Article(id=1190332968334889020, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189645257101713411, issueId=1190332965457596465, articleNumber=null, orderNo=null, doi=10.19822/j.cnki.1671-6329.20240310, pmid=null, cstr=null, oa=null, hot=null, price=null, onlineType=0, articleFormat=0, articleType=null, articleTypeStr=research-article, receivedDate=null, receivedDateStr=null, revisedDate=null, revisedDateStr=null, acceptedDate=null, acceptedDateStr=null, onlineDate=1761727094967, onlineDateStr=2025-10-29, pubDate=1751644800000, pubDateStr=2025-07-05, doiRegisterDate=null, doiRegisterDateStr=null, onlineIssueDate=1761727094967, onlineIssueDateStr=2025-10-29, onlineJustAcceptDate=null, onlineJustAcceptDateStr=null, onlineFirstDate=null, onlineFirstDateStr=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, createTime=1761727094967, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1761727094967, updator=13701087609, issue=Issue{id=1190332965457596465, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189645257101713411, year='2025', volume='', issue='7', pageStart='1', pageEnd='62', issueExtLink='null', onlineDate='null', pubDate='null', beforeIssueId=null, nextIssueId=null, price=null, status=1, issueComplete=1, articleOrder=1, issueType=-1, specialIssue=null, createTime=1761727094282, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1761728892482, updator=13701087609, preIssue=null, nextIssue=null, ext={EN=IssueExt(id=1190340507713770164, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189645257101713411, issueId=1190332965457596465, language=EN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=), CN=IssueExt(id=1190340507713770165, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189645257101713411, issueId=1190332965457596465, language=CN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=)}, issueFiles=null}, startPage=14, endPage=24, ext={EN=ArticleExt(id=1190332968515244093, articleId=1190332968334889020, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189645257101713411, language=EN, title=A Review of Multi-State Joint Estimation Methods for Battery I:Dual-State Joint Estimation, columnId=1190332966141268019, journalTitle=Automotive Digest, columnName=Special Topic on State of Health (SOH)/State of Charge (SOC) Estimation and Collaborative Management Technology for Power Batteries, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

Firstly, this paper reviews the definitions of the key states of lithium-ion batteries, including State of Charge (SOC), State of Power (SOP), State of Function (SOF), State of Energy (SOE), State of Health (SOH), Remaining Useful Life (RUL), State of Temperature (SOT) and State of Safety (SOS), and analyzes their coupling relationships. Then, it classifies and elaborates the methods for joint estimation of battery double states. In the future, multi-state joint estimation can further improve the estimation accuracy. Advanced sensor technologies, such as fiber-optic sensors, can more accurately measure the internal state quantities of batteries. At present, battery group state estimation is mostly focused on individual cells, and it is necessary to further explore the joint estimation at the battery module and group levels. Given the nonlinear characteristics of lithium-ion batteries, machine learning can achieve higher estimation accuracy with relatively low complexity. With the development of big data and cloud technologies, new-type battery state estimation will become a trend.

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首先,综述了锂离子电池的关键状态包括荷电状态(SOC)、功率状态(SOP)、功能状态(SOF)、能量状态(SOE)、健康状态(SOH)、剩余使用寿命(RUL)、温度状态(SOT)和安全状态(SOS)关键状态的定义,分析其耦合关系。然后,分类阐述电池双状态联合估计的方法,并对未来发展趋势进行了展望。未来,多状态联合估计可进一步提升估计精度;先进传感器技术,如光纤传感器可更准确测量电池内部状态量;目前,电池组状态估计多集中于单体电池,需深入探索电池模组和电池组层面的联合估计;鉴于锂离子电池的非线性特性,机器学习能以较低复杂度实现较高精度估计,随着大数据和云技术发展,新型电池状态估计将成为趋势。

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Electrochimica Acta, 2023, 443(3): 141964., articleTitle=Multi-State Joint Estimation of Series Battery Pack Based on Multi-Model Fusion, refAbstract=null), Reference(id=1190333057820365222, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189645257101713411, articleId=1190332968334889020, doi=null, pmid=null, pmcid=null, year=2024, volume=17, issue=1, pageStart=null, pageEnd=null, url=null, language=null, rfNumber=[50], rfOrder=49, authorNames=Di LUCA G, Di BLASIO G, GIMELLI A, journalName=Energies, refType=null, unstructuredReference=Di LUCA G, Di BLASIO G, GIMELLI A, et al. Review on Battery State Estimation and Management Solutions for Next-Generation Connected Vehicles[J]. Energies, 2024, 17(1): 202., articleTitle=Review on Battery State Estimation and Management Solutions for Next-Generation Connected Vehicles, refAbstract=null), Reference(id=1190333057883279783, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189645257101713411, articleId=1190332968334889020, doi=null, pmid=null, pmcid=null, year=2024, volume=206, issue=11, pageStart=null, pageEnd=null, url=null, language=null, rfNumber=[51], rfOrder=50, authorNames=MEI P, KARIMI H R, XIE J, journalName=Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, refType=null, unstructuredReference=MEI P, KARIMI H R, XIE J, et al. Battery State Estimation Methods and Management System under Vehicle-Cloud Collaboration: A Survey[J]. 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发表年份
/文献
方法/特性/电池模型 精度
SOC/% SOH/%
2023/[16] AUKF1-RC ECM RE≈0.3
2022/[17] DAKF2-RC ECM ME<1.5 ME<5.7
2022/[18] NOB+P2D EM RMSE<0.5 RMSE<1
2020/[19] SWPSO+DRNN MAE<1
2021/[20] RNN+LS-SVM RMSE<0.85 RMSE<1.3
2022/[21] LSTM+CKF+PSO2-RC ECM RMSE<2 RMSE<1.7
2022/[22] AEKF+BPNN1-RC ECM RMSE<1.2 RMSE<2.5
), ArticleFig(id=1190333049721164134, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189645257101713411, articleId=1190332968334889020, language=CN, label=表1, caption=

