Article(id=1192072540500672916, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189873562199433220, issueId=1192072539330462090, articleNumber=null, orderNo=null, doi=10.19710/J.cnki.1003-8817.20240185, pmid=null, cstr=null, oa=null, hot=null, price=null, onlineType=0, articleFormat=0, articleType=null, articleTypeStr=research-article, receivedDate=null, receivedDateStr=null, revisedDate=null, revisedDateStr=null, acceptedDate=null, acceptedDateStr=null, onlineDate=1762141841292, onlineDateStr=2025-11-03, pubDate=1752940800000, pubDateStr=2025-07-20, doiRegisterDate=null, doiRegisterDateStr=null, onlineIssueDate=1762141841292, onlineIssueDateStr=2025-11-03, onlineJustAcceptDate=null, onlineJustAcceptDateStr=null, onlineFirstDate=null, onlineFirstDateStr=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, createTime=1762141841292, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1762141841292, updator=13701087609, issue=Issue{id=1192072539330462090, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189873562199433220, year='2025', volume='', issue='7', pageStart='1', pageEnd='72', issueExtLink='null', onlineDate='null', pubDate='null', beforeIssueId=null, nextIssueId=null, price=null, status=1, issueComplete=1, articleOrder=1, issueType=-1, specialIssue=null, createTime=1762141841012, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1762142119617, updator=13701087609, preIssue=null, nextIssue=null, ext={EN=IssueExt(id=1192073707951636529, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189873562199433220, issueId=1192072539330462090, language=EN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=), CN=IssueExt(id=1192073707955830834, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189873562199433220, issueId=1192072539330462090, language=CN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=)}, issueFiles=null}, startPage=1, endPage=18, ext={EN=ArticleExt(id=1192072540660056469, articleId=1192072540500672916, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189873562199433220, language=EN, title=Application and Prospect of Flexible Electronics Technolgy in Automobile, columnId=null, journalTitle=Automobile Technology & Material, columnName=null, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

With the development of the new energy vehicle industry, traditional electronic technology has been unable to meet the needs of energy setficiency, intelligence, safety and comfort, while flexible electronic technology shows great potential with its advantages of light, soft and low cost. In this paper, the application and research status of flexible electronic technology in the field of automotive are reviewed, and its application prospects in the field of automotive vehicles are discussed from 4 aspects: flexible display technology, flexible sensing technology, flexible battery technology and flexible photoelectric material technology.

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随着新能源汽车产业的发展,传统电子技术已无法满足节能性、智能性、安全性和舒适性的需求,而柔性电子技术以其轻薄、柔软、低成本等优势展现出巨大潜力。综述了柔性电子技术在汽车领域的应用及其研究现状,从柔性显示技术、柔性传感技术、柔性电池技术和柔性光电材料技术4个方面进行了探讨,并展望了其在汽车载具领域的应用前景。

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于涛(1985—),男,教授,博士学位,研究方向为传感型有机光电材料的设计合成及器件制备,主客体型长余辉材料及光电子信息加密技术,智能3D打印材料的设计及其在柔性传感与显示,破损监测及隐身伪装蒙皮中的应用研究,
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巴泽英(2003—)男,学士学位,研究方向为有机力致发光材料的设计和其在材料破损监测等领域的应用。

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巴泽英(2003—)男,学士学位,研究方向为有机力致发光材料的设计和其在材料破损监测等领域的应用。

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巴泽英(2003—)男,学士学位,研究方向为有机力致发光材料的设计和其在材料破损监测等领域的应用。

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柔性电子技术在汽车上的应用与展望
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巴泽英 , 李天豪 , 魏小雨 , 董书新 , 于涛
汽车工艺与材料 | 汽车柔性电子技术专题 2025,(7): 1-18
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汽车工艺与材料 | 汽车柔性电子技术专题 2025, (7): 1-18
柔性电子技术在汽车上的应用与展望
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巴泽英, 李天豪, 魏小雨, 董书新, 于涛
作者信息
  • 西北工业大学柔性电子研究院, 西安 710100
  • 巴泽英(2003—)男,学士学位,研究方向为有机力致发光材料的设计和其在材料破损监测等领域的应用。

通讯作者:

于涛(1985—),男,教授,博士学位,研究方向为传感型有机光电材料的设计合成及器件制备,主客体型长余辉材料及光电子信息加密技术,智能3D打印材料的设计及其在柔性传感与显示,破损监测及隐身伪装蒙皮中的应用研究,
Application and Prospect of Flexible Electronics Technolgy in Automobile
Zeying Ba, Tianhao Li, Xiaoyu Wei, Shuxin Dong, Tao Yu
Affiliations
  • Institute of Flexible Electronics, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi’an 710100
出版时间: 2025-07-20 doi: 10.19710/J.cnki.1003-8817.20240185
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随着新能源汽车产业的发展,传统电子技术已无法满足节能性、智能性、安全性和舒适性的需求,而柔性电子技术以其轻薄、柔软、低成本等优势展现出巨大潜力。综述了柔性电子技术在汽车领域的应用及其研究现状,从柔性显示技术、柔性传感技术、柔性电池技术和柔性光电材料技术4个方面进行了探讨,并展望了其在汽车载具领域的应用前景。

柔性电子技术  /  车载显示  /  太阳能电池  /  车载传感器  /  智能车窗

With the development of the new energy vehicle industry, traditional electronic technology has been unable to meet the needs of energy setficiency, intelligence, safety and comfort, while flexible electronic technology shows great potential with its advantages of light, soft and low cost. In this paper, the application and research status of flexible electronic technology in the field of automotive are reviewed, and its application prospects in the field of automotive vehicles are discussed from 4 aspects: flexible display technology, flexible sensing technology, flexible battery technology and flexible photoelectric material technology.

