Article(id=1192072540878156297, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189873562199433220, issueId=1192072539330462090, articleNumber=null, orderNo=null, doi=10.19710/J.cnki.1003-8817.20240166, pmid=null, cstr=null, oa=null, hot=null, price=null, onlineType=0, articleFormat=0, articleType=null, articleTypeStr=research-article, receivedDate=null, receivedDateStr=null, revisedDate=null, revisedDateStr=null, acceptedDate=null, acceptedDateStr=null, onlineDate=1762141841382, onlineDateStr=2025-11-03, pubDate=1752940800000, pubDateStr=2025-07-20, doiRegisterDate=null, doiRegisterDateStr=null, onlineIssueDate=1762141841382, onlineIssueDateStr=2025-11-03, onlineJustAcceptDate=null, onlineJustAcceptDateStr=null, onlineFirstDate=null, onlineFirstDateStr=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, createTime=1762141841382, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1762141841382, updator=13701087609, issue=Issue{id=1192072539330462090, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189873562199433220, year='2025', volume='', issue='7', pageStart='1', pageEnd='72', issueExtLink='null', onlineDate='null', pubDate='null', beforeIssueId=null, nextIssueId=null, price=null, status=1, issueComplete=1, articleOrder=1, issueType=-1, specialIssue=null, createTime=1762141841012, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1762142119617, updator=13701087609, preIssue=null, nextIssue=null, ext={EN=IssueExt(id=1192073707951636529, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189873562199433220, issueId=1192072539330462090, language=EN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=), CN=IssueExt(id=1192073707955830834, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189873562199433220, issueId=1192072539330462090, language=CN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=)}, issueFiles=null}, startPage=19, endPage=30, ext={EN=ArticleExt(id=1192072541939315214, articleId=1192072540878156297, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189873562199433220, language=EN, title=Research Progress of Automotive-Grade Chip Package Interfaces Reliability, columnId=null, journalTitle=Automobile Technology & Material, columnName=null, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

Packaging reliability of control chips, which serve as the central components of Electronic Control Units (ECUs), directly affects the safety performance of automobiles. This paper systematically investigates the mechanism of delamination failure of two mainstream ECU architectures namely Microcontroller Unit (MCU) and System-on-Chip (SoC) based on composite load characteristics of mechanical vibration and temperature shock under typical conditions of automobile. The research results indicate that under multi-load coupling, interface bonding strength attenuation and thermal mismatching of materials caused by performance degradation of key positions like die attach interface, wire bond interface and underfill packing layer are the primary factors inducing delamination failure. This paper compares the application of three finite element analysis techniques—Virtual Crack Closure Technique (VCCT), J-integral, and Cohesive Zone Model (CZM), which indicates that CZM has interface representational dominance under large deformation condition of nonlinear material, while J-integral is applicable to small deformation fracture zone of nonlinear material, and VCCT has advantages in computational efficiency in the analysis of linear elastic steady-state crack propagation.

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控制芯片作为汽车电子控制单元(ECUs)的核心部件,其封装可靠性直接影响整车安全性能。针对微控制单元(MCU)与系统级芯片(SoC)两类主流架构,基于汽车典型工况下的机械振动与温度冲击复合载荷特征,系统研究了封装界面分层失效机制。研究表明:在多载荷耦合作用下,贴片界面、引线键合界面及底部填充胶界面等关键部位的性能退化导致的界面粘接强度衰减与材料热失配效应是诱发分层失效的主导因素。通过对比虚拟裂纹闭合技术(VCCT)、J积分法及内聚力模型(CZM)的数值模拟适用性,表明CZM在非线性材料大变形条件下具有界面失效表征优势,J积分则适用于非线性材料小变形断裂领域,而VCCT在线弹性稳态裂纹扩展分析中更具计算效率优势。

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盛方辉(1998—),男,硕士学位,研究方向为可拓学及复合材料力学。

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盛方辉(1998—),男,硕士学位,研究方向为可拓学及复合材料力学。

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盛方辉(1998—),男,硕士学位,研究方向为可拓学及复合材料力学。

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汽车功能域 MCU封装形式
车身系统 QFP QFN LQFP
座舱系统 QFP BGA LQFP
智驾系统 QFP BGA LQFN
底盘系统 QFP BGA QFN LQFP
动力系统 FBGA BGA QFP QFN LQFP
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技术企业MCU封装形式