SOC-SOH联合估计方法总结

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
发表年份
/文献
方法/特性/电池模型 精度
SOC/% SOH/%
2023/[16] AUKF1-RC ECM RE≈0.3
2022/[17] DAKF2-RC ECM ME<1.5 ME<5.7
2022/[18] NOB+P2D EM RMSE<0.5 RMSE<1
2020/[19] SWPSO+DRNN MAE<1
2021/[20] RNN+LS-SVM RMSE<0.85 RMSE<1.3
2022/[21] LSTM+CKF+PSO2-RC ECM RMSE<2 RMSE<1.7
2022/[22] AEKF+BPNN1-RC ECM RMSE<1.2 RMSE<2.5
), ArticleFig(id=1190333049792467303, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189645257101713411, articleId=1190332968334889020, language=EN, label=null, caption=null, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
发表年份
/文献
方法/特性/电池模型 精度
SOC SOPSOP
2022/[23] PSO-GA参数辨识
DEKF
2-RC FOM OCV-SOC
1-RC ECM估计SOP
ME<2% RMSE=0.35 W
2019/[24] AUKF
温度和电压迟滞2-RC ECM
RMSE=3.17
2024/[25] UKF
电压迟滞Thevenin
ME<0.2
2023/[26] H∞滤波
2-RC ECM
MARE<1.5 MARE<1.6%
2013/[27] AEKF
1-RC ECM
ME<1
), ArticleFig(id=1190333049863770472, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189645257101713411, articleId=1190332968334889020, language=CN, label=表2, caption=

SOC-SOP联合估计方法总结

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
发表年份
/文献
方法/特性/电池模型 精度
SOC SOPSOP
2022/[23] PSO-GA参数辨识
DEKF
2-RC FOM OCV-SOC
1-RC ECM估计SOP
ME<2% RMSE=0.35 W
2019/[24] AUKF
温度和电压迟滞2-RC ECM
RMSE=3.17
2024/[25] UKF
电压迟滞Thevenin
ME<0.2
2023/[26] H∞滤波
2-RC ECM
MARE<1.5 MARE<1.6%
2013/[27] AEKF
1-RC ECM
ME<1
), ArticleFig(id=1190333049939267945, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189645257101713411, articleId=1190332968334889020, language=EN, label=null, caption=null, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
发表年份
/文献
方法/特性 精度
SOC SOT
2022/[14] DKF
准三维热模型
ME<2.12 表面温度
MaxAE<0.16
内部温度
MaxAE<0.24
2024/[28] DUKF
电热耦合模型
RMSE<0.022 RMSE<0.4284
2024/[29] AFO-TCM
频域分离的参数辨识
RMSE<1.2 RMSE<0.5
2024/[30] 2D-CNN RMSE<0.7 RMSE<0.267
2024/[31] DNN
FBG传感器技术
MAE<0.59
), ArticleFig(id=1190333050035736938, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189645257101713411, articleId=1190332968334889020, language=CN, label=表3, caption=

SOC-SOT联合估计方法总结

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
发表年份
/文献
方法/特性 精度
SOC SOT
2022/[14] DKF
准三维热模型
ME<2.12 表面温度
MaxAE<0.16
内部温度
MaxAE<0.24
2024/[28] DUKF
电热耦合模型
RMSE<0.022 RMSE<0.4284
2024/[29] AFO-TCM
频域分离的参数辨识
RMSE<1.2 RMSE<0.5
2024/[30] 2D-CNN RMSE<0.7 RMSE<0.267
2024/[31] DNN
FBG传感器技术
MAE<0.59
), ArticleFig(id=1190333050107040107, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189645257101713411, articleId=1190332968334889020, language=EN, label=null, caption=null, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
发表年份
/文献
估计方法/电池模型 精度
SOC SOE
2017/[34] 自适应H∞滤波 ME=0.04 ME=0.06
2021/[36] DFFAEKF
2-RC ECM
RMSE<0.85 RMSE<0.95
2022/[38] 2-RC ECM
VFFRLS
FACKF
MaxAE<2.7 MaxAE<2
2024/[39] LM-SH-CKF
HE-DP
RMSE<1.3 RMSE<1.2
2021/[40] LSTM RMSE<3.3 RMSE<2.9
2023/[41] MTLN RMSE=1.29 RMSE=0.77
), ArticleFig(id=1190333050182537580, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189645257101713411, articleId=1190332968334889020, language=CN, label=表4, caption=

SOC-SOE联合估计方法总结

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
发表年份
/文献
估计方法/电池模型 精度
SOC SOE
2017/[34] 自适应H∞滤波 ME=0.04 ME=0.06
2021/[36] DFFAEKF
2-RC ECM
RMSE<0.85 RMSE<0.95
2022/[38] 2-RC ECM
VFFRLS
FACKF
MaxAE<2.7 MaxAE<2
2024/[39] LM-SH-CKF
HE-DP
RMSE<1.3 RMSE<1.2
2021/[40] LSTM RMSE<3.3 RMSE<2.9
2023/[41] MTLN RMSE=1.29 RMSE=0.77
), ArticleFig(id=1190333050249646445, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189645257101713411, articleId=1190332968334889020, language=EN, label=null, caption=null, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
发表年份/
文献
方法/特性 精度
SOH RUL
2024/[43] ELM+RVM RMSE<2 ME<5
RMSE<2 ME<20
2022/[44] 多级LSTM RMSE<0.53 ME<37
2022/[45] GPR-PF RMSE<2 RMSE<12
RMSE<0.5 RMSE<400
2023/[46] RKS-PF RMSE<4.2 ME<7
), ArticleFig(id=1190333050308366702, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189645257101713411, articleId=1190332968334889020, language=CN, label=表5, caption=

