Article(id=1222503113290933034, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1210938733613449225, issueId=1222503107959968541, articleNumber=null, orderNo=null, doi=10.19666/j.rlfd.202301012, pmid=null, cstr=null, oa=null, hot=null, price=null, onlineType=0, articleFormat=0, articleType=null, articleTypeStr=null, receivedDate=1675094400000, receivedDateStr=2023-01-31, revisedDate=null, revisedDateStr=null, acceptedDate=null, acceptedDateStr=null, onlineDate=1769397055217, onlineDateStr=2026-01-26, pubDate=1698163200000, pubDateStr=2023-10-25, doiRegisterDate=null, doiRegisterDateStr=null, onlineIssueDate=1769397055217, onlineIssueDateStr=2026-01-26, onlineJustAcceptDate=null, onlineJustAcceptDateStr=null, onlineFirstDate=null, onlineFirstDateStr=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, createTime=1769397055217, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1769397055217, updator=13701087609, issue=Issue{id=1222503107959968541, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1210938733613449225, year='2023', volume='52', issue='10', pageStart='1', pageEnd='198', issueExtLink='null', onlineDate='null', pubDate='null', beforeIssueId=null, nextIssueId=null, price=null, status=1, issueComplete=1, articleOrder=1, issueType=-1, specialIssue=null, createTime=1769397053947, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1773966614026, updator=13701087609, preIssue=null, nextIssue=null, ext={EN=IssueExt(id=1241669232136614309, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1210938733613449225, issueId=1222503107959968541, language=EN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=), CN=IssueExt(id=1241669232136614310, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1210938733613449225, issueId=1222503107959968541, language=CN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=)}, issueFiles=null}, startPage=1, endPage=12, ext={EN=ArticleExt(id=1222503113605505842, articleId=1222503113290933034, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1210938733613449225, language=EN, title=Review of corrosion behavior of metal materials in supercritical carbon dioxide environment, columnId=1222503108685583135, journalTitle=Thermal Power Generation, columnName=Special topic on material properties of generator set, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

The supercritical carbon dioxide (S-CO2) cycle power generation technology has become an epoch-making and revolutionary frontier technology in the field of thermal power generation because of its own technical advantages. Due to the very harsh working environment, S-CO2 is easy to cause corrosion problems of equipment materials. In order to ensure the safe and effective operation of S-CO2 system, the range of working medium parameters and candidate materials of the system’s key equipment are introduced. The current research status of corrosion behavior of metal materials in S-CO2 environment are then reviewed. The corrosion mechanism in S-CO2 carbon environment is elaborated in detail. The influences of temperature, pressure, impurities, flow rate and material composition on S-CO2 corrosion process are summarized. Meanwhile, the research progress of S-CO2 corrosion prevention and control technology is introduced. Finally, the shortcomings of existing research and the main direction of future research wereare summarized, so as to provide scientific basis for the safe operation of S-CO2 recycling system in China.

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超临界二氧化碳(S-CO2)循环发电技术因其自身的技术优势成为热力发电领域一项具有划时代意义的重大变革性前沿技术,由于十分苛刻的工作环境,S-CO2易造成设备材料腐蚀。为确保S-CO2系统安全有效地运行,首先介绍了S-CO2布雷顿循环系统工质运行参数范围以及系统关键设备候选材料,其次综述了目前有关金属材料在S-CO2环境中的腐蚀行为研究现状,然后详细阐述了S-CO2环境下的腐蚀机理,归纳了温度、压力、杂质、流速以及材料成分对S-CO2腐蚀过程的影响,同时介绍了S-CO2腐蚀防控技术的研究进展,最后进行了总结并指出了现有研究的不足及未来研究的主要方向,为我国S-CO2循环系统的安全运行提供科学依据。

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雷贤良(1984),男,博士,副教授,主要研究方向为高温高压两相流动与传热,

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Thermally sprayed corrosion resistant alloy coatings on carbon steel for use in supercritical CO2 environments[C]//CORROSION 2015, Dallas, Texas, 2015., articleTitle=Thermally sprayed corrosion resistant alloy coatings on carbon steel for use in supercritical CO2 environments, refAbstract=null)], funds=[Fund(id=1241694388515033657, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1210938733613449225, articleId=1222503113290933034, awardId=2019MK071, language=EN, fundingSource=Science and Technology Program of the State Administration for Market Regulation(2019MK071), fundOrder=null, country=null), Fund(id=1241694388628279873, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1210938733613449225, articleId=1222503113290933034, awardId=2019MK071, language=CN, fundingSource=国家市场监督管理总局科技计划资助项目(2019MK071), fundOrder=null, country=null)], companyList=[AuthorCompany(id=1241694381397299340, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1210938733613449225, articleId=1222503113290933034, xref=1., 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tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1210938733613449225, articleId=1222503113290933034, language=EN, label=Tab.1, caption=

Cycle characteristics of some typical S-CO2 Brayton cycles

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循环名称循环系统最小压力pmin/MPa循环系统最低温度Tmin/℃循环系统最大压力pmax/MPa循环系统最高温度Tmax/℃循环系统热效率ηth/%
简单回热循环7.3532.025.055040.4
再压缩循环7.8032.025.055046.5
预压缩循环9.6032.025.055043.5
部分冷却循环5.0032.025.055046.1
中冷循环7.5032.025.050037.0
再热循环7.5032.025.050037.5
二次再加热再压缩循环7.6032.020.062052.4
部分冷却及改进回热循环4.4032.045.055045.0
), ArticleFig(id=1241694388066243107, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1210938733613449225, articleId=1222503113290933034, language=CN, label=表1, caption=