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汽车功能域 MCU封装形式
车身系统 QFP QFN LQFP
座舱系统 QFP BGA LQFP
智驾系统 QFP BGA LQFN
底盘系统 QFP BGA QFN LQFP
动力系统 FBGA BGA QFP QFN LQFP
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厂商 SoC产品线
NXP SAF86xx系列:用于雷达控制模块,多采用FC-CSP封装
RENESAS R-Car平台:用于处理自动驾驶或先进驾驶辅助系统(Advanced Driver Assistance System,ADAS)等,多采用BGA封装
Texas Instruments TDA4VP-Q1:适用于L2、L3域控制器,采用倒装芯片球栅阵列(Flip-Chip Ball Grid Array,FCBGA)封装
芯驰科技 E3系列:可作为智能座舱、智能驾驶等域控制器,支持BGA封装
地平线 行征5:面向高级别自动驾驶及智能座舱,采用高频陶瓷球栅阵列(High Frequency Ceramic Ball Grid Array,HFCBGA)封装
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国内外重要厂商SoC产品线[4]

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厂商 SoC产品线
NXP SAF86xx系列:用于雷达控制模块,多采用FC-CSP封装
RENESAS R-Car平台:用于处理自动驾驶或先进驾驶辅助系统(Advanced Driver Assistance System,ADAS)等,多采用BGA封装
Texas Instruments TDA4VP-Q1:适用于L2、L3域控制器,采用倒装芯片球栅阵列(Flip-Chip Ball Grid Array,FCBGA)封装
芯驰科技 E3系列:可作为智能座舱、智能驾驶等域控制器,支持BGA封装
地平线 行征5:面向高级别自动驾驶及智能座舱,采用高频陶瓷球栅阵列(High Frequency Ceramic Ball Grid Array,HFCBGA)封装
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器件等级/级 环境工作温度范围/℃
0 -40~150
1 -40~125
2 -40~105
3 -40~85
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器件产品等级及测试温度[15]

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器件等级/级 环境工作温度范围/℃
0 -40~150
1 -40~125
2 -40~105
3 -40~85
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部位 最大温度/℃ 最大相对湿度%
发动机附近 38 95
轮片附近 66 80
座椅 66 80
侧门附近 38 95
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汽车电子器件温湿度环境条件[2]

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部位 最大温度/℃ 最大相对湿度%
发动机附近 38 95
轮片附近 66 80
座椅 66 80
侧门附近 38 95
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振动来源 频率
发动机转矩波动导致的振动 2~10
离合器不正导致的振动 2~10
传动轴夹角导致的振动 10~20
发动机转矩波动导致的振动 20~50
旋转失衡导致的振动 20~50
发动机旋转惯性导致的振动 100~200
齿轮的啮合导致的振动 400~2 000
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汽车电子器件振动环境条件[2] Hz

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振动来源 频率
发动机转矩波动导致的振动 2~10
离合器不正导致的振动 2~10
传动轴夹角导致的振动 10~20
发动机转矩波动导致的振动 20~50
旋转失衡导致的振动 20~50
发动机旋转惯性导致的振动 100~200
齿轮的啮合导致的振动 400~2 000
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方法 VCCT J积分 CZM
理论
基础
线弹性
断裂力学
弹塑性断裂
力学
损伤力学
概念
原理
闭合裂缝所需的能量等于打开裂缝所需的能量 在裂纹扩展过程中,系统的能量损失转化为新裂纹面的形成和裂纹尖端塑性变形区的能量消耗 使用牵引-分离定律来模拟材料界面处的损伤和分离
是否预制裂纹
所需
参数
断裂能 临界应力、界面刚度、断裂能
适用性 线弹性材料 小变形、非线性材料 大变形、非线性材料
), ArticleFig(id=1192526958090137654, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189873562199433220, articleId=1192072540878156297, language=CN, label=表6, caption=

主要仿真方法对比

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
方法 VCCT J积分 CZM
理论
基础
线弹性
断裂力学
弹塑性断裂
力学
损伤力学
概念
原理
闭合裂缝所需的能量等于打开裂缝所需的能量 在裂纹扩展过程中,系统的能量损失转化为新裂纹面的形成和裂纹尖端塑性变形区的能量消耗 使用牵引-分离定律来模拟材料界面处的损伤和分离
是否预制裂纹
所需
参数
断裂能 临界应力、界面刚度、断裂能
适用性 线弹性材料 小变形、非线性材料 大变形、非线性材料
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车规级芯片封装界面可靠性研究进展
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盛方辉 1 , 梁澎坚 2 , 马宝光 2 , 杨晶磊 3 , 戴恩期 4 , 李兴森 1
汽车工艺与材料 | 汽车柔性电子技术专题 2025,(7): 19-30
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汽车工艺与材料 | 汽车柔性电子技术专题 2025, (7): 19-30
车规级芯片封装界面可靠性研究进展
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盛方辉1, 梁澎坚2, 马宝光2, 杨晶磊3, 戴恩期4, 李兴森1
作者信息
  • 1 广东工业大学, 广州 510006
  • 2 广州市香港科大霍英东研究院, 广州 511455
  • 3 香港科技大学, 香港
  • 4 广州国机润滑科技有限公司, 广州 510700
  • 盛方辉(1998—),男,硕士学位,研究方向为可拓学及复合材料力学。