SOH-RUL联合估计方法总结

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
发表年份/
文献
方法/特性 精度
SOH RUL
2024/[43] ELM+RVM RMSE<2 ME<5
RMSE<2 ME<20
2022/[44] 多级LSTM RMSE<0.53 ME<37
2022/[45] GPR-PF RMSE<2 RMSE<12
RMSE<0.5 RMSE<400
2023/[46] RKS-PF RMSE<4.2 ME<7
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电池多状态联合估计方法综述I:双状态联合估计
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韩留军 , 李丽珍 , 张富斌 , 叶源 , 王星
汽车文摘 | 动力电池SOH/SOC状态估计与协同管理技术专题 2025,(7): 14-24
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汽车文摘 | 动力电池SOH/SOC状态估计与协同管理技术专题 2025, (7): 14-24
电池多状态联合估计方法综述I:双状态联合估计
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韩留军, 李丽珍, 张富斌, 叶源, 王星
作者信息
  • 无锡华普微电子有限公司,无锡 214035
A Review of Multi-State Joint Estimation Methods for Battery I:Dual-State Joint Estimation
Liujun Han, Lizhen Li, Fubin Zhang, Yuan Ye, Xing Wang
Affiliations
  • Wuxi Hope Microelectronics Co., Ltd., Wuxi 214035
出版时间: 2025-07-05 doi: 10.19822/j.cnki.1671-6329.20240310
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首先,综述了锂离子电池的关键状态包括荷电状态(SOC)、功率状态(SOP)、功能状态(SOF)、能量状态(SOE)、健康状态(SOH)、剩余使用寿命(RUL)、温度状态(SOT)和安全状态(SOS)关键状态的定义,分析其耦合关系。然后,分类阐述电池双状态联合估计的方法,并对未来发展趋势进行了展望。未来,多状态联合估计可进一步提升估计精度;先进传感器技术,如光纤传感器可更准确测量电池内部状态量;目前,电池组状态估计多集中于单体电池,需深入探索电池模组和电池组层面的联合估计;鉴于锂离子电池的非线性特性,机器学习能以较低复杂度实现较高精度估计,随着大数据和云技术发展,新型电池状态估计将成为趋势。

锂离子电池  /  电池管理系统  /  状态联合估计

Firstly, this paper reviews the definitions of the key states of lithium-ion batteries, including State of Charge (SOC), State of Power (SOP), State of Function (SOF), State of Energy (SOE), State of Health (SOH), Remaining Useful Life (RUL), State of Temperature (SOT) and State of Safety (SOS), and analyzes their coupling relationships. Then, it classifies and elaborates the methods for joint estimation of battery double states. In the future, multi-state joint estimation can further improve the estimation accuracy. Advanced sensor technologies, such as fiber-optic sensors, can more accurately measure the internal state quantities of batteries. At present, battery group state estimation is mostly focused on individual cells, and it is necessary to further explore the joint estimation at the battery module and group levels. Given the nonlinear characteristics of lithium-ion batteries, machine learning can achieve higher estimation accuracy with relatively low complexity. With the development of big data and cloud technologies, new-type battery state estimation will become a trend.