Flexible electronics  /  Vehicle display  /  Solar cell  /  Vehicle sensor  /  Smart car window
巴泽英, 李天豪, 魏小雨, 董书新, 于涛. 柔性电子技术在汽车上的应用与展望. 汽车工艺与材料, 2025 , (7) : 1 -18 . DOI: 10.19710/J.cnki.1003-8817.20240185
Zeying Ba, Tianhao Li, Xiaoyu Wei, Shuxin Dong, Tao Yu. Application and Prospect of Flexible Electronics Technolgy in Automobile[J]. Automobile Technology & Material, 2025 , (7) : 1 -18 . DOI: 10.19710/J.cnki.1003-8817.20240185
自1885年德国人Benz发明了世界上的第一辆汽车起,汽车已经过几个世纪的发展,成为了当今社会中最常见的交通载具之一[1]。近年来,全球资源环境问题的日益凸显,节能环保受到了广泛的关注,使得传统燃油汽车的统治地位受到了挑战,而以电动汽车为代表的新能源汽车异军突起,展现出了良好的发展前景。当下,为满足日趋多元化的市场需求,汽车产品需要满足以下特性:节能性,即低碳排放、低污染的性能;智能性,即实现高效人机交互的性能;安全性,即降低事故率、降低事故损伤的性能;舒适性,即提高乘员乘坐体验(包含生理上、心理上)的性能。
传统电子技术已无法满足上述对汽车载具的要求,而新兴的柔性电子技术则可综合满足上述要求。柔性电子技术是近年来兴起的一项颠覆性的前沿技术,该技术通过将电路集成在柔性基底上,突破传统电路的“刚性”框架,以“柔性”为桥梁实现更好的“人机交互”。目前在仿生皮肤[2]、医疗监测[3]、可穿戴设备[4]、有机发光器件[5]、柔性储能[6]、柔性传感[7]、柔性显示[8]等场景应用广泛,被认为是未来电子技术的发展方向。本文从柔性显示技术、柔性传感技术、柔性电池技术以及柔性光电材料技术4个方面综述了可应用于汽车上的柔性电子技术及其研究现状,并展望了其在汽车载具领域的相关应用。
自上世纪80年代起,随着汽车产业电气化逐渐成熟,越来越多的电子器件被应用于汽车上以改善驾驶体验,触控屏此时首次出现在民用汽车上,自此车载显示屏登上历史的舞台。如今,随着汽车智能化的发展,汽车逐渐向功能性、交互性、舒适性、娱乐性等方向发展,显示屏成为汽车中不可或缺的部分,其中包含中控车截屏、仪表车截屏、抬头显示(Head Up Display,HUD)车载屏、电子侧/后视镜、后排娱乐车截屏等。随着新能源汽车的高速发展,消费者对车载显示屏的数量、面积和显示效果提出了新的要求,液晶显示屏(Liquid Crystal Display,LCD)作为刚性显示屏,显示效果差、体积大、曲面空间利用率低,不能完全满足上述综合要求。相比之下,柔性显示技术响应快、功耗低、色域宽、分辨率高、便携性好、应用范围广,在未来车载显示应用之中更具竞争力。
目前,多种显示技术均可通过柔性基底实现柔性显示。本文选择了在车载领域具有研究基础、发展潜力的相关技术,即柔性有机发光二极管(Organic Light-Emitting Diode,OLED)显示、柔性微纳发光二极管(Micro Light-Emitting Diode,Micro-LED)显示技术,与LCD横向对比,分析了目前不同显示技术在车载显示领域的优势与不足,如图1所示。
OLED是一类由若干个功能层组成的电致发光器件。与传统的LCD显示技术相比,OLED屏幕具有快响应、低功耗、高分辨率、宽色域等优势。在OLED器件中,电子/空穴分别从阴极/负极注入,在电压作用下向发光层运输,电子与空穴在发光层复合产生激子后,激子能量向发光分子转移使其达到激发态,最后发光分子将能量以光子的形式向外辐射发光。
自1963年有机物蒽的电致发光性能被发现以来[9],对有机发光材料的相关研究从未停止。1987年,邓青云提出并制作了“三明治”型有机薄膜电致发光器件,从此诞生了真正意义上的OLED器件[10],此后的研究中,OLED的结构在此基础上得到了进一步的发展。三层结构OLED器件的功能层可分为电子注入层(Electron Injection Layer,EIL)、电子传输层(Electron Transport Layer,ETL)、有机发光层(Emitting Material Layer,EML)、空穴传输层(Hole Transport Layer,HTL)以及空穴注入层(Hole Injection Layer,HIL)。多层结构大幅降低了载流子注入、运输过程中的势垒和OLED器件的工作电压,为OLED产业化打下了基础。
除改进OLED结构外,对发光材料的研究也不断深入。通常认为OLED的发光机理上经历了3次迭代:荧光、磷光、热激活延迟荧光(Thermally Activated Delayed Fluorescence,TADF)。第1代的荧光器件的理论最大内量子效率仅为25%,而磷光与延迟荧光的OLED器件均可利用其余75%的三线态激子,内量子的效率理论上可达到100%。除此之外,对于发光层主体-客体掺杂体系的研究也进一步改善了器件的性能:主体材料的应用不仅可减少甚至避免激子的猝灭,还可调控载流子注入发光层的比率,特定的主体材料甚至可以改善光耦合输出效率。基于对主客体材料的研究,OLED器件的整体效率也得到了很大的提升。目前,红、绿两色的OLED器件的外量子效率均可接近50%,蓝光OLED外量子效率较低,可超过40%。