部分典型S-CO2布雷顿循环的循环特征

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循环名称循环系统最小压力pmin/MPa循环系统最低温度Tmin/℃循环系统最大压力pmax/MPa循环系统最高温度Tmax/℃循环系统热效率ηth/%
简单回热循环7.3532.025.055040.4
再压缩循环7.8032.025.055046.5
预压缩循环9.6032.025.055043.5
部分冷却循环5.0032.025.055046.1
中冷循环7.5032.025.050037.0
再热循环7.5032.025.050037.5
二次再加热再压缩循环7.6032.020.062052.4
部分冷却及改进回热循环4.4032.045.055045.0
), ArticleFig(id=1241694388162712103, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1210938733613449225, articleId=1222503113290933034, language=EN, label=Tab.2, caption=

Parameters of some S-CO2 Brayton cycle demonstration projects

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单位时间规模透平入口参数
美国桑迪亚实验室2012年250 kW341 ℃、12.50 MPa
美国西南研究院2019年1 MW700 ℃、28.00 MPa
日本东京技术研究所2012年10 kW260 ℃、10.60 MPa
韩国科学院2014年80 kW401 ℃、11.20 MPa
中国西安热工院2016年5 MW600 ℃、20.00 MPa
美国泰船用推进公司2014年100 kW299 ℃、16.45 MPa
), ArticleFig(id=1241694388284346927, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1210938733613449225, articleId=1222503113290933034, language=CN, label=表2, caption=

部分S-CO2布雷顿循环示范项目参数

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
单位时间规模透平入口参数
美国桑迪亚实验室2012年250 kW341 ℃、12.50 MPa
美国西南研究院2019年1 MW700 ℃、28.00 MPa
日本东京技术研究所2012年10 kW260 ℃、10.60 MPa
韩国科学院2014年80 kW401 ℃、11.20 MPa
中国西安热工院2016年5 MW600 ℃、20.00 MPa
美国泰船用推进公司2014年100 kW299 ℃、16.45 MPa
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金属材料在超临界二氧化碳环境内腐蚀行为研究进展
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雷贤良 1 , 刘云帆 1 , 胡运生 1 , 李德标 2
热力发电 | 发电机组材料特性研究专题 2023,52(10): 1-12
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热力发电 | 发电机组材料特性研究专题 2023, 52(10): 1-12
金属材料在超临界二氧化碳环境内腐蚀行为研究进展
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雷贤良1 , 刘云帆1, 胡运生1, 李德标2
作者信息
  • 1.西安交通大学动力工程多相流国家重点实验室,陕西 西安 710049
  • 2.西安特种设备检验检测院,陕西 西安 710065
  • 雷贤良(1984),男,博士,副教授,主要研究方向为高温高压两相流动与传热,

Review of corrosion behavior of metal materials in supercritical carbon dioxide environment
Xianliang LEI1 , Yunfan LIU1, Yunsheng HU1, Debiao LI2
Affiliations
  • 1.State Key Laboratory of Multiphase Flow in Power Engineering, Xi’an Jiaotong University, Xi’an 710049, China
  • 2.Xi’an Special Equipment Inspection Institute, Xi’an, 710065, China
出版时间: 2023-10-25 doi: 10.19666/j.rlfd.202301012
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超临界二氧化碳(S-CO2)循环发电技术因其自身的技术优势成为热力发电领域一项具有划时代意义的重大变革性前沿技术,由于十分苛刻的工作环境,S-CO2易造成设备材料腐蚀。为确保S-CO2系统安全有效地运行,首先介绍了S-CO2布雷顿循环系统工质运行参数范围以及系统关键设备候选材料,其次综述了目前有关金属材料在S-CO2环境中的腐蚀行为研究现状,然后详细阐述了S-CO2环境下的腐蚀机理,归纳了温度、压力、杂质、流速以及材料成分对S-CO2腐蚀过程的影响,同时介绍了S-CO2腐蚀防控技术的研究进展,最后进行了总结并指出了现有研究的不足及未来研究的主要方向,为我国S-CO2循环系统的安全运行提供科学依据。

超临界二氧化碳循环发电技术  /  金属材料  /  腐蚀机理

The supercritical carbon dioxide (S-CO2) cycle power generation technology has become an epoch-making and revolutionary frontier technology in the field of thermal power generation because of its own technical advantages. Due to the very harsh working environment, S-CO2 is easy to cause corrosion problems of equipment materials. In order to ensure the safe and effective operation of S-CO2 system, the range of working medium parameters and candidate materials of the system’s key equipment are introduced. The current research status of corrosion behavior of metal materials in S-CO2 environment are then reviewed. The corrosion mechanism in S-CO2 carbon environment is elaborated in detail. The influences of temperature, pressure, impurities, flow rate and material composition on S-CO2 corrosion process are summarized. Meanwhile, the research progress of S-CO2 corrosion prevention and control technology is introduced. Finally, the shortcomings of existing research and the main direction of future research wereare summarized, so as to provide scientific basis for the safe operation of S-CO2 recycling system in China.