Lithium-ion battery  /  Battery management system  /  State joint-estimation
韩留军, 李丽珍, 张富斌, 叶源, 王星. 电池多状态联合估计方法综述I:双状态联合估计. 汽车文摘, 2025 , (7) : 14 -24 . DOI: 10.19822/j.cnki.1671-6329.20240310
Liujun Han, Lizhen Li, Fubin Zhang, Yuan Ye, Xing Wang. A Review of Multi-State Joint Estimation Methods for Battery I:Dual-State Joint Estimation[J]. Automotive Digest, 2025 , (7) : 14 -24 . DOI: 10.19822/j.cnki.1671-6329.20240310
稳定可靠的电池管理系统(Battery Management System, BMS)可以准确监控电池状态,确保电池在安全的工作区域运行,并且最大限度提高电池的能量传输能力,延长电池的使用寿命[1]。准确监控和估计电池内部状态是电池管理的关键。电池的状态估计包括荷电状态(State of Charge, SOC)、电池荷电状态预测(State of Predict, SOP)、电池功能状态(State of Function, SOF)、电池能量状态(State of Energy, SOE)、电池健康状态(State of Health, SOH)、电池剩余使用寿命(Remaining Useful Life, RUL)、电池温度状态(State of Temperature, SOT)和电池安全状态(State of Safety, SOS)等。目前已有多种方法用于估计单一电池状态,并且有许多综述文献对电池单一状态估计方法进行了总结,Swarnkar等[2]总结了SOC和SOH的估计方法,包括直接测量法、自适应滤波算法、非线性观测器(Nonlinear Observer, NOB)法、数据驱动法等,并讨论了SOC估计和SOH估计的难点。Farmann等[3]对现有的SOP估计方法进行了系统的综述。Che等[4]全面回顾了锂离子电池老化机制和最先进的健康预测方法,并总结了电池健康预测的主要挑战和研究前景。
然而,电池的各种状态相互影响。例如,电池在使用过程中性能衰减会影响SOC估计,而SOC准确度会影响SOP的估计结果,可能导致电池的滥用,进而又影响电池的安全和寿命。因此,如果孤立地估计电池状态而忽略电池状态之间的耦合关系,会影响状态估计的准确性,故需要开发电池的多状态联合估计方法以实现更准确的状态估计和更先进的电池管理。目前,已有一些文献中对电池多状态联合估计方法进行了一些总结与论述。2023年,Shrivastava等[5]总结了适用于SOC、SOE、SOP和SOH的单一状态和4种双状态联合估计算法。同年,Liu等[6]系统地介绍了常用的电池状态定义,并介绍了6种电池双状态联合估计方法和2种三状态联合估计方法,但对其他的电池多状态联合估计的介绍还不全面。2024年Lipu等[7]讨论了SOC-SOH、SOC-SOE、SOC-SOP和SOH-RUL的联合估计方法,但没有探讨SOT对其他状态估计的影响。2024年,Guo等[8]对基于电化学模型的电池状态估计方法进行了系统综述,总结了电池状态估计的研究趋势、模型选择和估算方法,结果表明虽然该领域的研究在不断增加,但目前主要集中在单个电池、单一状态估计上,未来的研究应涉及电池组的状态估计和多状态联合估计。然而在现有综述中,针对电池多状态联合估计的研究成果还缺乏必要的系统综述。
因此,本文主要回顾具有耦合关系的电池多状态联合估计算法相关研究成果,介绍电池关键状态的定义,分类讨论并对比电池双状态的联合估计方法。最后,总结并展望电池状态联合估计的发展趋势。
SOC是衡量电池性能的一个重要参数,取决于电池内平均锂离子浓度,无法通过电信号直接测量。BMS需要对SOC进行精确估算,避免电池出现过充或过放的情况。通常SOC可以定义为剩余容量与最大可用容量的百分比[6]
$ S O C=100 \times C_{\mathrm{re}} / C_{\max }$
式中:Cre为电池在电量完全耗尽之前可释放的剩余电量;Cmax为电池在完全充电状态下,且在当前实际老化状态下可释放的最大电量。
在这种定义下,最大可用容量是一个随电池状态和运行条件的变化而变化的物理量,并且随着电池的循环使用,Cmax会随着电池老化而逐渐减小。
随着锂离子电池的循环使用,电池的性能会发生不可逆的化学和物理变化而导致性能下降,SOH是用于定量描述电池性能衰退程度的状态变量。准确的SOH估计可反映电池当前健康状态和电池性能,更新其他短期状态估计(如SOCSOP)等关键参数,指导电池的管理策略的优化等[4]。通常用容量衰退或者内阻增长来定义SOH[9]
$ S O H=C_{t} / C_{\mathrm{BoL}} $
$ S O H=\left(R_{\mathrm{EoL}}-R_{t}\right) /\left(R_{\mathrm{EoL}}-R_{\mathrm{BoL}}\right) $
式中:CtRt为当前时刻t的电池实际最大可用容量和内阻,CBoLRBoL为新电池的电池最大可用容量和内阻,REoL是电池达到寿命终点时的电池内阻。
RUL也是电池健康状态指标之一,RUL表示从当前状态到电池寿命终点(End of Life, EoL)的剩余可用时间或者循环次数。因此,在文献[6]中将RUL定义如下:
$ R U L=\beta-\alpha $
式中:α是当前的循环次数,β是EoL时的循环次数。通过预测从当前状态到EoL循环次数得到电池有效使用时间。
SOP表征的电池在极限电压、电流、温度和SOC等参数约束下,在一段时间内能提供的最大充/放电功率,可以用峰值功率Pmax与标称功率Pn的比值来表示[6]
$ S O P=P_{\max } / P_{\mathrm{n}} $
与SOP类似的,SOF描述电池在一定的运行条件(SOC、SOH、温度)下执行特定负载的能力。Park等[10]从电池在安全运行区域内所能提供的最大瞬时输出能力的角度定义了SOF:
$ P(t)=P_{\max } \cdot S O C(t) S O H(t) $
$ S O F=\left(P(t)-P_{\mathrm{d}}(t)\right) /\left(P_{\max }-P_{\mathrm{d}}(t)\right) $
式中:Pmax为新电池可以提供的最大功率,SOC(t)和SOH(t)分别为电池当前的SOCSOHP(t)为当前电池所能提供的瞬时功率,Pd(t)为在t时刻的功率需求。
由于SOP和SOF都是表征电池在特定条件下所能提供的功率需求,一些学者将SOP和SOF视为等同的状态量。比如,在文献[11]中,用SOF表示电池峰值输出功率。在本文中,也将SOP和SOF当作同一状态量来论述联合估计方法。
SOE反映的是电池的剩余可用能量状态,与电池可放出的电量和放电时的电压有关。通常电池在放电过程中出现明显的电压下降,因此在不同的SOC水平下,同等的电量会提供不同的能量。因此,与SOC相比,SOE更适合用于估计电动汽车的行驶里程[12]SOE可以用功率积分表示[12]