基于RGB三原色OLED像素点组成的矩阵,以薄膜晶体管(Thin Film Transistor,TFT)控制流过这些像素点的电流,有源矩阵有机发光二极管(Active-Matrix Organic Light-Emitting Diode,AMOLED)显示屏通过上述方式实现了全彩显示。2020年,京东方公司设计并制造了一款新型AMOLED柔性车载仪表盘[11],如图2a所示。不同于以往需要较厚重的印刷电路板驱动的柔性AMOLED仪表,该12.3英寸的柔性车载仪表采用柔性印刷组装电路,可节省更多空间,显示亮度实现了800 cd/m2,其中10%区域可达到1 100 cd/m2的峰值亮度,证明了AMOLED屏幕应用于对高显示亮度要求的车载显示的可行性,其面板反射率、不同视角下RGB的饱和度与亮度等性能均满足德国OEM标准。该款仪表保留了AMOLED显示的一贯的优点,在测试中表现出超高黑色纯净度,对比度可达1 000 000∶1,是LCD显示器的500~1 000倍。此外,AMOLED显示屏快速响应的特点也得到了很好的体现,当温度为-30 ℃时,其灰度响应时间(Grey To Grey,GTG)测试值低于2 ms,远快于传统LCD显示器。除满足显示的需求,仪器寿命与老化、在不同环境下的适应性等也是车载显示需考虑的要点。由于车载屏幕尺寸远超手机的显示屏,在小尺寸屏幕上不显著的电压降(IR-drop)问题在车载屏幕中会存在较大影响,京东方公司开发了一套新的含括了IR-drop、De-mura和Burn-in的补偿算法,在一系列灰度条件下呈现出了良好的效果,如图2b所示。在常规环境试验中,该显示屏由白色800 nits亮度降低至原亮度的80%所用时间高于10 000 h。在具有较大跨度的温度、湿度区间的极限测试中,显示屏仍保持良好显示状况。
温度是影响OLED器件寿命的最重要因素之一,部分磷光OLED材料内量子效率可达到100%,但最终的外量子效率仅为20%~30%,大部分能量在器件工作过程中转化为热量,导致AMOLED器件在工作期间尤其是长时间工作中快速升温。如图2c所示,当室温为23 ℃时,12.3英寸的AMOLED屏幕在亮度为800 cd/m2的情况下持续工作时,最高温度可达到49 ℃,会严重缩短器件寿命,因此,针对散热性能的研究十分必要。为进一步提高AMOLED车载显示的寿命,2021年,京东方公司进行了一项针对AMOLED显示屏散热性能改善的研究[12]。通过分析不同模块的输入/输出功率,建立了OLED热量传导模型,如图2d所示,得到了与试验结果相符合的模拟结果,并发现OLED在EML层中到达了最高温度,基于被动散热模型改善了散热效果,使屏幕的最高工作温度降低4.1 ℃。
综上,AMOLED屏在显示要求上满足车载显示的标准,性能表现优于LCD屏。但若要在车载显示中得到推广,柔性AMOLED屏仍存在一些问题,由于大部分AMOLED中不同颜色的像素点单元寿命不均,会导致烧屏,且当下AMOLED成本仍较高,AMOLED屏在车载显示中难以大面积、大批量应用。
Micro-LED最早于2000年被提出[13],Micro-LED是由微米级无机半导体发光单元阵列组成的电致发光器件,通过巨量转移把微缩化LED芯片转移到柔性电路基板上实现柔性显示。目前,Micro-LED的生产可概括为3个过程:
a. 在蓝宝石、砷化镓和硅等外延片上实现LED晶粒的微粒化和阵列化;
b. 将LED晶粒转移至互补金属氧化物半导体(Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor,CMOS)或TFT电路基板上(巨量转移);
c. 用物理沉淀法实现电极装配,完成封装。
Micro-LED具有高效率、低功耗、高集成、高稳定性、全天候工作等优点。与OLED显示相比,无机LED的优异性能使Micro-LED具有更快的纳秒级响应速度、更长的寿命以及更好的稳定性[14]。相较于OLED屏在离轴大视角条件下会产生明显的亮度滚落,Micro-LED显示屏具有全角度的均匀亮度。因此,Micro-LED技术被认为是最有可能成为下一代的自发光新兴显示技术。
在2021年,Lee等成功开发了可用于车载显示的9.4英尺柔性全彩Micro-LED屏[15]。为实现Micro-LED屏的柔性化,选择了聚酰亚胺(Polyimide,PI)衬底和柔性低温多晶硅TFT底板,实现了结构如图3a所示的Micro-LED屏。弯折可靠性是柔性显示屏十分重要的性能,决定了柔性显示屏的寿命和使用效果,而柔性Micro-LED屏的弯折可靠性主要取决于微型LED与底板的结合强度。如图3b所示,Micro-LED屏幕在弯曲时会产生不同方向的应力,微型LED与底板在任意方向的结合强度不足会导致接触不良甚至脱落。为此,Lee等最终通过使用焊料B热缩合实现了较好的弯折可靠性。该柔性Micro-LED屏成功通过了1 000次半径为40 mm的弯曲测试,且未出现亮、暗点以及线缺陷等显示问题。该款柔性Micro-LED屏实现了288 PPI的分辨率、700 nits的显示亮度、超过1 000 000∶1的对比度。此外,其宽阔的色域覆盖了REC. 2020标准的90%,可实现更具真实感的显示。在此基础上,Lee等成功将该9.4 英寸的柔性Micro-LED显示屏应用于中控车截屏(Center Information Display,CID),成品如图3c所示。
虽然Micro-LED在性能上优于OLED,但由于其生产过程中存在外延生长、巨量转移技术、驱动技术以及全彩显示等多个关键技术难点,其生产成本较高、产业化程度较低,在商业化程度上远落后于OLED显示屏。但在过去的20年里,Micro-LED领域在技术方面取得了大量的进展,外延设计结构的改变、多种巨量转移技术的发展、集成技术的深入研究等均推动了Micro-LED的进步。随着技术的不断发展,Micro-LED显示技术的生产成本也会不断降低,未来以Micro-LED技术为支承的柔性显示器将在车载显示的市场中大放异彩。
车载传感器作为汽车系统中必不可少的部分,负责监测汽车的温度、压力、速度等来保证汽车正常工作[16]。汽车传感器至今已经过七八十年的发展,早期只有简单的汽车轮胎压力检测[17]、油量检测[18]、发动机温度检测[19]等,如今一辆汽车上传感器种类已有几十种,数量达到上千个。如今汽车技术已经离不开传感器的应用,汽车产品的发展也依赖于传感器技术的创新。柔性传感器作为柔性电子领域的重要分支,拥有质轻、柔软可弯曲、易于大面积制备和成本低等特点,在许多方面可弥补传统传感器的不足,在汽车中有较好的应用前景。本文从应力/应变传感器、温度传感器、气敏传感器等方面介绍柔性传感器的车载应用。