supercritical carbon dioxide cycle power generation technology  /  metallic materials  /  corrosion mechanism
雷贤良, 刘云帆, 胡运生, 李德标. 金属材料在超临界二氧化碳环境内腐蚀行为研究进展. 热力发电, 2023 , 52 (10) : 1 -12 . DOI: 10.19666/j.rlfd.202301012
Xianliang LEI, Yunfan LIU, Yunsheng HU, Debiao LI. Review of corrosion behavior of metal materials in supercritical carbon dioxide environment[J]. Thermal Power Generation, 2023 , 52 (10) : 1 -12 . DOI: 10.19666/j.rlfd.202301012
随着经济高速发展,我国能源消费急速上升,能源供需矛盾日益突出,节能减排问题备受关注,发展清洁高效新能源及合理有效利用现有能源是当前能源研究重点[1-3]。超临界流体因其密度接近液体、扩散性接近气体等特点而具有良好的流动传热及传质特性。自20世纪60年代开始,国内外学者对超临界流体的传热规律开展了大量的研究。超临界流体正被广泛用于能源动力、航空航天、石油化工等诸多领域[4],如超临界及超超临界火力发电技术、超临界压水堆、超临界二氧化碳(S-CO2)布雷顿循环发电技术、跨临界二氧化碳制冷空调、液体火箭发动机超临界氢发汗冷却等。
其中S-CO2布雷顿循环发电技术是热力发电领域一项具有划时代意义的重大变革性前沿技术。不同于传统的主流热力发电技术,该技术以S-CO2为系统工质,图1为简单回热S-CO2布雷顿循环系统。CO2在经过压缩机升压,回热器升温和热源升温后以高温高压的状态进入透平做功,做完功后的CO2通过回热器将热量传递给冷端,冷却以后再次回到压缩机进行下一轮循环。该循环系统发电效率可比同参数蒸汽循环提高3%~5%,且系统结构简单紧凑,灵活性更强[5],可以大幅降低化石能源的碳排放、增强发电系统灵活性、满足与间歇性可再生能源配合发电的调峰需求并提高新能源发电比例,对实现“碳达峰碳中和”目标具有战略意义。
但在S-CO2循环系统中,关键部件如涡轮、热交换器、管道等设备直接与性质特殊的S-CO2接触,受到S-CO2的氧化以及杂质与工质的协同作用等复杂反应机理的影响。与蒸汽腐蚀不同,CO2对材料除氧化腐蚀外,还会产生渗碳腐蚀,其中不同杂质对金属材料的腐蚀影响巨大[6],对系统的稳定、经济、安全运行带来了严峻挑战,因此金属材料在超临界工况下的腐蚀行为成为不可忽视的重要问题。本文重点介绍目前金属材料在S-CO2环境中的腐蚀行为研究现状,并详细阐述S-CO2的腐蚀机理,总结温度、压力、材料成分、杂质和流速对S-CO2腐蚀过程的影响,最后进行了总结与展望,为我国S-CO2循环系统的安全运行提供科学依据。
S-CO2布雷顿循环作为一种高效的能量转换技术,其独特之处在于CO2的性质。首先,CO2无毒、不易燃、不易爆,且价格合理,CO2的成本只有氦的1/10,有机工作液R-134a的1/70[7];其次,CO2的临界温度为30.98 ℃,接近环境温度,使得CO2容易处于超临界状态,不同压力下CO2密度和定压比热容随温度变化如图2所示。
在S-CO2动力循环中,压缩机进口处工质运行在临界温度附近,其较高的密度有助于减少压缩机消耗的工作,提高整体循环效率[8]。同时,CO2的临界压力为7.38 MPa。S-CO2布雷顿循环中相应的压力比远低于朗肯循环,从而大大减少了透平的级数。此外,CO2具有良好的稳定性和惰性,理论上循环温度可达1 000 ℃以上[9]。一般情况下,当涡轮入口温度高于550 ℃时,S-CO2布雷顿循环的热效率高于水-蒸汽朗肯循环[10]
早在20世纪,美国、日本、韩国等国家就已经开始对S-CO2布雷顿循环开展了热力学基础理论分析以及实验论证的系统性研究。表1展示了部分典型的S-CO2布雷顿循环形式及其参数[11]
与此同时,近年来国内外已建成多个S-CO2布雷顿循环示范项目,其建设时间、规模及透平入口参数见表2[12]。综上可见,在各种以S-CO2作为工质的系统中,S-CO2与系统中各个关键部件直接接触,从压缩机入口处的低至32 ℃到透平入口处高至700 ℃,工质温度区间范围广,系统的稳定运行依赖于工质与设备金属材料间的化学稳定性。因此,S-CO2布雷顿循环系统中金属材料在S-CO2环境下的腐蚀行为是决定其寿命的重要因素之一。