$ \operatorname{\mathit{SOE} }(t)=\operatorname{\mathit{SOE}}\left(t_{0}\right)+\int P(t) \cdot \mathrm{d} t /\left(E_{\mathrm{N}}\right) $
式中:SOE(t0)和SOE(t)分别为初始时刻和当前时刻t的电池SOEP(t)为电池在t时刻的功率,EN为额定能量。
近年来,随着锂离子电池的广泛使用,其安全性越来越受到关注,与电池安全相关的电池状态的研究也逐渐成为研究热点,如SOT和SOS等。SOT描述了电池的实时热状态,在大倍率充放电工况下,瞬态的电池内部温度与电池表面外部传感器测量的温度相差20%以上[13]。在大尺寸电池上温度分布的不均匀性会更明显,因此Li等[14]提出用温度分布状态(State of Temperature Distribution,SOTD)来评估电池的温度状态,所提出的算法通过还原电池表面温度分布和计算电池内部温度分布来联合校正SOC和平均内部温度,实现电池温度分布的在线精确估计。
SOS是电池状态估算研究领域出现的新课题,目前并没有对SOS的明确定义和成熟的估计方法。考虑到电池运行的外部压力和电池的动态特性,SOS可表述为包括电压、温度、充放电电流、内部阻抗、电池膨胀和电池变形在内的可能滥用概率函数的倒数[15]。通常会使用滥用系数将SOS限制在0~1的范围内,以便将SOS限制在与SOC相同的数值范围内[12]。目前SOS还有待进一步的研究和探索。
电池状态之间的耦合关系如图1所示,可以将电池状态分为热力学状态、电性能状态与老化状态。电池的热力学状态,即SOT会影响电池参数(如最大可用容量、内阻、库伦效率等),进而影响SOC、SOP/SOF、SOE、SOH等状态的估计。而电池的运行工况(如充放电倍率、电压)和电池老化状态(如阻值增大)也会产生电池发热量的差异,导致电池表面温度及内部温度分布发生变化。同时,电性能状态与老化状态也会相互影响:电池可用容量与内阻与电性能状态的估计直接相关,而电性能状态预测值能决定电池运行工况,进而影响电池寿命。总而言之,电池因具有复杂的电化学运行机制而呈现出多种状态,且这些状态之间存在耦合关系。根据图1所示的电池状态之间的耦合关系,基于现有的研究文献,详细介绍了锂离子电池双状态联合估计的方法和进展。
由式(1)可知,电池容量与SOC估计直接相关,而且随着锂离子电池的逐渐老化,其电池容量和阻抗参数变化会影响电池SOC的估计精度。因此,在全生命周期估计SOC时需要考虑电池SOH。同时,不准确的SOC估计结果容易导致电池滥用,进一步导致电池的老化,因此实现SOC和SOH的联合估计对于提高它们的估计精度以及延长电池使用寿命非常重要。SOH和SOC的联合估计已受到学者们的广泛关注,其联合估计方法可分为基于模型的方法、数据驱动方法、融合估计方法等,当前的SOC-SOH联合估计的研究成果如表1所示。
基于模型的方法,首先需要建立电池模型并辨识模型参数,再结合滤波器或非线性观测器实现电池状态的估计。比如Li等[16]提出了一种基于一阶RC等效电路模型(Equivalent Circuit Model,ECM)的SOC和电池可用容量联合估计的框架,采用自适应无迹卡尔曼滤波(Adaptive Unscented Kalman Filter,AUKF)算法对确定的模型进行SOC估计。同时,通过可变遗忘因子的递推最小二乘法(Variable Forgetting Factor Recursive Least Squares, VFFRLS)逐步更新容量和欧姆电阻。城市道路循环(Urban Dynamometer Driving Schedule, UDDS)工况下的验证结果表明,SOC的相对误差(Relative Error, RE)约为3%。文献[17]选择2-RC ECM建模,增加了双循环和噪声自适应步骤,提出了一种新型双自适应卡尔曼滤波(Dual Adaptive Kalman Filtering, DAKF)算法,实现了SOC和内阻的联合估计,在混合功率脉冲特性(Hybrid Pulse Power Characteristic, HPPC)、北京公交动态应力测试(Beijing Bus Dynamic Stress Test, BBDST)和动态应力测试(Dynamic Stress Test, DST)3种不同动态工况下测试SOC和SOH的最大误差(Maximum Error, ME)分别为1.314%和5.624%。相比于等效电路模型,电化学模型(Electrochemical Model, EM)能更准确地模拟电池内部电化学反应机理。Gao等[18]使用简化的伪2维模型,并设计了一个双非线性观测器来估计模型参数和状态,实现了SOC-SOH联合估计。在DST和UDDS工况下进行测试,结果表明SOC和SOH的均方根误差(Root Mean Square Error, RMSE)均低于1%。
数据驱动法已广泛应用于电池状态估计,以避免复杂的电池建模和参数辨识过程。文献[19]在外源输入非线性自回归结构(Nonlinear Autoregressive with Exogenous Inputs, NARX)的基础上,建立了具有动态映射能力的改进型动态递归神经网络(Dynamic Recurrent Neural Network, DRNN)来实现SOC和SOH的联合估计。采用自适应加权粒子群优化(Adaptive Weighted Particle Swarm Optimization, AWPSO)算法来训练 DRNN,以提高收敛速度,避免陷入局部优化。与基于梯度下降训练法的DRNN和反向传播神经网络(Back Propagation Neural Network, BPNN)相比,AWPSO-DRNN方法具有更强的鲁棒性和泛化能力,在不同温度、不同电流、不同老化状态下SOC的平均绝对误差(Mean Absolute Error, MAE)不高于1%。Wang等[20]将分段电压的充电时间作为健康因子,利用最小二乘支持向量机(Least Squares Support Vector Machine,LS-SVM)估计容量,再将SOH作为SOC估计的递归神经网络(Recurrent Neural Network,RNN)的输入,实现了SOC和容量的联合估计。同时,采用移动窗口法规避了RNN梯度爆炸和原地消失的风险。
融合估计法通过同时使用两种或两种以上的算法来实现SOC和SOH的联合估计。其优点是可以利用每种算法的优势来提高状态估计的准确性和收敛速度。然而,多种算法的组合往往会产生较大的计算复杂度。常见的融合策略包括不同滤波算法的组合、不同机器学习算法的组合、滤波算法与机器学习算法的组合等。文献[21]提出了容积卡尔曼滤波器(Cubature Kalman Filter, CKF)与长短期记忆(Long Short Term Memory, LSTM)神经网络、粒子群优化(Particle Swarm Optimization, PSO)融合的锂离子电池的SOC和容量的联合估算框架。在该框架中,建立了一个包含温度补偿的2-RC ECM并利用PSO算法自适应地确定模型参数。然后选择充电持续时间作为健康因子,利用LSTM神经网络准确预测电池容量。同时,基于CKF输入动态更新的模型参数和容量值来估计SOC,提高了SOC估计精度。文献[22]提出了一种数模融合的SOC和SOH联合估计的方法。如图2所示,该方法包括3个部分:电池建模与参数辨识、SOC估计与SOH估计。首先,以离线辨识的方式建立了不同温度和老化状态下的电池极化参数查找表,R0电阻参数通过在线辨识获取。然后,结合AUKF算法估计电池SOC和容量,并应用Sage-Husa算法自适应更新了噪声协方差以提高系统鲁棒性。最后,采用BPNN描述SOH与估计容量和温度之间的关系,实现SOH的估计。在不同温度和老化状态下的动态工况下,对所提出的融合估计方法进行了验证。结果表明,SOC和SOH估计的均方根误差分别小于1.2%和2.5%。