应力/应变传感器常应用于汽车的悬架、制动、发动机和传动等系统中[20],广泛的应用场景对传感器提出了多样的要求。如在发动机系统中,由于工作中的发动机处于较高的温度,对传感器的高温稳定性和精确性提出了要求。而传统金属应力传感器在温度反复变化的情况下,测量稳定性较低,也会对其结构造成不可逆的破坏,柔性传感器则有解决上述问题的潜力。2022年,王成杨等发明了一种基于纳米银烧结的柔性应变传感器[21],用3D打印的方法制造了图4a所示的具有三层结构的柔性传感器(Ag-NMs/Ag-MFs/PI):顶层Ag-NMs层采用特制的纳米银颗粒-微米银片的混合银膏作为导电粘合剂,在降低烧结纳米银膏初始孔隙率的同时,提升了导电性、导热性和高温稳定性;中间层Ag-MFs层使用纳米银片导电粘合剂,通过交联与顶层紧密结合,确保了顶层应力分布均匀;底层采用耐热且柔软的聚酰亚胺(PI)。研究人员对顶层、中间层以及二者复合层材料分别进行了弯曲和恢复情况下的电阻变化率(ΔR/R0)测试,结果如图4b所示,发现复合材料同时拥有柔性和良好的灵敏性。之后又在温度分别为25 ℃、250 ℃的条件下进行上千次100°的弯曲和2.5%的拉伸测试试验,发现传感器的ΔR/R0值变化很小,说明传感器具有良好的循环稳定性。传感器除应具有在高温下稳定工作的性质,还应该具有优良的散热性能,以保证检测数据的准确性,因此,研究人员将顶层特制的导电粘合剂替换为商用导电粘合剂,制成了对照的传感器(8465-DA/Ag-MFs/PI)。将2种传感器加热至250 ℃,并在红外热成像仪下记录二者散热情况。由图4c可知,AG-NMs层的散热性能远优于商用8645-DA。综上,该柔性应变传感器具有优异的耐高温性和循环稳定性,在汽车领域有较好的应用前景。
除此之外,应力/应变传感器还可作为触摸传感器。不同于发动机系统中的高温环境,触摸传感器需在室温环境中保证极高的灵敏度。2016年,Hyungpil Moon等报道了一种印刷法制备的柔性触摸传感器[22],该传感器由多个传感单元组成,如图5a所示,其中,传感单元由中间层(内含不同直径的圆形孔)、一对电极层、一对电极覆盖层和聚二甲基硅氧烷(Polydimethylsiloxane,PDMS)层构成。传感单元的工作原理为:当压力达到阈值时,两层电极通过中间层的圆形孔相连接,两电极间的电阻从无穷大降至几十欧姆,进而改变传感单元输出信号。根据不同传感单元的信号差可检测压力的作用位置。研究发现,经过1 000次疲劳测试(图5b),传感器的响应性良好,阈值压强未发生明显变化。基于此制作了图5c所示的数字型触摸传感器,并测试了不同位置的阈值压力,测试结果与预测一致,证明该柔性触摸传感器具有较好的应用前景。
温度传感器作为一类发展较为成熟的传感器,目前已经广泛应用于车内温度检测、燃油温度检测[23]、发动机温度检测[24]等。柔性温度传感器不仅适用于上述传统位置的监测,其柔、轻、薄的特性使其在空间限制较大、工作环境较复杂的场景中实现传统温度传感器无法实现的监测。众所周知,充电时间长、速度慢是当下电动汽车最受消费者诟病的问题之一,要实现汽车的“闪充”技术,高电压、高电流带来的热效应成为潜在的巨大风险,可能引起电池自燃甚至爆炸[25]。外置的电池温度传感器无法准确反映电池内部温度,而传统温度传感器无法适应电池内部逼仄的空间以及复杂的环境,柔性温度传感器则可很好地实现监测功能。Chi-Yuan Lee等将一种柔性微温度传感器植入锂离子电池的内部,用来实时监测充放电过程中电池内部的温度[26],进行了-20~90 ℃的温度-电阻变化的测试,证明了该传感器温度和电阻具有很好的线性关系。该课题组还进行了温度稳定性测试,在多次升、降温循环过程中,传感器温度-电阻的线性关系仍保持较好。最后,将传感器植入锂离子电池中心区域进行实时1 C充放电测试,发现电池内部温度比外部温度高2 ℃,证实了电池内置温度传感器准确性较高,为开发“闪充”电车用电池提供了安全保障。
随着汽车产业的发展,日益增加的汽车数量导致汽车尾气排放量不断提高,因此,用于气体检测的传感器也被主机厂应用于检测汽车尾气中的NO2[27]、CO2[28]等气体的含量,以在降低排放污染、提高能源利用率等方面发挥作用。此外,气敏传感器还可用于车内的甲醛[29]、CO[30]等有害气体检测、新能源汽车的燃料泄漏检测(如甲醇[31]、甲烷[32]等)以及燃料电池泄漏检测[33-34]
Siddhartha Panda等于2023年发明了一种高灵敏度的柔性室温氨气传感器[35],虽然聚苯胺(Polyaniline,PANI)等聚合物已被用于室温氨气传感器的开发,但在选择性及灵敏性方面仍存在问题。而铜-乙二胺(Cu-en)纳米复合材料中的铜离子对氨分子展现出较好的亲和力,因此,研究者将不同含量的Cu-en复合在PANI材料上制造了3种Cu-en/PANI传感器,并在不同温度和氨气浓度下分别测试了3种传感器的响应时间。与复合材料传感器相比,Cu-en/PANI传感器展现出较高的灵敏性和低至2×10-6的检测限。随后课题组测试了传感器的气体选择性,相较于乙醇气体和硫化氢,传感器对于氨气的响应更好。最后对传感器进行了弯曲试验,在1 000次弯曲后,传感器灵敏度的下降幅度也达到了目前的最低水平。
随着柔性传感器研究的深入,研究者开始尝试研究柔性传感器的功能集成,以期获得具有多响应性功能的柔性传感器。针对汽车复杂系统的多信号检测,多响应柔性传感器可节约空间、降低成本,有较高的实用价值。2020年,孟庆实等发明了一种多功能压阻型石墨烯基薄膜传感器[36]。该传感器是一种将石墨烯薄片(GnPs)添加入环氧树脂制成的复合材料薄膜,可同时检测应变和温度,且具有良好稳定性。根据测试结果,相较于纯环氧树脂,复合材料薄膜的弹性模量和抗拉强度均有较大提升,对于载荷也具有灵敏的响应。此外,由于石墨烯的良好导热性,薄膜的热导率提高了569%,使其对温度变化表现出极高的灵敏性。当温度为20~110 ℃时,薄膜的温度灵敏度系数为0.006 3 ℃-1,远高于商用温度传感器(0.003 9 ℃-1)。因此,该石墨烯基薄膜传感器在汽车温度、压力混合监测领域有很好的应用前景。
