正处于由“实验室验证”向“工程化突破”转变的关键阶段。该系统需要攻克加热系统在成本和效率方面的问题。其成本控制难点主要集中在高频感应设备及颗粒材料两方面。
为提升加热效率,常采用高频电磁设备。相关研究主要集中在电磁感应高频控制器和高频感应加热线圈[28-30]。目前,电磁感应加热仍面临成本较高的问题,其加热效率有限,且需要大量冷却水来冷却感应线圈,导致能量利用率偏低。在加热效率优先的应用场景中,该技术的使用成本显著增加。目前,在大中型交流感应加热技术应用中,加热钢铁的有效电热转换效率约为50%~60%,而铁磁性材料的有效电热转换效率低于35%~45%。
常用的感应加热固体颗粒材料主要包括金属颗粒和具有一定导电性的非金属颗粒两类。金属颗粒虽导电性能好、感应加热效率高,但密度大、易腐蚀、高温下易氧化且成本较高;非金属颗粒成本相对较低、化学稳定性较好,但导电性能较弱,感应加热效率较低。针对1 000 ℃以上的高温应用环境,现有的固体颗粒材料在耐高温性能、热稳定性和机械强度等方面也存在明显不足,难以获得各项性能均较为理想的颗粒材料。常用的解决方法有颗粒结构的优化设计[31],以及开发新型颗粒材料[32]。尽管这些方法在一定程度上可以增加颗粒的感应加热性能,但往往也增加了材料成本,寻找低成本与高效的感应加热颗粒材料,仍是该领域未来的重要研究方向之一。
传统的流体加热方法(如通过感应加热金属管壁再进行颗粒热传递)存在明显的温度分布不均和加热效率偏低等问题[33]。提高加热效率的关键在于优化感应线圈设计,并合理选择工作频率和功率[34]。例如,采用模块化单相固态逆变器和功率因数校正(PFC)单元的模块化三相感应加热发生器,能够有效解决功率因数校正、谐波符合性和可扩展性等挑战,从而提高能量效率。
在高温固体颗粒储热系统中,电加热方式的成本存在显著差异,主要体现在设备结构复杂度、能效水平以及工程放大后的一次投资与运行费用等方面。总体而言,电阻加热结构最为简单,由电阻元件、电源和基本控制系统组成,其制造与安装成本在三类技术中最低,且MW级规模放大较为成熟。该方式在运行过程中电-热转换效率接近100%[35],系统综合效率普遍可达85~95%,维护费用主要来自电阻元件的周期性更换,因此在整个生命周期内具有良好的经济稳健性。
相比之下,电磁感应加热需配套中频或高频变流器、线圈及水冷系统,初始投资明显高于电阻加热[36],由于其具有体积加热和快速响应等特点,有利于减少无效加热、提升过程能效,在适配金属或导电颗粒等特定工况中可实现较高效率。不过,线圈和电源的维护成本较高,因此,其经济性仍取决于具体工况的效率与负荷因子。
总体而言,电阻加热在大规模颗粒储热应用中具有最佳的成本竞争力;而电磁感应加热则在导电介质和追求快速响应的场景中,展现出潜在优势。
在明确不同电加热方式的经济性差异后,还需进一步结合已有研究和工程探索,分析其在固体颗粒储热系统中的实际应用进展。
目前,电加热固体颗粒储热技术已在电阻加热和感应加热2个方向形成了代表性研究与工程探索。电阻加热是电加热领域应用最广泛、技术成熟度最高的方式,已在高温固体颗粒床、大型电锅炉和电储热系统等场景中得到较多应用,已实现较广泛商业化应用并具备较完善的标准体系。在固体颗粒储热领域,美国可再生能源实验室提出了面向集中式太阳能发电和电网长时储能的外部电阻加热颗粒储热系统,设计规模为50~500 MW,设计加热温度为1 000~1 200 ℃,储能时长为10~100 h,系统成本约为72~77美元/(kW·h),储热介质采用硅砂[37-40]。可以看出,电阻加热颗粒储热技术具备向大规模、长时储能方向发展的潜力。在大型工业应用中,电阻加热技术已具备MW级工程示范和商业装备制造基础,在新能源消纳与电网调峰领域具有较好的近期应用前景。