SOP/SOF是评估锂离子电池连续和瞬时负载能力的重要指标。在不同的电压、SOC和温度限制下,锂离子的允许最大充放电电流/功率是不同的,而SOP/SOF则通过充放电倍率影响SOC估计。所以实现SOC-SOP/SOF的联合估计可以更好地预测锂离子电池的极限充放电性能,使电池在安全运行区域内工作。表2总结了目前SOC-SOP/SOF联合估计方法的研究成果。
相比于有限RC网络的ECM,分数阶模型(Fractional Order Model, FOM)能够更好地描述电池的非线性特性,提高SOP估计的峰值充放电电流的准确性。但FOM模型的复杂性高,为了解决模型准确性与复杂性的矛盾,文献[23]设计了模型融合(Model Fusion Method, MFM)方法用于SOC-SOP的联合估计。首先建立了2-RC FOM来模拟电池在有电流激励下的动态极化特性,并且通过粒子群优化遗传(Particle Swarm Optimization-Genetic Algorithm, PSO-GA)算法实现2-RC FOM参数辨识并构建了开路电压(Open Circuit Voltage, OCV)与SOC的非线性关系。然后采用1-RC ECM来估计SOC和SOP以提高计算效率。利用已建立的OCV-SOC曲线,基于1-RC ECM的双扩展卡尔曼滤波(Dual Extended Kalman Filter, DEKF)算法估计SOC,再基于电流和电压约束实现SOP的在线估计,经过UDDS工况验证,SOP估计的MAERMSE分别为0.288 W和0.35 W。然而,文献[23]并没有考虑温度对电池可用容量、内阻等参数的影响,从而会影响在变温工况下SOC和SOP估计精度。因此,Lei等[24]提出了一种耦合了温度和电压迟滞效应的2-RC ECM来描述温度和电压变化对电池动态特性的影响。首先测试电池在不同温度下的容量并使用指数模型来描述温度与电池容量的关系。同时,在不同温度下测试电池充电OCV和放电OCV曲线,通过曲线拟合建立起不同温度下充电OCV和放电OCV之间的最大迟滞电压模型,从而利用该迟滞电压模型来修正不同温度下的OCV-SOC曲线,提高电池模型的精度。最后基于温度和电压迟滞效应的2-RC ECM结合AUKF算法实现SOC-SOP的联合估计。在变温DST工况下仿真验证了所提出的联合估算器的有效性。文献[25]提出了更为简单的改进Thevenin模型来考虑电压迟滞效应,且更关注电流采样偏差带来的电池状态估计误差。其中,Thevenin模型中的一阶RC用于表征电池的极化特性,并在Thevenin模型的基础上增加了迟滞电压Uh用于表征电池的迟滞特性。为解决电流测量偏差(Current Measurement Deviation,CMD)带来的误差,在文中设计了基于双层遗忘因子的递推最小二乘法(Double-Layer Forgetting Factor Recursive Least Squares, DLFFRLS)的CMD校正策略,第一层FFRLS用于Thevenin模型的参数辨识,并将辨识得到的参数作为第二层FFRLS的输入参数,进行CMD校正,从而保证电池模型参数的准确性。随后基于自无迹卡尔曼滤波(Unscented Kalman Filter, UKF)算法估计SOC,并基于电流、电压和SOC的多参数约束来估计SOP。所提出的算法在BBDST和DST工况都进行了验证,SOC估计误差<0.2%。
为进一步提高系统的稳定性,文献[26]提出了一种基于H∞滤波的多约束锂离子电池SOP估算方法。首先,基于2-RC ECM结合FFRLS算法辨识了电池模型参数。其次,应用H∞滤波算法估计SOC,然后进行多时间尺度多约束SOC-SOP联合估计。最后,在UDDS工况下对联合估计算法进行了验证。SOC估计的平均绝对值相对误差(Mean Absolute Relative Error,MARE)为1.17%,不同时间尺度SOP估计的MARE小于1.6%。
Xiong等[27]提出了基于递推最小二乘法(Recursive Least Squares, RLS)和数据驱动自适应扩展卡尔曼滤波(Adaptive Extended Kalman Filter, AEKF)的SOC-SOP联合估计方法。首先,基于RLS用电流和电压实时测量值实现1-RC ECM的参数辨识,辨识的模型参数用于更新SOC及OCV,在此过程中,RLS不断迭代以减小电压误差。然后,电压误差及辨识的模型参数将被传送到基于AEKF算法的SOC估计器中,AEKF算法会调整SOC并修正模型输出电压,经过数次迭代后,电压误差趋于零,SOC也将收敛,从而获得准确的SOC估计值。最后,基于实时的电池模型及准确的SOC估计值可以计算出基于电压、SOC和峰值电流的多约束条件下的SOP估计值。在DST工况下的测试结果表明,即使联合估计器的初始状态存在较大误差,电压和SOC的估计误差均小于1%。
电池的温度变化会影响容量、充放电效率、OCV、欧姆内阻、极化内阻等电池参数。这些参数都会直接影响SOC的估计。而不准确的SOC估计可能导致电池温度不断升高,甚至引发热失控的风险。由此可见,SOC和SOT是相互影响的,实现SOC和SOT的联合估算对于提高电池稳定性和安全性具有重大意义。
表3总结了SOC和SOT联合估计方法的研究成果,总体上可以分成2大类别:一类为通过建立电-热耦合模型来更好的模拟电池在不同温度下的电池的电/热特性,从而提高SOC估计的精度;另一类是基于新型传感器的温度检测技术提高温度测量和SOC估计的准确性。
针对软包电池温度分布不均匀的问题,文献[14]采用新型空间还原方法和基于热阻网络和分布式发热模型的准三维热模型,实现了软包电池内部温度分布的在线估计。然后基于双卡尔曼滤波器(Dual Kalman Filter, DKF)来校正SOC和电池平均温度,同时DKF与空间还原算法相结合,实现了对电池SOTD的实时修正。在世界轻型汽车测试规程(World Light Vehicle Test Procedure, WLTC)下的验证表明,SOC的最大误差不超过2.12%,电池表面温度和内部温度的最大平均误差(Maximum Average Error, MaxAE)分别为0.16 ℃和0.24 ℃。
文献[28]建立了由双极化等效电路模型(Dual-Polarization Equivalent Circuit Model, DPM)和双态热模型(Two-State Thermal Model, TSM)组成的电-热耦合模型,同时采用双时间窗法和PSO算法来确定模型参数。然后基于所建立的电热耦合模型采用双无迹卡尔曼滤波器(Dual Unscented Kalman Filter, DUKF)实现SOC和电池核心温度(Core Temperature, CT)的联合估计。在不同温度的UDDS和DST工况下验证了所提出的联合估计算法的准确性和鲁棒性。文献[29]则更关注低温环境下SOC估计的稳健性,提出了一种异步分数阶热-电耦合模型(Asynchronous Fractional-Order Thermal-Electric Coupling Model,AFO-TCM)来描述电池的动态特性,将模型参数划分为高频的欧姆阻抗、中频的传荷阻抗和低频的扩散阻抗,构建了基于频域分离的模型参数辨识策略并实现了异步参数更新,通过UKF算法实现了SOC和CT估计。在补充联邦测试循环(Supplemental Federal Test Procedure Cycle driving cycle,US06)和高速公路燃油经济性测试循环(Highway Fuel Economy Test Cycle,HWFET)下进行验证,结果表明AFO-TCM可以更准确地模拟电池温度的变化,在不同环境条件下误差不超过1 °C。与不考虑频率特性的模型相比,AFO-TCM估计的SOC在0 °C、-10 °C和-20 °C US06工况下的RMSE分别减少了57%、52%和45%。