Research Progress of Automotive-Grade Chip Package Interfaces Reliability
Fanghui Sheng1, Pengjian Liang2, Baoguang Ma2, Jinglei Yang3, Enqi Dai4, Xingsen Li1
Affiliations
  • 1 Guangdong University of Technology, Guangzhou 510006
  • 2 Guangzhou HKUST Fok Ying Tung Research Institute, Guangzhou 511455
  • 3 Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, Hong Kong
  • 4 Guangzhou Sinomach Lubrication Technology Co., Ltd., Guangzhou 510700
出版时间: 2025-07-20 doi: 10.19710/J.cnki.1003-8817.20240166
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控制芯片作为汽车电子控制单元(ECUs)的核心部件,其封装可靠性直接影响整车安全性能。针对微控制单元(MCU)与系统级芯片(SoC)两类主流架构,基于汽车典型工况下的机械振动与温度冲击复合载荷特征,系统研究了封装界面分层失效机制。研究表明:在多载荷耦合作用下,贴片界面、引线键合界面及底部填充胶界面等关键部位的性能退化导致的界面粘接强度衰减与材料热失配效应是诱发分层失效的主导因素。通过对比虚拟裂纹闭合技术(VCCT)、J积分法及内聚力模型(CZM)的数值模拟适用性,表明CZM在非线性材料大变形条件下具有界面失效表征优势,J积分则适用于非线性材料小变形断裂领域,而VCCT在线弹性稳态裂纹扩展分析中更具计算效率优势。

界面分层  /  有限元分析  /  车规级芯片  /  可靠性  /  可拓学

Packaging reliability of control chips, which serve as the central components of Electronic Control Units (ECUs), directly affects the safety performance of automobiles. This paper systematically investigates the mechanism of delamination failure of two mainstream ECU architectures namely Microcontroller Unit (MCU) and System-on-Chip (SoC) based on composite load characteristics of mechanical vibration and temperature shock under typical conditions of automobile. The research results indicate that under multi-load coupling, interface bonding strength attenuation and thermal mismatching of materials caused by performance degradation of key positions like die attach interface, wire bond interface and underfill packing layer are the primary factors inducing delamination failure. This paper compares the application of three finite element analysis techniques—Virtual Crack Closure Technique (VCCT), J-integral, and Cohesive Zone Model (CZM), which indicates that CZM has interface representational dominance under large deformation condition of nonlinear material, while J-integral is applicable to small deformation fracture zone of nonlinear material, and VCCT has advantages in computational efficiency in the analysis of linear elastic steady-state crack propagation.