余雪等发明了一种可视化应力-温度传感器[37]。该传感器将硫化锌-铜(ZnS-Cu)和钙钛矿玻璃陶瓷(GCs)复合材料掺杂在聚二甲基硅氧烷薄膜(PDMS)中,实现了对力致发光颜色的调整。如图6a所示,复合物薄膜可根据受力的大小发出不同强度的光,且同一薄膜在不同温度下也会产生不同颜色的光(图6b),测试证明该传感器具有很好的循环性能以及温度检测灵敏性。研究人员设想将该薄膜传感器嵌入汽车轮胎表面,可实现轮胎表面实时温度可视化(图6c),随着的车轮温度的升高,轮胎的颜色由红色逐渐变为绿色。该研究实现了一种方便且即时的可视化应力-温度传感,有望应用在汽车轮胎等领域。
柔性传感器具有轻薄、质柔、成本低的优点,可在汽车轻量化、降低成本以及曲面信息检测等方面发挥作用。但当前柔性传感器仍无法大范围在汽车中应用,原因有[38]:柔性传感器的检测灵敏度以及准确性较传统传感器仍存在差距;柔性传感器的使用寿命远低于传统传感器;柔性传感器的机械强度偏低。
此外,如今大部分柔性传感器的研究目标并未瞄准汽车产业,一定程度上限制了车载柔性传感器的发展。但随着柔性电子产业的不断发展,柔性传感器性能不断优化,未来有望在汽车上大范围应用。
电动汽车是我国新能源汽车的主力。《新能源汽车产业发展规划(2021—2035年)》提出,力争15年内使纯电动汽车成为新销售车辆的主力。相比于传统燃油汽车,纯电动汽车在电池技术、续驶里程、充电基础设施建设、安全性和可靠性等方面仍存在问题。其中,续驶里程焦虑和充电基础设施滞后是目前亟需解决的问题,直接影响电动汽车的推广,而柔性电池技术有望成为推动电动汽车发展的重要推力。
动力电池是电动汽车的核心部件,直接影响着电动汽车的续驶里程、充电速度、安全性和成本。锂电池作为较为成熟的一类电池,已广泛应用于电动汽车。锂电池(LiB)是以金属锂为负极的电池,其优势包括工作电压高、能量密度大、工作温度范围广、放电电压平稳、储存性能好、荷电保持能力强等。目前商用锂电池以夹层材料为基础,能量密度一般小于300 W·h/kg[39],循环性能小于1 000次,倍率小于2 C[40],其在安全性和可持续性方面仍存在问题。为满足未来汽车对动力电池的较高要求,锂离子电池需从负极、正极和电解质材料方面改进。
a. 负极材料:最早用于商用锂电池的负极材料是由索尼公司于1991年研发的焦炭电极[41]。1995年,在解决了石墨表面剥落问题后,焦炭电极正式被石墨电极取代,是目前锂电池最常用的负极材料[42-43]。但石墨电极较差的倍率性能使其在高倍率充电过程中会使金属锂沉积和生长,产生锂枝晶,造成严重的容量衰减和安全隐患[44]
尖晶石Li4Ti5O12(LTO)是一种结构稳定[45-46]、安全性高[47]、制造成本较低、电化学性能优异的负极材料,具有广阔的汽车动力电池应用前景[48]。但LTO的导电性能较差,锂扩散系数低,严重限制了其充电速率的提升[49-50]。为解决上述问题,研究人员提出了微纳米结构设计和结构改造2种方案:微纳米结构改造是指将负极材料进行纳米化,形成纳米球[51]、纳米线[52]等纳米电极,以缩短锂离子的传输距离,实现较高的锂扩散系数;结构改造则通过离子掺杂和涂敷导电层[53]来提高LTO的导电率。
使用上述2种负极材料的电池容量已接近理论最大值,为此,寻求一种新的负极材料迫在眉睫。而硅的理论容量是石墨负极的10倍,常被认为是下一代最有发展前景的锂电池负极材料[54-55]。但目前硅基负极还处于实验室研发阶段,研发方向主要有硅的纳米结构改造以及硅复合负极材料合成。
b. 正极材料:由于正极材料比容量低,通常采用堆叠的方式提升总容量[56],导致正极在电池质量和体积中占比较大。同时,正极材料通常成本更高,以三元锂电池为例,其正极材料成本约为石墨负极的2倍[57]。因此,开发高性价比的正极对电动汽车的发展十分重要。目前,针对层状LiMO2、尖晶石型LiM2O4、橄榄石型LiMPO4、硅酸盐化合物Li2MSiO4和硼酸盐化合物LiMBO3(其中M为Fe、Co、Ni、Mn、Cu、Cr等)的研究较多,其他类型的正极材料如LiV3O8、氟化物(FeF3)和氧化物(V2O5、MnO2)也受到了广泛关注[58]
其中,过渡金属氧化物LiMO2(M为Co、Mn、Ni)是目前锂离子电池中商业化应用最广泛的正极材料。Goodenough[59]最早使用钴酸锂(Lithium Cobalt Oxide,LCO)作为锂电池的正极,其具有优异的循环稳定性和高工作电压,但热稳定性差且实际容量仅为140 mA·h/g。其次,钴毒性较大、环境污染严重且价格高昂。而与钴酸锂同构的镍酸锂(Lithium Nickel Oxide,LNO)正极材料成本低且拥有相对较高的实际容量(190~210 mA·h/g),但合成工艺不成熟且安全性低[60]。此外,成本和毒性更低的层状锰酸锂(Lithium Manganese Oxide,LMO)具有较高的实际容量(200 mA·h/g),且工作电压高、安全性好,但循环稳定性较差[61]。为综合上述材料的优点,Ohzuku等提出了一种含有3种过渡金属离子的三元锂电池LiNi1-x-yMnxCoyO2 (NMC)[62],该电池可通过调控钴锰镍3种元素的占比,规避单元素金属氧化物锂电池的缺点并兼顾其优点,从而得到高比容、高电压、循环稳定性优异且成本较低的高质量电池。另一种常见的正极材料为橄榄石型LiMPO4(M为Fe、Mn、Co、Ni),因其成本低、毒性小、可用性高、容量衰减低、比容量高而受到广泛关注。其中,LiFePO4最为常见且已经实现成熟的产业化[63]
c. 电解质:电解质作为电池除正、负电极外的重要组成部分,主要功能是在正负极之间传导离子。对电解质的改进有助于提高电池的能量密度、循环寿命、功率、安全性,并降低电池成本。理想的电解质应满足高离子电导率、低电子电导率、宽电化学窗口、高化学稳定性和高热稳定性等要求。
液态电解质是最常见的电解质类型。如LiPF6盐,其拥有良好的离子电导率、溶解性、循环性能和电化学稳定性,但热稳定性和化学稳定性较差,遇水会产生有毒气体氟化氢(Hydrogen Fluoride,HF),在制造和回收过程中均存在安全隐患[64]。固态电解质可有效避免上述问题,常用的固态电解质主要有陶瓷和聚合物,其在电池安全性、化学稳定性和成本等方面更具优势。同时,固态锂离子电池还可制成更薄(厚度仅为0.1 mm)、能量密度更高、体积更小的高能电池[65]。固体电解质既具有良好的成膜性、稳定性和柔韧性,又兼备了薄膜和电解质的双重功能[66],有望应用于未来的电动汽车。