与其他布雷顿循环相比,S-CO2布雷顿循环的循环效率更高,这是因为CO2在流体临界点附近具有“近乎不可压缩性”和较高的密度,致使循环中压缩机的工作显著减少,缩减了涡轮的级数。因此在S-CO2布雷顿循环系统中,S-CO2布雷顿循环的最低参数(主压缩机入口温度和压力)应高于CO2的临界温度和临界压力,即CO2的临界点是S-CO2布雷顿循环运行的最低参数条件。同时从热力学角度看,可以通过改变热力循环的参数范围来提高循环的热效率。将这一原理应用于S-CO2布雷顿循环,故而可以通过在CO2中添加其他气体,使得工质的临界温度发生改变,从而获得更好的超临界布雷顿循环性能。研究表明,当以降低S-CO2临界温度为目标时,可添加Xe、Kr等气体,反之则添加H2S(硫化氢)、C6H12(环己烷)[13]。与此同时,加入混合气体虽然对循环热效率有利,但不同的混合气体可能会引发材料腐蚀问题,对系统安全和部件寿命带来危害。
发电技术的发展和新型耐热合金材料的开发研究与应用是息息相关的,高端发电技术的发展在很大程度上取决于材料技术的突破。对于S-CO2布雷顿循环系统,其管道、透平等关键设备将比常规机组面临更高温度的考验,透平入口处的高温高压对系统关键部件的抗蠕变、疲劳、高温抗氧化与防腐蚀等性能都提出了十分苛刻的要求。截至目前,S-CO2布雷顿循环尚无商业化运行的机组,因此其系统关键设备材料的选型也是S-CO2布雷顿循环研究的重点问题之一。
目前可以作为受热部件的候选材料主要包括铁素体-马氏体钢(F-M)、奥氏体不锈钢及镍基合金。铁素体合金钢的主要成分为铁元素,具有高强度、高延伸率和高断裂韧性,耐腐蚀性和耐热性也较好,广泛应用于CO2输送管线,包括X70、X65、X60等。马氏体钢由铁素体钢加入少量Cr和Mo元素形成,其中Cr的质量分数一般在8%~18%,其耐热性能大幅度提升,广泛用于电厂过热器、再热器、主蒸汽管道等关键设备中,主要包括T91、P91、T92、P92等。奥氏体不锈钢中Cr的质量分数一般在18%以上,其无磁性而且具有高韧性和塑性,并且有着更优秀的抗腐蚀性能,许用温度可以达到650~700 ℃,主要有TP347H、304、310S、316L等。镍基合金以Ni元素为基体成分,具有极高的耐热性能,且在高温环境下具有高强度和高耐腐蚀性等特性,在S-CO2发电领域中得到广泛关注。目前,用于S-CO2发电循环中热端设备的镍基合金候选材料主要有Inconel740、Haynes230、Haynes282、Inconel625等。
现阶段S-CO2腐蚀实验材料以金属材料为主,主要的研究材料有铁素体-马氏体钢(F-M)、奥氏体不锈钢及镍基合金3种类型。国内外学者对金属材料的S-CO2腐蚀机理进行了许多研究,主要探究了金属材料在S-CO2条件下的腐蚀反应过程不同金属材料的腐蚀产物的组成,以及对比了不同金属材料在S-CO2条件下的耐腐蚀性能。研究发现在整个腐蚀反应进程中发生了氧化和渗碳过程[14-16]
金属材料在S-CO2环境中的腐蚀过程较为复杂,尤其是对于不同成分的合金材料,其渗碳腐蚀的影响是不同的[17-18]。虽然在不同金属材料中CO2溶解扩散和渗透的机理不同,但其反应方程类似,其中渗碳过程均可由如下反应描述:
CO2+MCO+MO
CO2+2MC+2MO
CO+MC+MO
式中:M为金属元素;MO为金属氧化物。
王明选[12]针对T91钢在S-CO2环境中的腐蚀过程展开了研究,腐蚀界面形貌及元素扫描结果如图3所示。其结果显示腐蚀产物为双层结构,二者厚度相差不大,外层氧化层为赤铁矿Fe2O3或磁铁矿Fe3O4,内层氧化物为FeCr2O4,同时氧化层中存在碳元素。在S-CO2高温环境中,CO2主要通过与Cr和Fe发生反应产生金属氧化物及一氧化碳,如式(4)和式(5)所示。
CO2+FeFe3O4+CO
CO2+CrCr2O3+CO
上述反应产生的一氧化碳既可以通过一氧化碳歧化反应产生沉积碳(式(6)),也可以继续与Fe和Cr发生反应(式(7)和式(8))。一氧化碳歧化反应的发生场所为腐蚀层表面及氧化层内部的孔隙内,其产生的碳单质不断往下渗透。
COC+O2
CO+FeFe3O4+C
CO+CrCr2O3+C
T91钢外层腐蚀产物Fe3O4结构较为疏松,碳单质的渗透较为容易,该处存在大量的碳聚集;腐蚀内层产物FeCr2O4结构致密,碳单质的渗透极为困难,大量的碳单质聚集在内外层氧化膜界限处,所以该处碳元素含量最高。当碳聚集程度足够大后或腐蚀时间足够长时,碳单质穿过腐蚀产物内层进入基体区域,在基体内部形成渗碳层,降低材料性能;或者造成腐蚀层外层剥落,加剧腐蚀的发生。
此外,内层产物铁铬尖晶石层FeCr2O4的形成则被认为是Cr2O3被快速生成的Fe3O4所覆盖,从而在CO2环境下形成固溶体FeCr2O4,其反应见式(9)。
CO2+Fe3O4+Cr2O3FeCr2O4+CO
综上所述,铁基材料在S-CO2环境中的腐蚀情况如图4所示。Fe以溶解扩散的形式进入渗碳层、腐蚀内层和腐蚀外层,Cr以溶解扩散的形式进入渗碳层和腐蚀内层,CO2主要以气体渗透的形式进入腐蚀外层并以溶解扩散的形式进入腐蚀内层,在3个区域内发生反应并产生腐蚀产物。在腐蚀内层产生的Fe3O4和Cr2O3结合并形成固溶体FeCr2O4。由于Fe和Cr的向外迁移,导致在材料基体区域靠近腐蚀内层位置存在较多孔洞。在腐蚀前期,CO2与金属基体接触面积较大且腐蚀层较薄,各物质的迁移路径较短,腐蚀发生的速率较快。