相比之下,感应加热在传统金属材料加热应用更加广泛,但其在固体颗粒储热系统中的应用仍处于快速发展与工程探索阶段。近年来,感应加热颗粒储热也取得了一定进展。清华大学合作研究团队已建成MWh级高温固体颗粒储热中试装置,设计电加热功率为1 MW,设计储热温度为600~1 500 ℃,系统效率超过90%,储热材料为沙子[41]。总体来看,感应加热具有非接触、响应快和高温适应性强等优势,但仍受电磁转换效率、设备成本、线圈冷却以及颗粒材料适配性等因素限制,其在大规模固体颗粒储热中的工程应用仍需进一步验证。
在固体颗粒储热系统中,电加热装置是实现电能输入与热能存储之间转换的关键环节,其性能直接影响储热效率、温度分布的均匀性及系统整体响应特性。与传统流体储热介质相比,固体颗粒凭借其高比热容、化学稳定性和低成本等优势,成为大规模储热的理想选择,但同时也对电加热装置的结构设计、传热方式和运行工况提出了更为复杂的要求。目前较为成熟或研究较深入的电加热装置主要包括管式加热器、板式加热器、流化床加热器、移动床加热器和固定床加热器等类型。
电加热装置依据不同的传热机理和颗粒-壁面相互作用特征,分别适用于不同温度区间和运行条件。表2为各类电加热器的常见应用参数。
当前,应用最广泛的电加热装置是管式电加热器和板式加热器。电加热装置通过导热管/壁面对外传递热量,实现对颗粒床层的加热。其结构设计简单,制造工艺成熟。然而,由于效率受壁厚、导热系数及颗粒接触状态等因素限制,导致温升速率缓慢,且颗粒内部存在显著的温度梯度。管式电加热器和板式加热器技术成熟,是最传统的加热器类型,适用于小功率连续储热系统。
相比之下,流化床和移动床加热器在颗粒电加热中具有更复杂的换热结构,其加热机理也更加复杂。
流化床电加热器利用流态化颗粒进行换热,显著提升了颗粒与加热表面之间的接触频率和换热系数,但也增加了系统的复杂性,并存在磨损问题。尽管面临工程复杂性的挑战,流化床结构仍是大功率快速储热系统与直接热电转换装置的重要发展方向。
流化床颗粒加热可采用多种加热原理,具体方式如图5所示。
图5a)展示了外置电热丝通过床壁向内部颗粒传热的方式。该方式应用简单,在小规模的加热床中效果很好,但在大直径床中易导致炉/床内的颗粒温度分布不均,床壁温度大约1 000 ℃,因此,对床壁的材料有较高的要求。图5a)中内置加热元件,其通过与加热介质直接接触进行热传导来实现加热。与内置电阻加热元件相比,将加热元件置于内部可在一定程度上减小炉/床内介质的温度差,并减少炉/床壁对外的热量损失,但需考虑加热棒的抗腐蚀性。图5b)显示了直接电阻流化床加热方式,导电颗粒通过直接导电发热,在床内将热量传给高热容的储热颗粒。直接加热具有优异的加热均匀性和高传热效率,颗粒温度可高于整体锅炉的温度,这既带来优势,也构成一定挑战。图5c)展示了直接感应加热原理,其特点包括:感应电流直接在颗粒内部产生并进行加热,热效率高;通过流态化颗粒进行换热,加热均匀,炉/床内温度分布均匀;然而,电磁感应过程中的电-磁-热的转化效率较低,通常约为50%[47]
流化床因其内部复杂的颗粒流动换热过程,目前尚未建立能够精确描述颗粒流动和传热过程的物理模型,对其内部流动机理的认识也仍显不足,这仍是亟待攻克的关键难题之一。
目前可以明确的是,流化床的流动特性主要由颗粒粒径、颗粒流速和颗粒负荷共同决定。颗粒负荷的增加会显著提升系统压降[48];在低流速范围内,压降随流速呈线性增长。当流速超过最小流化速度后,颗粒开始悬浮,压降趋于稳定。当流速进一步增加至湍动区,由于颗粒与壁面碰撞加剧,压降将再次上升。研究表明,当流化床初始流速提高至临界流速时,会引起震荡,导致压降比在高速范围内变成负值[49],这将成为一个新的研究方向。