随着汽车电动化的发展,锂电池作为电动汽车当前主要的动力源,市场非常广阔,同时也促进了新型正、负极及电解质材料的开发,从而不断提高电池的能量密度、充电速度、使用寿命和安全性,并降低电池成本。目前常用的负极材料石墨、正极材料三元锂、磷酸铁锂的发展潜能已经接近极限,新兴的尖晶石材料、硅材料在未来将会有更广阔的应用前景。
太阳能电池是提升电动汽车续驶里程的另一个重要途径,其主要原理是利用光吸收半导体材料将光能转换成电能。太阳能电池可作为电动汽车的充电辅助设备,为电动汽车提供部分电能,从而延长续驶里程,同时可降低电动汽车对充电桩的依赖,提高充电的便利性和灵活性。
2019年6月,荷兰赫尔蒙德的初创公司Light Year发布了一款可以利用太阳能的电动汽车Light Year,该汽车不仅可通过电网充电,还可通过在车身中的太阳能电池板模块充电[67]。2023年9月,荷兰埃因霍温太阳能团队开发了第一辆由太阳能驱动的越野车Stella Terra,并在撒哈拉沙漠周边成功行驶了997 km,整个过程均由太阳能供电,最高速度可达145 km/h。在阳光充足的条件下,单日可行使710 km[68]
太阳能电池利用半导体的光伏效应进行工作[69],光伏效应是指当不均匀半导体或半导体金属结合物受到光照时,不同部位产生电位差的现象。以掺杂半导体为例,当光照射到PN结(P-N Junction)上时,PN结附近会产生电子-空穴对。在内部电场作用下,电子流入N区,空穴流入P区,结果使N区储存了过剩的电子,P区存在过剩的空穴。如果在半导体的P区和N区分别接上负极和正极,接通电路后即可将载流子导出,形成电流。
目前太阳能电池技术已历经3次迭代。第1代太阳能电池以晶硅太阳能电池为代表,目前技术最为成熟,但光电转换效率已接近理论上限,降本增效空间有限;第2代太阳能电池以铜铟镓硒(Copper Indium Gallium Selenide,CIGS)薄膜、碲化镉(CdTe)薄膜以及砷化镓(GaAs)薄膜太阳能电池为代表,优点是光电转换效率高、稳定性高且柔性好,但成本较高;第3代太阳能电池以钙钛矿太阳能电池为代表,具备效率提升速度快、成本低、材料可设计性强的优势。
若要应用于新能源电动汽车,太阳能电池的性能应满足多项严格要求,如高转换效率、高能质比和长期稳定性。为使汽车满足空气动力学设计,太阳能电池还应具有一定的柔性,可直接贴附在车体上。目前,能满足上述要求的较为成熟的技术有砷化镓薄膜太阳能电池技术和钙钛矿太阳能电池技术。
砷化镓属于Ⅲ-Ⅴ族化合物,在半导体领域应用广泛。将基于砷化镓的太阳能电池进行分层,每层使用不同的成分和材料进行性能调控。其中,顶层往往具有较大的带隙,吸收大部分可见光谱,吸收波段的波长从上往下依次升高,底层带隙最小,可吸收红外区域的光[70],被称为多结或级联太阳能电池。该太阳能电池最多可包含8个薄层,通过较宽的电磁波光谱覆盖范围以实现比传统的单层太阳能电池更高的效率。2016年3月,Yamaguchi等开发了一款三结光伏电池,效率达到了37.9%[71]。2020年4月,John F Geisz等使用标准的聚光器对六结光伏电池进行照射,实现了39.2%的效率[72]
作为第2代太阳能电池,砷化镓太阳能电池目前已十分成熟,成功实现商业化。砷化镓薄膜太阳能电池最早被用于航天工程和探测器,在太空中的转换率达到27%[73]。1965年11月12日,苏联的金星计划中首次使用砷化镓太阳能电池作为探测器的电池板。2021年4月,天和核心舱由长征五号B运载火箭搭载发射,该航天器搭载的是我国自主研发的柔性砷化镓太阳能电池[74]。砷化镓薄膜太阳能电池的另一个应用方向是无人机(图7a[75]),为实现在空中长达数月的停留时间,试验性高空长航时无人机使用柔性太阳能电池以提高续航。无人机和太阳能电池的相关研究已有20余年[76-77],Alta Devices在2017年取得的最新成果表明,应用于无人机的柔性太阳能电池效率已超过30%[78]
晶体硅电池技术成熟后,研究者提出将薄膜太阳能电池应用在新能源汽车上。理论研究表明,车辆采用薄膜太阳能电池后,供电稳定性更强,抗振性能更好,为薄膜太阳能电池在电动汽车上的应用提供了理论支持。2016年7月,汉能公司发布了4款Solar系列太阳能动力汽车,均采用“砷化镓薄膜太阳能电池技术”,可利用太阳能电池为车辆电池充电,减少对充电桩的依赖,进一步证实了太阳能薄膜电池应用于新能源汽车的可行性。
自2009年钙钛矿太阳能电池(柔性化结构如图7b[79])问世以来[80],因为其具备原料丰富、制备成本低、消光系数高、带隙宽度合适[81]、载流子迁移率高[82]、扩散长度长[83]、器件结构简单[84]和可制备高效柔性器件[85]的优点,在科研界广受关注,目前,其光电转换效率已由3.8%提高至26.1%[86]。除此之外,柔性钙钛矿光伏器件发展也十分迅速[87],效率的快速提高和成本的显著优势使钙钛矿太阳能电池展现出极大的商业化潜力,未来有望取代硅晶太阳能电池。
典型的ABX3有机-无机杂化钙钛矿材料如图7c所示。其中,A为有机阳离子,如甲铵离子、甲脒离子,处于立方体的顶点;B为二价金属离子,如Pb2+、Sn2+等,处于立方体的体心;X是卤素离子,如Br-、I-和Cl-,处于立方体的面心。目前较为常见的钙钛矿太阳能电池原材料为碘铅甲胺(MAPbI3)。
2009年,Kojima等首次将钙钛矿材料应用到太阳能电池中[80],使用钙钛矿量子点替换染料敏电池中的染料分子,器件效率为3.81%,但由于钙钛矿材料储存在液体电解质中,器件极不稳定。2012年,Park等制造了固态钙钛矿太阳能电池,器件效率达到9.7%[88]。2021年,Min等将一种原子相干夹层插入钙钛矿和电子传输层之间,以增强钙钛矿层的电荷提取和传输能力,并减少界面缺陷,器件效率提升至25.7%,可稳定工作500 h[89]
目前,钙钛矿太阳能电池还处于研发阶段,真正投入使用的产品很少。在新能源汽车应用方面,南开大学张晓丹团队和天津理工大学曹焕奇团队联合研发了钙钛矿晶硅叠层太阳能电池,为“天津号”纯太阳能汽车的车内灯光和自动驾驶摄像头供电,并辅助汽车整车供电[90]