Interface delamination  /  Finite element analysis  /  Automotive-grade chip  /  Reliability  /  Extenics
盛方辉, 梁澎坚, 马宝光, 杨晶磊, 戴恩期, 李兴森. 车规级芯片封装界面可靠性研究进展. 汽车工艺与材料, 2025 , (7) : 19 -30 . DOI: 10.19710/J.cnki.1003-8817.20240166
Fanghui Sheng, Pengjian Liang, Baoguang Ma, Jinglei Yang, Enqi Dai, Xingsen Li. Research Progress of Automotive-Grade Chip Package Interfaces Reliability[J]. Automobile Technology & Material, 2025 , (7) : 19 -30 . DOI: 10.19710/J.cnki.1003-8817.20240166
在汽车智能化发展趋势的推动下,电子电气架构正由分布式向集中化的转变[1]。汽车电子控制系统作为电子电气系统的重要组成部分,主要由传感器、电子控制单元(Electronic Control Units,ECUs)以及执行器组成[2]。在传统的分布式架构中,ECUs的控制芯片主要为低算力的微控制器(Microcontroller Unit,MCU),MCU的局限性使其只能控制一定的功能特征,为满足整车功能需求,需搭载100余个ECUs,系统冗余复杂[3]。为此,新一代架构采用域集中和中央集中的模式,采用系统级芯片(System on Chip,SoC)作为控制芯片,将ECUs中专用集成电路(Application-Specific Integrated Circuit,ASIC)、中央处理单元(Central Processing Unit,CPU)、图像处理单元(Graphics Processing Unit,GPU)、现场可编程逻辑门阵列(Field-Programmable Gate Array,FPGA)等组件集成于单一硅片,实现数据传输的低延迟和高吞吐率等,目前已逐渐成为汽车电子控制系统中的主流控制芯片[4-6]
车规级芯片的可靠性是汽车安全性能的重要考量指标,芯片封装的高可靠性尤为关键。在应用中,车规级芯片的工作环境伴随着机械振动、冲击、温度循环等,界面分层是影响芯片封装可靠性的重要因素[7-9],研究指出,影响界面分层的主要原因可分为2类:一是由于芯片组件间热膨胀系数不同导致界面应力增大,引发界面分层[10-12];二是由于封装体内部产生的热量受内部裂缝、孔隙等缺陷阻碍,使热量传递受阻,造成热应力累积,最终导致封装体出现裂纹甚至裂纹扩展[13-14]
在结构和热传导分析中,有限元分析具有良好的适用性,是当前应用较广泛的数值模拟方法,在芯片封装领域,与传统试验相比,有限元分析技术通常不受尺寸和结构复杂度的影响。在封装界面分层失效问题中,有限元分析通过建立封装模型,对材料、结构和载荷等因素进行精确数值模拟,获取应力、应变及位移等关键参数,有助于分析界面分层失效机理。基于此,本文将对控制芯片封装界面可靠性及其影响机制进行综述,并根据断裂力学学科框架,阐述有限元分析技术在芯片封装界面分层失效中的研究现状。
在微电子领域,封装使芯片与外界隔离,可免受或减轻环境因素(灰尘、水汽等)和物理因素(划伤、振动等)的影响,对确保电子器件的性能和寿命至关重要[15]。由于车规级SoC与MCU的设计目标与集成度不同,在封装形式上存在差异。MCU主要集成CPU、内存及引脚等,集成度较低,封装形式多样,通过调研NXP、RENESAS、Texas Instruments等车规级MCU头部企业可知,MCU预设封装形式多为四边扁平封装(Quad Flat Package,QFP)、无引脚四方扁平封装(Quad Flat No-lead,QFN)、球栅阵列封装(Ball Grid Array,BGA)或三者家族系列,如低型四方扁平封装(Low Profile Quad Flat Package, LQFP)、无引脚四方扁平封装(Leadless Quad Flat No-lead Package, LQFN)、细间距球栅阵列封装(Fine-pitch Ball Grid Array, FBGA)等,如表1所示。由于SoC集成度较高,往往需要使用高性能的封装技术,如BGA、倒装芯片芯片级封装(Flip-Chip Chip Scale Package,FC-CSP)等,以支持更多的I/O端口,实现更好的热管理和更小的形状因子[16],国内外重要厂商的SoC产品线如表2所示[4,17]。参考美国车规级芯片可靠性标准AEC-Q100: Stress Test Qualification for Integrated Circuits,计算芯片在不同应用场合下可采用不同的封装形式,以降低成本,但均需将芯片贴装到基板,并通过不同的连接方式将硅片表面电路与封装引脚连接。