文献[30]中提出了一种2维卷积神经网络(Two-Dimensional Convolutional Neural Network, 2D-CNN)的分类模型用于估计电池温度和SOC。该模型的输入为电流、电压、环境温度和电池表面温度,模型输出的SOC估计结果将被整合到温度的估计模型中。在SOC和SOT的估计过程中,还采用了数据增强、顺序优化和高斯滤波等技术以提高系统的鲁棒性和估计精度。过UDDS工况验证,在-15 °C至55 °C的宽环境温度范围内,SOT和SOC估计的RMSE分别低于0.267 °C和0.7 %。
新兴的电芯级别的温度传感技术、机-电-热多维耦合的先进传感技术以及人工智能方法与新型传感器结合的技术可能会在智能电池的管理中发挥关键作用[31-32]。文献[31]中使用双直径光纤布拉格光栅(Fiber Bragg Gratings, FBGs)传感器技术,附着在软包电池的表面收集电池的温度及应变信息,然后将应变、温度、电流和电压组成的不同输入到深度神经网络(Deep Neural Network, DNN)模型,实现了具有高抗电磁干扰能力的精确电池SOC估计。文献[33]设计了一种新型智能电池,在电池内部植入分布式光纤传感器,以感知电池温度分布的不均匀性,并且进一步提出了一种基于混合块状热神经网络(Hybrid Lumped-Thermal-Neural-Network, LTNN)的闭环观测器,用于实时估计电池的内部多点温度,可实现电池内部热诊断的精确性和空间分辨率。
SOC和SOE分别用于估算电池的剩余容量和能量,两者之间存在定量关系。开发SOC-SOE联合估计技术有助于优化电池性能。表4总结了近几年的SOC-SOE联合估计方法,总体上可以将其分为基于各类滤波算法的估计算法和基于数据驱动的估计算法。
文献[34]中使用自适应H∞滤波算法对SOC和SOE进行了联合估计。自适应H∞算法能调整过程噪声矩阵和测量噪声矩阵,以较高的精度实时估计电池状态。但由于对SOC和SOE估计使用了两个独立的滤波器,因此计算负担会增大。文献[35]提出了一种基于双遗忘因子的自适应扩展卡尔曼滤波器(Dual Forgetting Factor-Based Adaptive Extended Kalman Filter,DFFAEKF)用于SOC估计,可以在不同动态条件下高精度地同时更新电池模型参数和SOC估计。另一方面,根据文献[36,37]中不同老化程度的锂离子电池在不同环境温度、充放电倍率下测试结果,发现SOC和SOE之间的关系始终保持不变。根据这一结论,文献[36]从不同恒定电流放电曲线中收集的试验数据,建立了测试电池的SOC和SOE之间的定量关系,并将其用于SOE估计。这种简单的SOC-SOE联合估计方法不需要建立额外的滤波器,可以有效降低BMS的计算负担。最后将所提出的联合估计方法在DST和US06动态负载曲线下进行测试。试验结果表明,采用DFFAEKF的SOC和SOE的估计的RMSE分别小于0.85%和0.95%。并且与DEKF算法相比,使用DFFAEKF算法的联合估计方法对初始误差条件的敏感度较低,而且向真值收敛的速度较快。不过,由于DFFAEKF算法具有基于遗忘因子的自适应噪声协方差矩阵更新功能,DFFAEKF算法的计算成本略高于DEKF算法。Yang等[38]研究了一种基于模糊自适应容积卡尔曼滤波(Fuzzy Adaptive Cubature Kalman Filtering, FACKF)算法的联合估计方法,通过两个模糊控制器实现了SOC和SOE高精度协同估计。首先,第一个模糊控制器针对传统CKF算法不足,解决了因测量噪声协方差变化导致SOC估计值收敛缓慢的问题,提高了SOC估算的收敛速度。然后,将SOC估计值输入到第二个模糊控制器,进一步提高了SOE的估计精度。在BBDST和DST的工况下,研究结果表明所提出的FACKF算法在不同SOC和SOE初始条件下均能取得较高的估计精度。然而,模糊自适应算法的计算量较大,后续研究可进一步优化以提升其效率。Zhu等[39]提出了一种改进的有限记忆-Sage Husa-容积卡尔曼(Limited Memory-Sage Husa-Cubature Kalman, LM-SH-CKF)算法估计SOC和SOE。首先,提出了迟滞效应-双极化(Hysteresis Effect-Dual Polarization,HE-DP)电池模型,用2个RC环节分别描述了电池的浓差极化、电化学极化,用Uh电压描述了电池电压的迟滞效应,准确描述了电池的动态特性。同时,为解决输入数据量较大时的数据饱和问题,还提出了一种改进的有限记忆最小二乘(Limited Memory Least Square,LMRLS)参数辨识方法,在输入新数据时删除旧数据,仅用有限内存周期内的最新数据进行参数估计,以提高LMRLS算法对时变参数的辨识性能。利用CKF算法估计SOC和SOE,结合Sage-Husa滤波器实时估计和修正系统噪声和观测噪声的统计特性,降低了系统模型误差并提高了SOC-SOE的估计精度。经15 ℃的DST、BBDST和HPPC工况的验证,结果表明,SOC和SOE估计的RMSE分别小于1.3%和1.2%。
目前大多数SOC-SOE联合估算的研究都采用了模型融合的方法,该方法需要对电池领域专业知识的深入了解。而基于深度学习的联合估计方法则不需要复杂的电池建模过程。文献[40]研究了基于LSTM神经网络的SOC-SOE联合估计方法,并在不同的温度和噪声干扰下通过动态测试对所提出的算法进行了验证。与SVR、随机森林(Random Forest,RF)和简单的RNN对比,LSTM神经网络以较高的计算负荷为代价,表现出了较高的准确性和鲁棒性。考虑到实际应用中要平衡车载计算资源与估算精度的关系,文献[41]中提出了一个在有限的车载计算资源下实现精确的电池状态估计的多任务学习网络(Multi-Task Learning Network, MTLN),用于锂电池SOC和SOE的联合在线估计。所提出的MTLN由多层LSTM特征提取层、单独的专家层和门控逻辑及塔式网络组成。底层的LSTM从测量数据中提取时间序列特征。针对特定任务的专家层会学习每个估计任务的特定特征,而共享任务专家层则会学习所有任务的共同特征。然后,门控逻辑输出一组权重,将每个任务对应的特定特征和共享特征结合起来,最后通过塔式网络进行回归预测,根据输入的特征给出SOC和SOE的状态估计值。与单任务估计模型和其他多任务估计模型相比,MTLN提高了估计精度,减少了多状态估计所需的计算资源。