当下,纯太阳能供能的新能源汽车仍缺乏可行性,主要原因是受当前太阳能电池的转换效率的限制(目前有经过第三方认证的太阳能电池效率如图8所示[91]),同时,汽车上的可铺设面积有限,太阳能无法完全满足汽车能量需要。但若将太阳能电池系统作为汽车的辅助供能系统,可有效缓解电动汽车的续驶里程不足、充电时间长的问题。目前,砷化镓薄膜太阳能电池占据车载太阳能电池的主要市场份额,虽然其转换效率高、稳定性好,但高昂的制作成本限制了太阳能电池的市场拓展。相比之下,钙钛矿太阳能电池成本低,转换效率提升较快,很可能成为未来光伏市场青睐的产品。
天窗已成为电动汽车消费中的卖点之一。2021年,特斯拉Model Y配备了面积为1.4 m2的玻璃天窗,蔚来汽车EC6的玻璃天窗面积超过了2 m2。在享受窗外风景的同时,夏季太阳光的强烈辐射会造成车内闷热,强烈的紫外线可能伤害到乘员的皮肤。因此,通过变色削弱光线强度、减缓车内升温的智能变色玻璃技术受到了广泛关注。
智能变色玻璃是指在光照、电流、温度等条件改变时,其颜色产生可逆变化的一类材料。通过可逆的颜色变化,可调控太阳辐射能量的进入量。根据变色条件的不同,可分为光致变色玻璃、电致变色玻璃、温致变色玻璃和力致变色玻璃等。其中,由于光致、电致玻璃控制方便、符合应用需求,备受关注。
光致变色(Photochromic)是指某些化合物在一定波长的光照下,其结构发生一定可逆变化,导致其对光的吸收峰也发生可逆改变的现象。目前,光致变色材料广泛应用于荧光成像、智能透镜、信息存储和防伪等领域,是一类具有实用价值和研究价值的光电材料。1867年,Fritsche发现了并四苯的光致变色性质[92]。随着研究的深入,大量具有光致变色的物质被发现,该性质广泛分布于在无机化合物、有机-无机杂化物以及多种纯有机化合物中[93]。其中,有机化合物作为研究时间最久的光致变色材料,可通过对特定官能团的修饰来实现更优异的性能,其包括了二芳基乙烯类、螺吡喃类、螺噁嗪类、偶氮苯类、俘精酸酐类以及紫精类等多类化合物。
关于光致变色的相关应用最早可追溯至1964年,美国人利用AgBr的光致变色原理发明了变色玻璃,该技术被广泛应用于眼镜行业。变色玻璃在变色眼镜领域的成功证明了利用光致变色原理智能调节光线的可行性,为智能天窗的设计提供了现实案例。
2019年,高峻等制备了一种基于螺噁嗪类化合物的光致变色薄膜,该光致变色薄膜可用于智能车窗[94],该团队利用2,6-二叔丁基甲基苯酚(BHT)修饰螺噁嗪化合物SO2,得到了化合物BHT-SO2。由于BHT基团的较大位阻,导致在乙醇溶液中的BHT-SO2的变色速率较螺噁嗪类化合物SO2更慢,完全变色时间达到85 s。与此同时,BHT基团的存在很好地保证了变色后的分子不会遭到过氧自由基的分解,提高了其热稳定性。除此之外,优质的光致变色分子的抗疲劳性能十分重要。在25次的变色/褪色循环后,溶液中的BHT-SO2归一化光密度值比SO2显著增加了20%。此外,该团队也对BHT-SO2进行了抗酸性测试,酸性环境易导致其光致变色性能完全消失。之后通过在聚乙烯醇缩丁醛(Polyvinyl Butyral,PVB)掺杂不同浓度的BHT-SO2,制备了一系列的光致变色薄膜,并总结出了2.5%浓度为该化合物的最佳掺杂浓度。同时,PVB@BHT-SO2掺杂薄膜保持了与溶液中相同的热褪色率,且抗疲劳性得到进一步提升。总而言之,具有良好稳定性的光致变色材料为智能车窗的设计提供了一种思路。
2023年,王世伟等提出了一种通过热压工艺制备光致变色安全玻璃的方案,进一步为光致变色玻璃的安全问题提出了解决方案[95]。在该团队的前期研究中,构建了一种具有光致变色性质的PU/CsPbBr3量子点弹性复合材料(Polyurethane/perovskite Quantum Dots,HPU)。在此基础上,该团队首先利用自由基共聚得到了聚丙烯酸酯共聚物(Acrylic Copolymer,PA),然后通过85 ℃热压法构建了玻璃/PA/HPU/PA/玻璃结构的光致变色安全玻璃(图9a)。该压层玻璃展现出良好的透光性,厚度为1.5 mm的样品的透光率达到80%左右。在紫外光的照射下,该光致变色玻璃实现了0.5 s内快速变色。通过荧光信号示踪,研究者还进一步探究了该光致变色玻璃的稳定性,结果如图9b图9c所示,产品的稳定性在水环境下有所降低。同时,高温环境(135 ℃)会严重降低HPU的使用寿命。作为车载天窗,该层压玻璃表现出较好的力学强度与稳定性,当遭受破坏性冲击时,其中的PA材料层吸收冲击力的同时粘合了玻璃碎片,在试验中承受多次冲击后,并未出现碎片飞溅的情况,有效的防止了玻璃碎片可能造成的二次伤害,为提升光致变色玻璃安全性提出了一种解决方案。
在电动汽车智能化发展趋势下,智能车窗和智能天窗不仅精准贴合消费者需求,更符合绿色节能环保的标准。然而,当下光致变色材料的相关研究未能完全满足车载智能玻璃对于安全性、对比度、环境适应性、循环稳定性的综合要求,是未来车载光致变色玻璃的研究方向。
电致变色(Electrochromic)是指在外加电场作用下,由于化合物发生氧化还原反应得失电子导致其光学性能变化,从而实现颜色可逆变化的现象。当前,电致变色材料在智能窗户[96]、显示器[97]、电子纸[98]、智能服装[99]等领域中均有应用。电致变色最早在1961年,Platt研究有机染料时被发现[100]。经过多年发展,研究者们在无机材料、有机小分子、有机聚合物以及金属配合物中均发现了电致变色现象。无机电致变色材料主要为具有未成对电子的过渡金属氧化物及其衍生物,如三氧化钨、五氧化二钒、三氧化钼等,稳定性普遍较高。而乙烯、紫精类化合物等有机小分子以及聚二氧噻吩(Poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene),PEDOT)、聚吡咯(Polypyrrole,Ppy)、PANI等有机聚合物则有更好的颜色纯度和对比度。金属配合物具有多个颜色变化中心,可实现多色切换[101]