超临界环境下CO2的腐蚀行为研究主要集中在环境因素(温度、压力)、杂质含量(H2O、O2、SO2等)、材料成分和流速等方面,许多学者在不同方面展开了大量的研究。
环境因素主要指温度和压力。温度与压力等参数对腐蚀速率有重要的影响。
温度能改变CO2在水中的溶解度、溶液中的化学反应过程和传质过程、基体-溶液界面的电化学反应过程、基体腐蚀产物膜的形成过程。
除了对流体相的影响之外,温度直接影响交换电流密度、化学反应平衡常数、化学反应速率常数、流体黏度和流体密度。研究人员认为,温度的升高可加速试样的S-CO2腐蚀[19]。Zhu等人[20]针对铁素体钢和铁素体-马氏体钢在550~600 ℃的S-CO2环境中开展了腐蚀试验,其结果表明S-CO2腐蚀的氧化动力学在所有情况下都遵循近立方定律,即温度升高对腐蚀起促进作用。
此外,温度会影响产物膜形态和性质以及组分扩散系数,从而间接影响腐蚀行为。温度的升高能够加速腐蚀产物形成致密、连续且均匀的保护膜,降低S-CO2的腐蚀速率[21]。Xiang[22]和Zhang[23]等人研究发现,X70钢在S-CO2混合物中的腐蚀速率首先随温度升高,在75 ℃附近达到峰值,然后随温度降低。Zhang等人[23]比较了碳钢及不锈钢在S-CO2环境中不同温度条件下(50~130 ℃)的腐蚀差异。研究结果表明,在S-CO2环境下,当温度较低时,腐蚀产物膜沉积速率低及基体的活性溶解慢,产物膜疏松多孔,腐蚀速率低;随温度逐渐升高,基体活性溶解加速,产物膜厚度逐渐降低,材料的腐蚀速率升高,但由于随温度升高腐蚀产物膜沉积速率增加,腐蚀产物膜的致密性也增加,对腐蚀有一定抑制作用,使得腐蚀曲线随温度升高先增大后减小,有峰值出现。碳钢的腐蚀速率峰值出现在80 ℃,而不锈钢腐蚀速率峰值出现在110 ℃。材料的活性溶解速率及膜沉积速率共同影响腐蚀速率。
同时在高温环境下,腐蚀产物的组成由单层结构变为双层结构[24],但随着腐蚀时间的增加,氧化层会变厚乃至会剥落,从而加速材料的S-CO2腐蚀。Zhu等人[20]对P92在550~600 ℃条件下进行S-CO2腐蚀行为研究发现,在S-CO2条件下暴露1 000 h后,氧化层存在明显的分层,同时温度为600 ℃时氧化层出现了孔洞缺陷,且P92钢形成的氧化膜发生剥落,具体如图5所示。
学者们针对压力对钢在CO2中腐蚀的影响也已开展了部分研究。研究表明,在温度为80 ℃时,X65钢在S-CO2(9.5 MPa)条件下的腐蚀速率要远大于其在低压CO2(1.0 MPa)条件下。他们认为CO2分压的增加提高了溶液中侵蚀性粒子(例如H+、H2CO3等)的浓度,促进了碳钢阴极电化学反应的进行,从而提高了X65钢的腐蚀速率。Lee等人[25]开展了3种合金(Alloy600、Alloy690、Alloy800HT)在550~650 ℃、0.1~20.0 MPa条件下进行CO2的腐蚀实验,结果如图6所示。随着CO2压力从0.1 MPa增加到20.0 MPa,腐蚀增重和氧化层厚度增加了不到2倍,这种氧化层厚度和腐蚀的轻微增加可以解释为高压下的扩散增强。同时压力对渗碳层的厚度与腐蚀后合金的拉伸性能影响不大。
综上可见,温度对金属材料在S-CO2环境内的腐蚀行为影响较大,温度升高不仅会加速化学反应和传质过程,同时也会使腐蚀产物层的组成发生变化,并且产生更多孔洞等缺陷,导致腐蚀产物容易脱落,从而加速材料的S-CO2腐蚀。相较之下,压力对材料的S-CO2腐蚀影响较小,压力增加会使氧化速率和氧化产物厚度增加,对渗碳层厚度影响较小。
含水量的影响有3种类型:干燥CO2或含水量小于其在CO2中的溶解度;含水量大于其在CO2中溶解度,有独立液态水存在;含大量水,S-CO2在水环境中。Schremp[26]、Propp[27]、Dugstad[28]、Sim[29]、Sarrade[6]等人认为干燥的S-CO2没有腐蚀性,然而实际操作中,CO2不可能完全干燥。CO2中水的作用至关重要,既可以作为电解液,又可作为溶解其他杂质的溶剂。图7为X65钢在S-CO2环境下腐蚀机理,含水量低于在CO2中的溶解度时,没有水相,电化学反应难以进行,腐蚀速率低;含水量高于在CO2中的溶解度时,形成独立水相,可以溶解CO2和其他杂质,形成电解液,发生电化学腐蚀,腐蚀速率增大[30]
水在S-CO2中的溶解度是致密CO2腐蚀的关键问题,已经有一些学者进行了研究,包括实验[31-32]和模型研究[33-34]。水在S-CO2中的溶解度可也会受到其他杂质的影响。当含水量增加时,通常认为碳钢在S-CO2中的均匀腐蚀和局部腐蚀问题变得更严重[35]。Yevtushenko[36]研究表明,在S-CO2循环流动试验中,当含水量从500 μL/L增加到1 000 μL/L时,腐蚀速率增加。但Yevtushenko同时发现,当含水量从1 000 μL/L增加到2 000 μL/L时,腐蚀速率下降。Thodla等人[37]得出了同样的结果,当含水量从1 000 μL/L降至100 μL/L时,腐蚀速率增加。Sim等人[29]发现一旦S-CO2中的含水量达到饱和,加入水后腐蚀速率变化不大。Hua等人[38]对X65碳钢在压力为8 MPa、温度为50 ℃时不同含水量下的S-CO2腐蚀进行了研究,得到在CO2饱和的水相、水饱和的CO2相及不饱和水的CO2相3种工况下X65钢的最大腐蚀速率分别为10.0、1.4、0.2 mm/a;而在含水量低于1 600 μL/L的不饱和水的CO2相条件下未发生明显的腐蚀,说明含水量是影响S-CO2腐蚀行为的关键因素。