车用芯片的工作环境受安装位置的影响,多数情况下,汽车运行环境为多因素耦合作用,这使电子器件面临极为严酷的考验,但汽车在使用过程中,整车环境负荷呈现较强的非均匀性,为降低测试工作量和成本,需对不同安装位置的电子器件测试条件与项目进行分类度量。根据AEC-Q100,将器件分为4个等级,如表3所示,可根据汽车不同功能域所用电子器件选择合适的等级。汽车功能域中,动力系统所在的环境最为复杂,如表4表5所示[2,15],受发动机、非刚性连接的柔性进气管、变速器与减速器等内、外环境共同影响,同时受整车车体与骨架的机械振动作用,对动力系统中电子器件的可靠性提出较高要求。
车规级控制芯片主要失效模式可分为晶圆级与封装级[16],芯片服役过程中,失效多为多因素耦合引起,但研究发现,造成芯片失效的外部原因主要为热应力[17-18],从微观角度看,在键合过程中,金属间化合物(Intermetallic Compound,IMC)的生长和不同金属的扩散等使界面性能退化,对芯片封装的可靠性产生较大影响。本文将针对封装可靠性问题,梳理贴片材料、芯片互连材料和密封材料之间在多场耦合作用下的失效模式。从芯片封装的系统性角度出发,失效通常表现为连接界面处分层或开裂,如贴片界面、引线键合(Wire Bonding)界面、底部填充胶(Underfill)界面及本体中钝化层(Passivation)破裂[19-20]
在先进封装技术中,芯片键合技术用于将完成切割的晶圆(Die)安装在基板(Substrate)或引线框架上。为实现芯片键合,Die安装结构可分为引线键合与倒装芯片键合[21],如图1所示。从键合工艺上看,芯片键合主要有黏合剂键合、共晶键合、软焊料键合、金属烧结键合[22-23]
黏合剂键合所采用的材料多为环氧树脂,作为一种热固型高分子聚合物,环氧树脂固化反应时的收缩率小、尺寸稳定性好,但韧性较差,在外部载荷冲击或内应力作用下,极易形成界面分层。固化后的环氧树脂具有绝缘性,通常作为基体填充银离子形成导电胶,导电胶环氧树脂可实现芯片底部与基板之间的电气连接,但受导热能力差的影响,在高温下粘结芯片与基板的能力比较弱,易发生分层失效。特别地,高集成度的芯片周边互联间距较小,导电胶受芯片和基板表面自由能及放置时间的影响,会出现“溢出”现象,当溢出严重时,溢出物与电路或相邻焊盘覆盖互联,影响引线键合连接强度,造成开裂等失效,同时,银离子会导致电化学迁移, 造成芯片短路[24]
共晶键合(Eutectic Bonding)是将预制的共晶层、焊膏等加热到共晶点附近熔融形成具有良好机械和电学性能的IMC,进而实现金属键合。IMC是影响共晶键合可靠性的关键因素,其组成成分受温度和键合材料的影响,如Au-Sn合金,在共晶点下主要有Au5Sn相与AuSn相组成,如果温度在其共晶点温度下,则形成的化合物由AuSn2与AuSn4组成,后者形成的2种化合物韧性较差,影响键合可靠性。
当前,软焊料键合多采用无铅焊料,SnAgCu合金最为常用,焊料键合与共晶键合相似,在连接表面均会形成金属间化合物,如图1c所示,Hu等[25]利用背散射电子成像(Back Scattered Electron Imaging,BSE)技术观察到在Sn0.7Cu焊料体系中,在温度为240 ℃的条件下,Sn0.7Cu和Cu衬底之间存在Cu6Sn5金属间化合物,如图2所示,IMC受焊接温度影响,比较Sn0.7Cu/Cu、Sn0.7Cu0.7Bi/Cu和Sn0.7Cu1.3Bi/Cu 3种焊料体系在不同焊接温度下的IMC厚度后发现,随着温度变化,不同焊料层的IMC厚度呈线性规律,如图3所示。随着温度的升高,Sn0.7Cu和Cu体系中由之前单层IMC开始出现Cu3Sn层,如图2b所示。安彤等[26]认为焊点失效模式随IMC厚度的增加可分3种:靠近焊料(Solder)/IMC界面处;沿着IMC中Cu6Sn5凸出部分开裂;Cu6Sn5体内开裂,如图4所示。
IMC的性能对共晶键合和焊料键合可靠性至关重要。受IMC的脆性影响,键合质量敏感性增大,IMC造成键合失效是多因素耦合作用的结果,如加工工艺造成的共晶层局部温度差异,影响金属间化合物形成速率和分布,造成IMC分布不均所产生的局部应力集中等。IMC在形成的过程中通常伴随着一种金属向另一种金属的扩散,金属间扩散速率不同,扩散速度快的区域形成大量空位,在空位连成片后形成空洞,即Kirkendall空洞现象,如图5所示,胡会能等[30]研究表明,Au-Al键合过程中,IMC随扩散过程不断推进成分占比的改变,如图6所示,400 ℃/1 h、400 ℃/2 h、400 ℃/3 h 3种工况下样品失效模式均为Au一侧键合点失效,这是由于Au的扩散速度高于Al,导致Au出现Kirkendall空洞现象,由此表明,Kirkendall空洞现象相较于IMC的脆性,对键合的可靠性影响更大。Matljasevic等[31]指出,机械振动和热失配等可激发空洞的形成,从而降低芯片与基板间的结合力,导致界面分层失效,影响整体的可靠性。
目前,针对IMC的研究较多,主要有IMC的构成、形成动力学、硅基板对IMC形成的影响以及IMC对键合可靠性的影响等,随着封装技术的不断发展,需要研究新材料新工艺对IMC形成和性质的影响,在有限元分析工具的辅助下,可跨尺度分析宏观与微观结构特征对IMC力热性能的影响,调控键合条件实现可靠性正向设计,还可考虑IMC层与其他失效机制的相互作用,如IMC层与电迁移、热迁移等。