电致变色材料需外加电场实现变色,因此,电致变色玻璃相较于光致变色玻璃需要更复杂的结构,其2层基底之间一般具有以下功能层(图10a[101]:透明导电层(Transparent Conductors,TC):起导电作用,一般使用导电率高、耐腐蚀的透明薄膜,由氧化铟锡(Indium Tin Oxide,ITO)、氟掺杂氧化锡(Fluoride Doped Tin Oxide,FTO)、石墨烯薄膜等构成;离子储存层(Counter Electrode,CE),起平衡离子/电荷作用,一般由可逆氧化还原物质构成;离子导体层(Ion Conductor,IC),起离子传导作用,分为液体、固体和凝胶等种类,由各种电解质组成;电致变色层(Electrochromic,EC),起变色作用,由各种电致变色材料构成。
1990年的德国,电致变色玻璃在建筑上得到首次应用。电致变色玻璃通过电场实现的变色更容易调控光照量,由于电致变色玻璃拥有断电后维持原状态的特性,只需在变色时施加电压便可维持变色状态,能耗低。除此之外,相较于其他变色玻璃,电致变色玻璃还具有响应快、对比度高的优点,使电致变色玻璃在智能车窗的应用上更具竞争力。
2017年,俞书宏等提出了一种可以用于车载的柔性电致变色器件[102]。该团队使用Langmuir-Blodgett(LB)技术将Ag纳米线与W18O49纳米线组装成如图10b所示的二维纳米网络,并转移至聚对苯二甲酸乙二醇酯(Polyethylene Glycol Terephthalate,PET)基底上组成电极。除了充当电极,W18O49纳米线也具备电致变色功能,通过提高W18O49纳米线层的厚度,加强了器件整体的电致变色性能。在此基础上,研究团队突破了传统LB技术的尺寸极限,将该电致变色薄膜的尺寸提升至20 cm×16 cm。通过对W18O49纳米线的不同层数叠加,实现了在不借助变压设备的情况下改变变色深度(图10c)。相较于ITO电极,该新薄膜具有更好的柔性:在上千次弯折后,电阻变化率仅为8.6%,且总电阻远小于弯曲情况下的ITO电极。除此之外,变色前、后的衰减率也较低,其衰减率随弯折次数变化如图10d所示,当层数进一步增加时,衰减速度会进一步降低。不仅如此,研究团队组装了一款如图10e图10f所示的尺寸为18 cm×15 cm的智能窗,当外加负电压时,智能窗的颜色变深,显著改变了透光率,证实了该柔性电致变色材料应用于车载变色窗的可行性。
总的来说,电致变色玻璃是目前智能变色玻璃中具有优势且相对成熟的技术,较好的可控性、低能耗、快响应和高对比度的特点能更好地贴合用户需求,满足用户个性化的调控。然而,若要在车载智能天窗领域得到更广泛的应用,电致变色玻璃仍需解决面积限制、安全性以及循环稳定性等关键问题。
随着新能源汽车产业的蓬勃发展,传统电子器件质量大、成本高、污染多的劣势日益凸显。柔性电子技术经过了几十年的发展,目前已在汽车、通信以及智慧家居等领域投入应用。英国知名研究公司IDTechEx于2021年出具的报告《汽车应用的印刷和柔性电子技术及市场》中表明,汽车未来的发展离不开柔性电子技术,智能辅助驾驶、车载异形中控屏、电动汽车的检测系统、供能系统均离不开大规模柔性印刷电路、柔性传感技术和柔性显示技术。智能座舱、智能车窗的实现也离不开柔性光电材料。本文从上述柔性显示技术、柔性传感技术、柔性电池技术和智能光电材料4个方面介绍了柔性电子技术及其在汽车应用领域的相关研究。虽然柔性电子技术较传统电子技术展现出诸多优势,但在当前发展条件下,柔性电子技术在汽车上的应用仍存在局限性:耐久度方面,汽车的使用周期往往达到五至十余年,相比之下,当前柔性电子器件寿命偏短;安全性方面,柔性电池在受到外力撞击时易发生自爆、自燃,带来了安全隐患;灵敏度方面,当前柔性传感器虽更轻便、易弯折,但检测灵敏度和准确性存在不足;成本方面,由于结构的复杂性与特殊性,当前部分柔性器件仍难以实现高精度的大规模生产,成本居高不下。
当前,上述局限性在一定程度上限制了柔性电子技术在汽车上的大规模应用。随着相关研究的推进和技术的成熟,柔性电子技术有望克服这些局限,届时,柔性电子技术将在汽车乃至更多领域带来全方位、高品质的全新体验。
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doi: 10.19710/J.cnki.1003-8817.20240185
  • 首发时间:2025-11-03
  • 出版时间:2025-07-20
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    西北工业大学柔性电子研究院, 西安 710100

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于涛(1985—),男,教授,博士学位,研究方向为传感型有机光电材料的设计合成及器件制备,主客体型长余辉材料及光电子信息加密技术,智能3D打印材料的设计及其在柔性传感与显示,破损监测及隐身伪装蒙皮中的应用研究,
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2种不同金属材料的力学参数

Family
属数
Number of
genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of
total species (%)

Genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of total
species (%)
鹅膏菌科Amanitaceae 2 11 5.26 鹅膏菌属 Amanita 10 4.78
小菇科 Mycenaceae 2 12 5.74 丝盖伞属 Inocybe 5 2.39
多孔菌科 Polyporaceae 8 14 6.70 蜡蘑属 Laccaria 5 2.39
红菇科 Russulaceae 3 23 11.00 小皮伞属 Marasmius 6 2.87
小菇属 Mycena 11 5.26
光柄菇属 Pluteus 5 2.39
红菇属 Russula 17 8.13
栓菌属 Trametes 5 2.39
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