SOH反映电池的老化程度,RUL则表示从当前电池健康状况到EoL的剩余运行寿命,可以先估计SOH及电池剩余容量,再确定SOH是否达到阈值来评估RUL。近年来,不少学者尝试开发一个SOH-RUL联合估计的框架来提高SOH-RUL联合估计的精度,提高BMS耐用性[42]表5总结了SOH-RUL联合估计的研究成果。
Yu等[43]提出了一种极限学习机(Extreme Learning Machine, ELM)和相关向量机(Relevance Vector Machine, RVM)融合的SOH-RUL联合估计方法,将电池生命周期分为早期和晚期2个阶段以应对电池的“容量突变”现象。在早期阶段,采用较低的估算频率和模型集成度;在后期阶段则提高估算频率和模型集成度,以平衡整个生命周期估算的速度和安全性。然后在NASA和CALCE数据集上对所提出的模型进行了验证,在两个数据集上SOH估计的RMSE均在2%以内。NASA数据集的RUL预测的最大绝对误差<5个周期,在大多数情况下CALCE数据集的RUL预测最大绝对误差<20个周期。Sanguk等[44]设计了基于多级LSTM的SOH-RUL联合估计框架,提出电池充电阶段的特征作为健康因子(Health Indicators, HIs),并用Pearson相关性分析及容量增量分析(Incremental Capacity Analysis, ICA)曲线来识别电芯的不一致性。第一级LSTM模型使用优化的HIs进行短期SOH估计,第二级LSTM来利用SOH估计结果和之前的RUL输出来迭代预测RUL。通过对串联电池组的加速老化测试,证明了所提出的联合估计框架可以提供稳健、准确的SOH和RUL预测。Li等[45]开发了一种高斯过程回归(Gaussian Process Regression,GPR)和粒子滤波(Particle Filter, PF)融合技术,以历史容量序列和当前容量分别作为输入和输出变量,应用GPR建立状态方程。同时,通过多输出高斯过程回归算法构建电池容量衰减与健康因子之间的联系。然后应用PF算法来跟踪电池容量衰减的路径,以实现短期电池SOH估计和长期电池RUL预测。最后在NASA数据集及Oxford数据集上进行了验证分析,结果表明,短期SOH的估计最大误差在4%以内,长期RUL的预测误差不高于400个周期。Hong等[46]提出了一种基于改进粒子滤波和递归最小二乘法(PF-RLS)算法的在线容量估计和离线剩余使用寿命预测方法。从放电曲线中提取特征电压作为健康因子,使用PF-RLS算法来实时估计特征电压,以准确估计SOH和RUL。在NASA数据集上证明改进的PF-RLS算法预测的RUL比标准PF算法预测的RUL更准确。
SOH-RUL联合估计是相对较新的技术领域,一方面这种技术非常依赖于电池老化测试数据集,由于电池老化测试周期长,可用于研究与训练的老化数据集较难获取。另一方面,目前文献研究中所提出的SOH-RUL联合估计方法大部分都使用开源的数据集,而开源数据集的数量有限,并且有些数据集历史较久远,而电池技术在不断发展,不同类型、不同材料和不同容量的电池在电动汽车领域使用,而电池的特性参数与数据集的特征提取直接相关,那么有些“过时”的电池数据集将不再适用。同时,虽然先进的机器学习算法的引入能有效提高SOH及RUL预测精度,但机器学习算法对计算资源和存储资源有较高的要求。这些因素都导致SOH-RUL估计技术的适用性有所欠缺。值得关注的是,随着大数据和云端技术的发展,未来在云端部署SOH-RUL估计算法将变得更加高效。
本文介绍了电动汽车锂离子电池状态估计方法的最新进展,首先简要介绍了电池8种关键状态的定义,并分析了电池状态之间的耦合关系,强调了多状态联合估计方法的必要性。其次,根据近几年已发表的研究成果,分类介绍了电池双状态联合估计的方法。与电池单一状态估计方法相比,状态联合估计方法因为考虑了电池状态之间的耦合关系而具有更高的精度。但是,锂离子电池作为一个复杂的电化学系统,电池状态的联合估计仍然有许多待解决的问题,对锂离子电池状态估计技术的未来发展趋势进行了如下展望。
(1)深入研究多状态联合估计:在实际应用中,电池的状态之间存在更多元的相关关联,比如模型参数和电池SOH的变化会直接影响SOC和SOP/SOF的估计,而SOC和SOP/SOF的估计值决定着电池的运行工况,进而影响电池的老化进程。因此,电池的三状态联合估计值得深入研究,以进一步提升电池状态估计的精度。
(2)发展先进的传感器技术:随着传感器技术的发展,有可能通过先进的传感器技术实现更准确测量,甚至可以直接获取电池内部状态量。比如文献[47]用光纤传感器检测锂离子电池内部压力和温度,并通过容量增量分析法,解释了压力和温度变化与电池脱/嵌锂的相关作用。文献[48]使用分布式光纤传感器实时监测电池表面温度分布,与传统热敏电阻相比,光纤传感器具有更快的响应速度,增强了电池健康诊断和安全预警能力。
(3)研究电池组的状态估计:目前大多数状态估计的研究都集中到单体电池层面,需对电池模组和电池组层面的状态联合估计方法进行深入研究。比如,文献[49]提出了一种串联电池组的均值差模型,改善电池组模型在复杂工作条件下的动态特性,以提高电池组SOC和容量估计的精度。目前仍需要更多在复杂应力下电池组不一致性的演化规律及多状态联合估计的研究。
(4)运用机器学习与云技术:作为一个复杂的电化学系统,锂离子电池具有高度非线性特性,传统的电池模型很难在复杂度和精度之间取得较好的平衡。相比之下,机器学习算法在电池状态估计方面能以较小的复杂度实现较高的状态估计精度。随着大数据和云端技术的发展,基于大数据和云计算平台的新型电池状态估计将成为未来趋势。比如,文献[50]特别关注基于云的BMS解决方案,文献[51]系统地研究了电池云模型的开发,阐明了可行的基于云的电池管理解决方案。届时可以充分利用云平台的计算和存储资源,从而突破传统车载BMS的资源限制,实现更高级、更准确的在线BMS管理。
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2025年第卷第7期
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doi: 10.19822/j.cnki.1671-6329.20240310
  • 首发时间:2025-10-29
  • 出版时间:2025-07-05
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2种不同金属材料的力学参数

Family
属数
Number of
genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of
total species (%)

Genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of total
species (%)
鹅膏菌科Amanitaceae 2 11 5.26 鹅膏菌属 Amanita 10 4.78
小菇科 Mycenaceae 2 12 5.74 丝盖伞属 Inocybe 5 2.39
多孔菌科 Polyporaceae 8 14 6.70 蜡蘑属 Laccaria 5 2.39
红菇科 Russulaceae 3 23 11.00 小皮伞属 Marasmius 6 2.87
小菇属 Mycena 11 5.26
光柄菇属 Pluteus 5 2.39
红菇属 Russula 17 8.13
栓菌属 Trametes 5 2.39
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