在涉及强放热过程的流化床加热器中,热量传递对反应器性能具有重要的影响,理解反应器内部的传热机制是改进其整体性能的关键。流化床中的传热相关性主要集中在颗粒-壁面相互作用机制。通过区分部分流化态和完全流化态,可构建针对这些特定状态的壁床传热相关性模型(式(7)、式(8))[50-51]
Nu=0.01Re0.86Pe14.35(Ddp)2.76(cpscpg)56.4
NuPf=0.37Ar0.7ReP0.2Pr0.33
式中:D为流化床内径,m;dp为颗粒直径,m;cps为颗粒定压比热容,J/(kg·K);cpg为气体定压比热容,J/(kg·K);Nupf为颗粒-流体间的努塞尔数;ReP为颗粒雷诺数。
在工业领域,流化床电加热器的应用仍面临颗粒粒径分布不均的问题,为降低成本,而采用天然颗粒材料时,会进一步加剧颗粒粒径分布不均的问题。
移动床电加热器通过连续输送颗粒,使颗粒与加热元件在动态过程中实现热交换。该结构融合了高效传热与温度分布均匀性的特点,并能够支持系统的连续供热与能量输出。移动床加热器的加热结构及其加热过程如图6所示。
图6可见,移动床内颗粒在重力作用下自上而下运动。在移动床中,颗粒受电热棒阻滞而缓慢移动,同时吸收热量。由于移动床加热器采用的是间接电阻加热原理,对颗粒材料的要求较低。然而,移动床系统结构设计较为复杂,对颗粒的粒径分布、流动性及磨损特性有较高要求,控制系统设计难度也较大。该类装置特别适用于大通量、连续式的颗粒储热与输热场景,是实现规模化工业应用的重要技术方向。
移动床内的颗粒流动呈现出显著的“近壁-核心”分区特性:在近壁区域,颗粒受壁面的摩擦阻力影响,流速降低,易形成局部堆积;在核心区域,颗粒流动相对均匀,但当通道几何尺寸(如管径)接近颗粒粒径时,易出现“搭桥”现象,形成流动死区(图7)。近期,已有研究采用非球形颗粒与多粒径分布策略,以缓解因局部拱形结构引起的传热与压降问题[52]
移动床的传热过程由接触热阻与渗透热阻共同主导。接触热阻源于颗粒与壁面间的气隙,其计算公式为:
1hCTR=δnwknw
式中:δnw为近壁气隙厚度,m;knw为气隙有效热导率,W/(m·K);hCTR为对流换热系数,W/(m2·K)。二者均受颗粒粒径、床层孔隙率与温度影响。
渗透热阻反映了颗粒在壁面停留时间内的热渗透效率,其计算公式为:
hPTR=ρs,bcpkeffπτ
式中:hPTR为周期性热响应换热系数,W/(m2·K);ρs,b为颗粒体积密度,kg/m3cp为颗粒等效比热容,J/(kg·K);keff为床层有效热导率,W/(m·K);τ为颗粒壁面停留时间,s。
传统的活塞流连续介质模型在预测传热效率时,因忽略颗粒离散特性,其预测误差可达20%~30%;相比之下,采用离散元法与计算流体力学的耦合模型,能够更精准地捕捉颗粒碰撞、磨损等动态行为,预测误差可降至10%以内[53]
目前,针对移动床换热器的研究,主要有以下方向:流动均匀性分析、死区识别与近壁区域传热的特性精细表征[54];耦合电加热移动床与高温长时储能系统的整体设计。在移动床电-热储能方案中,通常采用电加热移动床热进行储热,并通过移动床进行放热;研究重点包括颗粒在移动床中的温度分布均匀性、系统循环效率和整体能量密度[55]
电加热固体颗粒储热技术主要面向化石燃料调峰市场。尽管新能源的发展显著降低了平均电价,但该储热系统的全生命周期成本仍高于化石燃料储能系统。此外,还面临诸多挑战:例如沉浸式加热床内的颗粒换热机理非常复杂,目前缺乏准确的机理模型作为参考;同时,电加热系统的效率优化问题也有待进一步解决。