烧结银是金属烧结键合的常用材料,依靠银微粒表面的银原子与基板或晶片表面的银镀层之间的扩散键合,有别于金属键合,长时间高温环境下不会出现金属退化,多用于功率半导体芯片。与其他键合方式类似,芯片键合失效主要原因有2个,一是受键合面组织稳定性影响,如金属化合物生长等,二是受材料力学性能影响,在长时间高温或温度循环条件下,材料受热膨胀系数与蠕变应变叠加影响,不同的热膨胀系数引起的累积塑性变形与蠕变应变共同作用会造成基板等组件翘曲变形并引发断裂失效。
对于采用FC-BGA、CSP等封装形式的MCU或SoC芯片,为增强芯片与基板间的连接强度并减少应力冲击,多采用Underfill对芯片底部进行填充。在车规级芯片中,Underfill受冷热循环、机械振动及本身固化所产生的残余应力的作用,常见的失效模式有Underfill/Die、Underfill/Passivation、Underfill/焊料掩膜(Solder Mask)界面分层及Underfill本体开裂[20,33]。研究表明,评估芯片与Underfill界面可靠性的关键因素之一是界面断裂韧性,界面裂纹的快速扩展会直接影响焊点的完整性,进而导致系统故障[34]
随着芯片封装向着小型化、功能集成方向发展,引线键合可靠性失效问题变得尤为突出。引线键合多采用金线、铝线或铜丝等,通过热压、超声等技术将引线键合至焊盘上,如图7所示。随着芯片封装焊盘间距变窄,在引线键合受工艺、热应力等的作用下,可靠性问题多集中在键合点断裂、键合丝脱落及键合丝断裂等方面,如图8所示。Schafft H A[29]对引线失效问题进行综述,提出金属键合可靠性主要受金属间化合物、Kirkendall空洞、劣质材料及键合工艺等影响。温度场是影响引线键合体系可靠性的重要因素,因键合丝与芯片焊盘、管壳内引脚表面金属材料不同,须考虑键合系统之间的界面效应,Park J等[32]研究了高温存储(High Temperature Storage,HTS)下环氧树脂、界面粗糙度等因素对QFP封装中Au-Al、合金-Al引线键合界面退化的影响,结果表明,环氧树脂可提高键合的可靠性,合金元素可降低IMC的生长动力学,在高温条件下可提供弹性行为。受热膨胀系数失配影响,金属引线体系受热应力共同的作用,出现金属线在黏附区移位,导致界面分层,Van Driel W D等[8]的有限元分析结果表明,界面分层是引线键合失效的主要因素。
钝化层是指覆盖在半导体芯片表面的一层较薄的绝缘材料,通常由硅氧化物(SiO2)、硅氮化物(Si3N4)构成。钝化层失效的原因通常为:由于塑封材料与硅芯片热膨胀系数不同,在温度循环过程中产生的热应力导致硅晶片表面受到剪切应力的作用,使金属电极产生棘轮塑性变形,金属电极在剪应力的作用下向中心做棘轮状移动,拉动覆盖其上的钝化层一起向中心移动并产生较大应力,从而使钝化层中的裂纹多次萌生并稳定生长,如图9所示,剪应力$\tau $从边缘指向中心,引起钝化层开裂[35]
综上,对界面分层失效建立关系元模型库,由关系名Or、前项cr1、后项cr2、影响因素cr3特征及相应量值vr1vr2vr3构成3维关系元:
$\left[\begin{array}{ccc}\begin{array}{l}{O}_{r},\\ \\ \end{array}& \begin{array}{l}{c}_{r1},\\ {c}_{r2},\\ {c}_{r3},\end{array}& \begin{array}{l}{v}_{r1}\\ {v}_{r2}\\ {v}_{r3}\end{array}\end{array}\right]$
模型中前项与后项的对应关系有Die与Substrate、Underfill与Die、Underfill与Passivation、Underfill与Solder Mask、键合丝与焊盘等,失效的主要影响因素有IMC、Kirkendall空洞、热失配及蠕变等。
传统的基于试验数据及数理统计的界面可靠性分析技术为早期封装设计和材料评估提供了基础,但在高精度、高效率以及复杂环境模拟的需求下,局限性逐渐显现。而由失效物理原理发展出的物理模型大幅提升了分析结果的准确性。当前,利用有限元分析(Finite Element Analysis,FEA)技术模拟封装结构在制造和实际使用过程中的物理行为,有效帮助了研究人员理解和预测可能导致失效的因素,进而优化设计和工艺,提高产品的可靠性的同时,缩短了产品开发周期,减少了昂贵的原型测试和迭代设计。
分层破坏可视为裂纹的萌生与扩展过程,因此,断裂力学可为分析芯片界面分层问题提供理论依据[36-38],借助有限元技术、结合断裂力学和非线性材料行为模型可进一步模拟和分析材料分层、裂纹扩展等现象,实现对复杂界面分层机制的探究。Griffith理论是脆性断裂力学的基础,其阐述了在脆性材料中,当裂纹尖端区域释放的能量达到临界值Gc时,将触发裂纹扩展,该理论通过引入应变能释放率(Energy Release Rate,ERR)将裂纹的能量条件与材料的断裂特性紧密联系起来。Griffith理论表达式为:
$G\left(B\Delta a\right)={\gamma }_{s}\left(2B\Delta a\right)\Rightarrow G=2{\gamma }_{s}$