S-CO2中可能含有多项气体杂质,如O2、SO2、H2S等,这些杂质的存在会加速基体材料的腐蚀。Dugstad[39]与Choi[40]等人初步探究发现O2存在会加速腐蚀。当O2作为气体杂质单独存在时,会诱导产生保护性较差的多孔氧化铁,且抑制了致密产物膜FeCO3的形成[41],多孔腐蚀产物膜无法阻止腐蚀性介质的传递,腐蚀速率增加;同时O2可氧化SO2等气体杂质,腐蚀进一步被加强。Ayello等人[42]发现当O2含量较低时(100 µL/L)对S-CO2中钢的腐蚀速率基本没有影响。Xu等人[43]发现高O2的质量浓度对X70钢在相对含水量为45%的S-CO2中的均匀腐蚀速率没有影响,在相对含水量为50%~60%时均匀腐蚀增强,在相对含水量为50%~88%时局部腐蚀增强,但在相对含水量为75%~100%时均匀腐蚀减少,相对含水量为100%时局部腐蚀减少。他们还发现,向系统中添加O2会使得系统的可耐受水量降低。Tang等人[30]在50 ℃的水饱和S-CO2下进行X65钢腐蚀实验发现,结果如图8所示。由图8可知,无O2存在时,腐蚀速率为0.25 mm/a,而当S-CO2环境中的氧气质量浓度分别为95 mg/L和475 mg/L时,腐蚀速率增大到0.91 mm/a和1.52 mm/a,说明O2使得腐蚀行为加剧。上述这些具有争议性的结果意味着需要进行更多针对O2对腐蚀影响关系的研究。
SO2可显著加速腐蚀,且在几种常见气体杂质中影响最大。文献[44-45]研究了杂质对S-CO2的影响,发现在含O2杂质中加入1%的SO2后,碳钢的腐蚀速率从0.38 mm/a增加到5.6 mm/a。Sun等人[46]给出了SO2杂质影响材料腐蚀的机理模型,具体如图9所示。SO2可与水生成H2SO3,溶液中pH值降低,腐蚀加剧。SO2可以促进比FeCO3腐蚀产物膜保护性差的水合FeSO3在材料基体表面形成,腐蚀产物疏松多孔,腐蚀更强。如果杂质中含有O2,SO2可进一步被氧化成硫酸,生成硫酸亚铁产物膜,使得材料腐蚀加剧。Hua等人[47]发现S-CO2环境中有0、50、100 μL/L SO2存在的情况下,当含水量为300 μL/L时碳钢会发生腐蚀,该含水量远低于水在S-CO2中溶解度极限。
Dugstad等人[39]也报道了类似的结果。因此,硫的氧化物将不可避免使腐蚀程度增加,从而导致管道损坏的风险升高。
关于H2S对超临界环境下材料的腐蚀行为研究较少,H2S溶于水中形成酸性溶液,可影响阳极和阴极的电化学反应,此外H2S可作为硫化物吸附剂来促进阳极的溶解从而加速腐蚀。
文献[48-50]的研究表明,各杂质对材料腐蚀的影响效果为SO2>H2S>O2。Sun等人[49]对各气体杂质对S-CO2的腐蚀进行了研究,具体结果如图10所示。由图10可知,多种杂质协同作用时,X65钢的腐蚀速率显著增加,气体杂质越多,其腐蚀速率越高。
Mahaffey等人[48]研究了347不锈钢、800H合金和氧化铝-奥氏体(AFA)合金分别在工业级CO2和实验级CO2环境中的腐蚀行为,实验工况为20 MPa、550 ℃、1 000 h和20 MPa、650 ℃、200 h,探究不同工质纯度下材料的腐蚀差异。研究结果表明:550 ℃时347SS不锈钢和IN800H合金具有良好的耐蚀性,而AFA-OC6合金的耐蚀性低于预期;同样在此温度下,IN800H合金和AFA-OC6合金在实验级CO2环境(纯度99.999 8%)中的腐蚀增重高于工业级CO2(纯度99.85%)。而在650 ℃时3种合金在研究级CO2环境中的增重都明显高于工业级CO2,具体如图11所示。不同CO2纯度下其组分掺杂不同,在一定程度会影响合金的腐蚀过程,但具体的影响机制有待进一步研究。
综上所述,当含水量增加时,金属材料在S-CO2中的均匀腐蚀和局部腐蚀问题变得更严重;O2、SO2、H2S等气体杂质的加入也会加快氧化,且各杂质对腐蚀的影响效果为SO2>H2S>O2。因此,在工程实际中要重视杂质种类和含水量对金属在S-CO2环境下腐蚀的影响,为了提高材料的耐腐蚀性能,要进一步提高CO2的纯度,减少杂质含量。
低压条件下的CO2腐蚀研究表明,流速增加通常会使得局部腐蚀加剧,增大腐蚀速率,这是因为流动会增强阴极去极化过程和加速反应产物从基体表面转移的速率[51]。腐蚀产物层形成之后,流速对腐蚀速率的影响减弱[52]。Kermani等人[53]的研究结果表明,管道壁面附近的流动剪切应力也可能影响产物膜的形成和稳定性。徐奇[54]给出了流动加速腐蚀(FAC)机理,具体如图12所示。材料腐蚀主要有铁溶解扩散、基体表面离子反应和流动传质、产物膜形成与脱落过程,流动可以加速基体表面的反应物的更新和产物膜的脱落,进而加速腐蚀进程。