加热炉床的高度[56]、直径及流化风[57]参数、颗粒材料的参数[58]、电加热元件的布置位置及电加热参数,均会对加热床内颗粒的传热过程造成影响。
颗粒的气固流动模型主要分为2类:欧拉-欧拉(E-E)的双流体模型及欧拉-拉格朗日(E-L)的气固两相模型。对于非流动型的加热器中的固体颗粒,可采用E-L型模型;而流化床加热器则采取E-E的模型对颗粒的流动进行评估。例如,运用E-E模型对电极加热流化床内部的流动结构进行分析时,可将流化床内的电流活性段分为3个区域:下床层区域为气泡初始形成区;弱导电区域包含从主区域破裂的颗粒团,电流通过效率较低;强导电区域则是颗粒产生电流的最主要区域。这3种流动特性区域的示意如图8所示。
在实验室小规模模型中,床层压降和气相温度分布能够直接反映流化效果和传热效率。当表观气速高于最小流化速度时,实验与模拟的所得的“归一化压降”(即实际压降与理论静水压降之比)均接近1.0,误差保持在10%以内,这表明模型能准确捕捉流化状态下的压降特性。此外,将气、固两相温度归一化处理后,模拟与实验的温度曲线高度吻合,均呈现出“在床层前1/4高度内,气体温度上升至出口温度的90%”这一典型流化床特征,从而验证了传热模型的准确性。Gifford等人[40]建立了250 MW商业规模的固体颗粒电加热模型,经验证,该模型从实验室到商业规模时,无需对核心子模型进行大幅调整,仅需适配几何与边界条件,且计算成本可控,证明了其具有良好的拓展适用性。其实验数据与模型结果对比如图9所示。图9中:y*为实际垂直高度与静态床高之比;T*为某垂直位置的气相温度与气相出口温度之比。
电加热元件与固体颗粒储热介质之间的传热效率是系统设计中的关键挑战之一。目前的研究发现,在固体储热材料中嵌入热传导流体通道,有助于改善传热性能[59]。然而,如何在充放热过程中,确保颗粒床层内热量分布的均匀性和传递的有效性,仍是有待深入研究的课题[60]。以填充床储能系统为例,热损失可能导致横向温度分布不均匀,甚至引发“不稳定”现象,即热损失区域的压降降低而使质量流量增加,进一步加剧局部冷却,形成正反馈循环。
在电磁感应加热模式中,系统具有启动迅速,非接触式加热的优点,有助于避免电阻加热元件常见的高温老化和烧毁问题。目前,颗粒流体的电磁感应加热主要依靠管壁的热传导实现。然而,受集肤效应的影响,加热深度与加热效率受限,导致径向温度梯度显著,因此,该技术在大截面加热场景中的应用受到制约。
加热元件的性能对电加热系统的整体表现具有重要影响。目前,所有直接加热模式均存在电热转换效率方面的挑战,通常转换效率约为70%,其中部分热损失源于加热元件本身。陶瓷加热元件作为一种传统加热元件的理想替代方案,凭借其高效、稳定、耐用的特点,正在逐步取代传统加热元件。Zhang等人[60]研究了MoSi2-UHTC陶瓷的性能,测试了其力学强度、导电性、高温加热能力、抗氧化和抗热震性能。结果表明,该材料具备作为超高温加热元件的应用潜力,具有良好的保温、抗震与耐磨性,适合作为流化床内部电加热器的优选材料。此外,其他团队也对陶瓷材料进行了研究[61]
在大规模电加热储热系统中,所需处理的颗粒数量极大,若单纯增加流化床的直径,会显著降低加热效率。因此,通常更理想的做法是将颗粒分配至多个并联的换热器之间(图10),而非仅依靠单一换热器组件来实现全部颗粒与工作传输流体之间的换热[62]