式中:G为应变能释放率,B为裂纹厚度,a为裂纹长度,${\gamma }_{s}$为材料表面能[39]
基于Griffith理论的研究,Irwin G R提出应力强度因子K,用于描述线弹性材料局部裂纹尖端应力场的强度,将裂纹尖端应力场与应变能释放率联系起来。在平面应力和平面应变条件下,根据裂纹扩展模式,将应力强度因子分别表示为${K}_{{\rm I}}$${K}_{{\rm I}{\rm I}}$${K}_{{\rm I}{\rm I}{\rm I}}$,其中,平面应变条件下应力强度因子K可表示为:
$K=\sigma \sqrt{\pi a}F\left(a/W\right)$
平面应力条件下,应力强度因子K为:
$K=\frac{\sigma \sqrt{\pi a}F\left(a/W\right)}{1-{\nu }^{2}}$
式中:$\sigma $为应力,a为裂纹长度,F(a/W)为关于几何形状的函数,$\nu $为泊松比[39-41]
基于上述理论,在有限元分析技术的框架下,存在多种计算ERR的方法,其中包括虚拟裂纹闭合技术(Virtual Crack Closure Technique,VCCT)、J积分等[42-43]。其中,利用VCCT求解ERR的基本原理是在裂纹扩展微小位移所需能量与将此裂纹闭合所需能量相等的基础上,利用有限元分析得到裂纹尖端扩展前后的节点力及位移,计算得到裂纹闭合过程中所需的能量,并将该能量与裂纹扩展的面积相比,获得能量释放率,如式(4)所示,最后将计算所得的能量释放率与材料的断裂韧性进行比较,以判断分层是否会扩展。
$G=\frac{F\Delta u}{2b\Delta a}$
式中:F为裂纹两侧节点闭合所需要的力;$\Delta u$为节点位移量;b为样品厚度;$\Delta a$为裂纹扩展的长度,如图10所示[37,44 -46]
在实际应用中,Shih M K等[28]为预测QFN封装中环氧树脂模塑料(Epoxy Molding Compound,EMC)与铜引线框架之间的分层风险并评估封装的可靠性,采用ANSYS有限元仿真软件,结合VCCT对双悬臂梁(Double Cantilever Beam,DCB)测试进行模拟仿真,计算得到临界应变能释放率(Strain Energy Release Rate,SERR)与试验结果差异小于9.5%,证明该模型在预测分层问题中的准确性。颗粒增强复合材料在车规级控制芯片中广泛应用,为探究其断裂性能,Sun[47]基于全局-局部有限元方法建立了多尺度模型研究SiO2纳米颗粒增强环氧树脂复合材料的断裂性能,在模拟裂纹扩展和计算能量释放率方面,采用VCCT技术,试验结果表明,断裂韧性和临界应变能释放率的仿真结果与试验数据具有极好的一致性。Wang等[33]基于二维VCCT技术分析了Underfill与Die、Underfill与钝化层、Underfill与阻焊层双材料界面处裂纹扩展行为,通过计算ERR、相位角等断裂力学参数,预测不同界面裂纹扩展趋势以及封装可能的破坏行为,同时研究了不同温度对ERR的影响,结果表明,在热载荷下,不同界面的裂纹扩展表现出明显差异,其中,Underfill与钝化层界面出现分层风险最高,之后依次是Underfill与Die界面、Underfill与阻焊层界面,同时,该研究强调ERR随温度变化而变化,当温度低于Underfill的玻璃化转变温度Tg时,ERR随温度升高而提高,当达到Tg时,ERR受Underfill软化与热失配影响。
VCCT技术能够准确计算双材料界面分层时的能量释放率,这对评估界面断裂韧性和预测裂纹扩展行为至关重要,应用VCCT技术进行裂纹扩展模拟可分为3步:预先定义裂纹、计算能量释放率、裂纹扩展模拟。在此过程中受VCCT局限性影响,需要考虑裂纹尖端网格划分的质量,根据式(4)可知,ERR的计算值受$\Delta a$的影响。另外,VCCT技术基于线弹性断裂力学(Linear Elastic Fracture Mechanics,LEFM)原理,适用于小尺度塑性变形和线弹性行为材料,而不能保证非线性或大变形行为材料计算结果的准确性[48-50]
随着断裂力学理论的不断发展,Rice基于线性及小变形假设提出J积分理论,旨在通过二维积分描述裂纹尖端附件的应力与应变状态,结果表明,当裂纹尖端周围轮廓J积分值达到临界值Jc时,裂纹开始扩展;线弹性材料的J值与ERR相同;在弹塑性条件下,J积分仍可作为度量层间断裂韧性的工具,定量描述裂纹尖端区域应变场的强度[51],其表达式为:
$J=\underset{\Gamma }{\int }wdy-\underset{\Gamma }{\int }{T}_{i}·\frac{\partial {u}_{i}}{\partial x}ds$
$w={\int }_{0}^{{\epsilon }_{ij}}{\sigma }_{ij}d{\epsilon }_{ij}$
式中:w为应变能密度;Г为裂纹尖端在平面内的任意一条曲线,如图11所示;σij为应力张量;εij为应变张量;TiГ上任意一点的应力;$\partial {u}_{i}/\partial x$为某点的位移(ui)在x方向上的位移梯度;ds为沿路径Г上的微元[17,52]