关于超临界环境中流速对腐蚀速率的研究较少。Dugstad等人[39]揭示X65钢在S-CO2环境下(10 MPa、50 ℃),3 m/s的流速对应的腐蚀速率是静态条件下的10倍。但Farelas等人[55]表明反应釜搅拌转速达到1 000 r/min时,对X65钢在S-CO2中的腐蚀速率反而降低,Hua等人[47]解释这可能是因为样片表面的水分被带走而导致腐蚀速率降低。关于S-CO2流动回路的腐蚀研究极少,仅有的研究[56]表明流动回路的腐蚀研究比搅拌反应釜更为可靠,因此需要在这方面加大研究。Zhang等人[57]实验探究了N80碳钢在S-CO2液相中的腐蚀特性(8 MPa、50 ℃)。实验结果表明,动态条件下碳钢的腐蚀速率比静态条件下高,尤其是在腐蚀初期。在动态条件下,流体在试样表面产生剪切应力和湍动能,阻碍了腐蚀产物在钢表面保护膜的形成,导致动态条件下腐蚀速率较高。魏亮[58]探究了流速对碳钢在动态液相中腐蚀行为的影响并进行了机理分析,结果如图13所示。
碳钢在S-CO2中的腐蚀产物膜的形成过程受流速影响,流动剪切力使腐蚀类型发生改变,从静态下的均匀腐蚀转变为局部腐蚀。局部腐蚀坑内产物膜形成机制由流体冲刷材料壁面的流动剪切力与局部腐蚀产生的凹坑尺寸共同决定。小流速、小尺寸的腐蚀坑受流动剪切力的影响最小;大流速、大尺寸的腐蚀坑受流动剪切力的冲刷作用影响最大。
冶金参数如材料成分及热处理工艺等都对腐蚀行为有着重要的影响。材料组成元素如Cr、Ni、Mo等是主要的耐腐蚀元素:Cr提高了对酸性和氧化介质的抵抗力并能减少点蚀;Ni改善了碱性环境中的腐蚀行为;Mo在低的还原电位下引起钝化作用,其他合金表现出活性溶解。成分含量的不同决定了其金相组织差异,金相组织主要有铁素体、马氏体、奥氏体、渗碳体等几种,不同金相组织间产生腐蚀产物膜的方式不同。
Russick等人[59]研究表明,碳钢在水相饱和的S-CO2中存在腐蚀问题,而316SS和304LSS在同样的环境中表现出耐腐蚀性。Hua等人[47]发现,当含饱和水的S-CO2中存在O2时,5Cr比X65钢抗腐蚀性更强。他们还发现,在氧的质量分数为2×10–6以上的情况下,5Cr钢的总腐蚀率低于0.04 mm/a,是X65钢测量值的1/2。不过,Choi等人[40]的实验结果表明X65钢和13Cr钢的腐蚀速率在含有O2和SO2杂质的水饱和S-CO2中无明显差异,13Cr钢在含饱和水的致密CO2环境中的耐蚀性不高。Pfennig等人[60]研究了热处理对不锈钢在含盐水层中的腐蚀行为的影响。在10 MPa处暴露于S-CO2的马氏体微结构的钢的腐蚀速率较低,而在环境压力下正常化钢的耐蚀性较好。
Lee等人[61]研究了S-CO2第4代反应堆能量转换系统中的候选材料在S-CO2中的耐蚀性,腐蚀材料有奥氏体不锈钢、镍基合金及铁素体-马氏体不锈钢等,腐蚀压力为20 MPa、温度为550~650 ℃、腐蚀时间1 000 h。研究表明,铁素体-马氏体钢的腐蚀速率远大于奥氏体不锈钢和镍基合金。在550 ℃时,奥氏体不锈钢和镍基合金均表现出良好的耐蚀性。奥氏体不锈钢表面氧化物为多边形氧化铁与球状(550 ℃和600 ℃)或片状(650 ℃)富铬氧化物的混合物。而SS316H和SS316LN的耐蚀性强烈依赖于实验温度,这是由于形成了较厚的外层氧化铁造成的。在温度为550~650 ℃内,镍基合金塑性降低,但其原因及机理并没有合理解释。
金属材料的腐蚀防护技术主要有选用耐蚀材料、涂层、缓蚀剂、阴极保护等一种或多种技术相结合的保护方式。对于S-CO2布雷顿循环系统来说,由于工质成分要求固定,其腐蚀防护方法主要为选用耐腐蚀材料和涂层技术。
相较于耐蚀合金(奥氏体不锈钢、镍基合金等)较高的建设成本,作为一种能提高碳钢性能的有效方法,涂层技术可以在腐蚀保护和建设成本之间达成平衡。目前,S-CO2涂层保护技术的研究才刚刚起步。Sun[62]研究了化学镀Ni-P涂层在含O2和NO2的不纯S-CO2环境中的耐腐蚀性能。结果表明,在镍相关产物中,NiO的稳定性和保护性最强,并且Ni-P涂层的缓蚀效率始终高于80%,显示出优越的耐腐蚀性能。
同时,Sun等人[63]也研究了化学镀Ni-P涂层在含H2S的不纯S-CO2环境中的腐蚀行为。结果表明:一方面,当H2S存在时,腐蚀垢转化为NiS、Ni3S2和微量Ni(OH)2,腐蚀加剧;另一方面,H2S会通过表面的微孔加速涂层的腐蚀,进一步促进了腐蚀性介质在涂层中的渗透,导致涂层下方的基体材料发生局部腐蚀。此外,将UNS R50250、UNS N10276、UNS N06625和UNS S31603的涂层热喷涂在碳钢上并暴露于含杂S-CO2环境中也可以对材料基体有保护作用,但必须注意确保热喷涂层没有任何穿透孔隙,否则可能加速底层钢的腐蚀[64]。在存在孔隙的情况下,应使用不受碳酸、S-CO2或H2S影响的密封剂来封闭孔隙,从而形成能够提供经济有效的缓蚀剂的涂层体系。因此对于涂层技术来说,关键是要确保涂层没有任何孔隙。