电加热系统在高温工况下运行,其加热效率会出现一定程度的下降,且设备在高温环境下的可靠性仍需深入研究。高温会加剧设备的热损和热应力问题。在流化床内部,加热装置(图5a)、图5b))会在一定程度上加剧湍流程度,从而强化传热过程[63];但与此同时,温度分布不均匀会导致加热棒/管产生不均匀的热膨胀和热收缩,且同时承受湍流状态下的颗粒磨损,给系统的安全性带来较大的挑战。一种常见的解决方案是对加热材料进行耐磨处理,例如增加耐磨涂层或进行加热结构热处理。相对而言,采用非接触的加热方式能够有效缓解上述问题。
散热损失是另一个重要的研究方向。在热电模块的性能评估中,热流参数和电输出功率的精准测量至关重要,否则会导致输出热量的错误估算[64]。具体而言,测量电功率输出时,需考虑电流流动引起的珀尔帖热、焦耳热和汤姆逊热对稳态的干扰,测量间隔应设置足够的延迟时间,以防功率值被高估;热流测量则建议优先采用参考块法,选用高导热无氧铜作为热流计,并确保器件与参考块横截面积一致,以避免热流测量被低估或高估;同时,应提升系统的保温效果和热电装置的散热效率,从而减少热损。
热电装置中的散热损失主要包括内部辐射、内部对流、对大气辐射及大气对流[65]。其中,内部辐射和内部对流是研究的重点。通过降低加热材料与被加热介质之间的热阻可有效促进传热过程,从而提升加热效率。例如,对接触界面进行处理能够改善热界面材料与铜基底间的界面热阻,有助于加热器的散热,增强系统安全性的同时提高了传热效率。
固体颗粒储热系统在燃煤机组调峰中具有广阔的应用前景。然而,其耦合过程涉及能量转换、设备适配、运行调控等多维度的技术协同难题,成为当前研究的核心挑战。其中,储热系统与发电系统之间难以实现能量匹配是首要难点[66]:燃煤机组的蒸汽参数(温度、压力)随负荷变化呈现宽范围波动,而固体颗粒储热系统的充放热速率及额定输出参数通常为固定设计值,导致二者在变工况下的能量匹配存在显著矛盾。如何通过储热系统的动态调节,实现与锅炉燃烧、汽轮机做功之间协同,避免因参数不匹配引发的发电效率下降或储热资源浪费,目前仍缺乏成熟的理论模型与调控策略。
高温传热与设备兼容方面存在技术瓶颈:为适配煤电机组的高温工况需求,固体颗粒储热需选用高熔点、高导热系数的储热介质,而这些材料在长期高温循环中易出现烧结、磨损等问题,不仅降低储热效率,还可能引发储热罐、输送管道等设备的堵塞或腐蚀问题。同时,储热系统与机组原有热力系统的接口设计较为复杂,需兼顾传热效率与系统安全性,避免对锅炉燃烧稳定性、汽轮机通流特性等核心环节产生不利影响。
目前,固体颗粒长时储热调峰技术缺乏工业验证项目,大规模储热系统仍处于中试阶段[67]。固体颗粒储热介质的循环寿命、设备磨损规律等关键性能参数需通过长期运行试验验证,由于相关试验数据积累不足,导致耦合系统的寿命预测与维护策略设计缺乏可靠依据。同时,该耦合系统的投资成本(尤其是高温设备与调控系统)缺少可参考的基准数据,而现有的经济性评估多集中于短期调峰收益,未能充分考虑长期碳减排效益、设备维护成本等因素。
在能源转型背景下,储能系统面临更高的要求。电加热高温固体颗粒储热系统在大规模储能领域具备独特优势,但目前仍处于研究初期,在实际应用中仍面临诸多挑战,因此有必要对电加热技术进行梳理和总结。电加热技术主要包括电阻加热和感应加热2种方式。其中,电阻加热原理简单、技术成熟、应用较为广泛,但存在加热速度慢、温度分布不均匀等问题;电磁感应加热具有非接触、加热速度快等特点,但仍面临成本问题和放大效应等问题。本文系统梳理了不同电加热原理的应用现状和发展瓶颈,并展望了该技术未来可能的研究方向。
1)对现有电加热系统进行优化,提升系统保温性能,并研究分段式加热系统模式,针对不同加热原理实施针对性改造:着力优化电阻加热的加热速度和温度分布均匀性;通过高频化与大容量化设计,提高感应加热的电磁转换效率,推动其工业化应用。