S-CO2的腐蚀行为研究仍处于探索阶段,针对目前的研究,做出了以下总结并提出了待解决的问题。
1)金属材料在S-CO2中腐蚀过程主要分为氧化反应和渗碳反应。其腐蚀产物主要为双层结构,外层产物为金属氧化物,内层产物为致密的铁铬尖晶石层FeCr2O4。同时在腐蚀时间足够长时,氧化反应产生的碳单质穿过腐蚀产物内层进入基体区域,在基体内部形成渗碳层,从而导致材料性能降低。由于Fe和Cr的向外迁移,导致在材料基体区域靠近腐蚀内层位置存在较多孔洞。
2)对于影响S-CO2腐蚀因素而言,温度是最重要的影响因素。温度升高会加剧材料在S-CO2中腐蚀,压力对材料的S-CO2腐蚀影响较小。
3)H2O、O2、SO2等杂质的存在通常会加剧金属材料在S-CO2中的腐蚀。当含水量增加时,金属材料在S-CO2中的均匀腐蚀和局部腐蚀问题变得更严重。O2、SO2、H2S等气体杂质的加入也会加快氧化,且各杂质对腐蚀的影响效果为SO2>H2S>O2
4)相较于温度、压力和杂质等因素,流速对材料在S-CO2腐蚀的影响较小,流速主要影响材料的S-CO2局部腐蚀,在动态条件下,流体在试样表面产生剪切应力和湍动能,阻碍了腐蚀产物在钢表面保护膜的形成,导致动态条件下腐蚀速率较高。现阶段关于金属材料的S-CO2腐蚀多在静止工况下进行,而在实际工况中工质于流动状态,因此在今后的研究中应更重视在流动工况下开展腐蚀试验。
5)S-CO2布雷顿循环系统中的关键设备比常规机组面临更高温度的考验,专门针对S-CO2布雷顿循环的候选材料研究还有待补充。
6)现阶段S-CO2的腐蚀研究主要为短期研究,而在实际工程生产中,设备均为长期运行,因此现阶段的短期腐蚀研究对于长期工作的S-CO2循环系统材料的性能评估缺乏可靠性。
7)目前S-CO2环境下材料腐蚀研究工作的应用背景不同,CO2参数和测试材料也不同,无法形成较为全面的材料腐蚀数据库,无法进行耐热材料抗腐蚀性能的评估及研究。针对汽轮机转子和叶片材料,S-CO2条件下材料的疲劳性能也亟待研究。此外,基于S-CO2环境下金属材料的腐蚀特性,S-CO2腐蚀防控技术方面的研究也亟需开展。
  • 国家市场监督管理总局科技计划资助项目(2019MK071)
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2023年第52卷第10期
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doi: 10.19666/j.rlfd.202301012
  • 接收时间:2023-01-31
  • 首发时间:2026-01-26
  • 出版时间:2023-10-25
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  • 收稿日期:2023-01-31
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Science and Technology Program of the State Administration for Market Regulation(2019MK071)
国家市场监督管理总局科技计划资助项目(2019MK071)
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    1.西安交通大学动力工程多相流国家重点实验室,陕西 西安 710049
    2.西安特种设备检验检测院,陕西 西安 710065
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2种不同金属材料的力学参数

Family
属数
Number of
genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of
total species (%)

Genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of total
species (%)
鹅膏菌科Amanitaceae 2 11 5.26 鹅膏菌属 Amanita 10 4.78
小菇科 Mycenaceae 2 12 5.74 丝盖伞属 Inocybe 5 2.39
多孔菌科 Polyporaceae 8 14 6.70 蜡蘑属 Laccaria 5 2.39
红菇科 Russulaceae 3 23 11.00 小皮伞属 Marasmius 6 2.87
小菇属 Mycena 11 5.26
光柄菇属 Pluteus 5 2.39
红菇属 Russula 17 8.13
栓菌属 Trametes 5 2.39
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