2)建立精确的加热器内颗粒流动与换热数学模型。探索颗粒粒径、形状、床层高度、气流速度等参数对传热性能的影响。精确描述流化状态下颗粒的热传导、热对流以及辐射换热机制,是提升系统效率的关键。
3)颗粒性能直接影响系统的储热效率。需深入研究现有颗粒在高温条件下的特性,包括其热学性能、导热性、导电性、物理化学性能,以及在高温环境下的腐蚀、磨损行为和使用寿命。在控制颗粒成本的同时,优化系统整体效率。通过掺杂或涂层等技术制造新型磁性或极性材料,推进感应加热系统的规模化和工业化应用。同时,研究基于潜热或化学热原理的储热颗粒,提升系统稳定性并提高储热系统的能量密度。
  • 中国科学院战略性先导科技专项课题(XDA29010100)
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2026年第55卷第6期
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doi: 10.19666/j.rlfd.202510048
  • 接收时间:2025-10-23
  • 首发时间:2026-08-14
  • 出版时间:2026-06-25
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  • 收稿日期:2025-10-23
  • 修回日期:2025-11-21
  • 录用日期:2025-12-04
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Strategic Priority Research Program of the Chinese Academy of Science(XDA29010100)
中国科学院战略性先导科技专项课题(XDA29010100)
作者信息
    1.中国科学院工程热物理研究所煤炭高效低碳利用全国重点实验室,北京 100190
    2.中国科学院大学工程科学学院,北京 100049

通讯作者:

宋国良(1975),男,博士,研究员,主要研究方向为循环流化床锅炉深度灵活调峰技术,
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2种不同金属材料的力学参数

Family
属数
Number of
genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of
total species (%)

Genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of total
species (%)
鹅膏菌科Amanitaceae 2 11 5.26 鹅膏菌属 Amanita 10 4.78
小菇科 Mycenaceae 2 12 5.74 丝盖伞属 Inocybe 5 2.39
多孔菌科 Polyporaceae 8 14 6.70 蜡蘑属 Laccaria 5 2.39
红菇科 Russulaceae 3 23 11.00 小皮伞属 Marasmius 6 2.87
小菇属 Mycena 11 5.26
光柄菇属 Pluteus 5 2.39
红菇属 Russula 17 8.13
栓菌属 Trametes 5 2.39
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