式(5)中第一项表示裂纹扩展过程中释放的应变能,第二项表示裂纹扩展过程中外力所做的功。
J积分具有守恒性,因此,积分的数值与选取的路径无关,使分析过程中避免了裂纹尖端大范围塑性变形的计算,且降低了计算的难度[40]。Lim等[53]通过有限元分析模拟J积分量化Si芯片裂纹尖端的能量释放率,研究了BGA封装芯片在热-机械载荷下的裂纹扩展机制,并利用中心复合设计的响应面方法确定了影响裂纹扩展的主要因素。
VCCT与J积分均基于能量法求得能量释放率,且两者的求解式均需在模型中预定义裂纹,预定义裂纹的尺寸将影响计算结果。与VCCT相比,J积分不需要精细的网格尺寸即可求得准确的结果[48]。Zhong等[37]分别应用VCCT与J积分方法对倒装芯片封装中的Underfill界面分层问题进行有限元分析,在进行网格独立性验证后,仿真结果表明,2种方法获得的能量释放率存在差别,且VCCT求得的结果通常高于J积分。
内聚力模型(Cohesive Zone Model,CZM)最初由Dugdale和Barenblatt提出,用于描述脆性材料及韧性材料裂纹尖端附近的应力场[26,54 -55],当前已发展成为分析材料分层及断裂问题的重要理论和数值工具[56]。以Dugdale-Barenblatt(D-B)理论为基础,众多学者提出了多种内聚力模型,包括双线性、梯形、指数型及多项式等形式。与VCCT和J积分方法不同,CZM提供了一种描述裂纹扩展和材料损伤演化的连续方法,消除了裂纹尖端奇异性问题。在FEA框架下,可通过引入损伤变量和相场变量模拟裂纹扩展过程,从而间接获得能量释放率,适用于模拟复杂的裂纹形态和裂纹分叉行为。
图12所示的双线性内聚力模型[57]计算过程简单有效,在有限元分析软件中应用广泛[58-59],该模型主要包括线弹性所代表的损伤开始阶段与线性损伤演化,其控制方程为[57,60]
$\sigma =\left\{\begin{array}{cc}\frac{{\sigma }_{max}}{{\delta }_{n}^{0}}\delta & \left(\delta \le {\delta }_{n}^{0}\right)\\ {\sigma }_{max}\frac{{\delta }_{n}^{f}-\delta }{{\delta }_{n}^{f}-{\delta }_{n}^{0}}& \left(\delta {\delta }_{n}^{0}\right)\end{array}\right.$
$\tau =\left\{\begin{array}{cc}\frac{{\tau }_{max}}{{\delta }_{t}^{0}}\delta & \left(\delta \le {\delta }_{t}^{0}\right)\\ {\tau }_{max}\frac{{\delta }_{n}^{f}-\delta }{{\delta }_{t}^{f}-{\delta }_{t}^{0}}& \left(\delta {\delta }_{t}^{0}\right)\end{array}\right.$
式中:σ为法向应力值,τ为切向应力值,δ为位移,σmaxτmax分别为法向、切向最大应力值,${\delta }_{n}^{0}$${\delta }_{t}^{0}$分别为裂纹界面法向、切向张开位移值,${\delta }_{n}^{f}$${\delta }_{t}^{f}$分别为最终开裂法向、切向位移值。
Zan等[58]通过ANSYS有限元软件,利用双线性CZM模型模拟端部缺口弯曲(End-Notched Flexure,ENF)试验,获取载荷-位移曲线描述镀镍多壁碳纳米管增强烧结银的断裂过程,为得到准确的模型参数,通过不断将模拟得到的载荷-位移曲线与试验数据进行对比,调整CZM参数,直到模拟结果与试验结果吻合,进而确定CZM模型参数,成功得到镀镍多壁碳纳米管增强烧结银的CZM模型,与试验结果具有较好的一致性,作者认为,通过该方法能够精确的获取材料受载时的断裂和分层行为,为电子封装中的材料设计和可靠性评估提供了有价值的理论和数值工具。
关于冲击载荷下芯片封装的可靠性问题,Zhang等[57]利用双线性CZM模型和子模型技术模拟了BGA封装中IMC的失效模式,结果表明,CZM适用于模拟BGA跌落可靠性的研究。于飞等[61]考虑在低速冲击损伤中,传统CZM模型无法描述复合材料层内裂纹和应力对界面分层的影响,通过修正界面单元内聚力本构模型中损伤起始准则,提出一种改进的CZM模型,结合层合复合材料失效准则,计算出不同铺层和材料属性下的低速冲击损伤状态,损伤面积与试验结果吻合较好。
相较于VCCT与J积分,CZM不需要预制裂纹即可提供一种强大的框架来模拟材料的断裂过程,在芯片封装领域越来越多的学者利用CZM模型模拟其分层问题,3种方法的对比如表6所示。尽管目前CZM技术已经成熟,但还有一些问题需要研究,主要包括:
a. 参数确定的复杂性。CZM模型准确性依赖模型参数的选择,如临界应力、界面刚度、断裂能等,临界应力试验很难表征损伤的萌生,因此,在实际中常采用层间强度,而层间强度用于表征层间宏观破坏,显然,黏聚强度小于层间强度。Liu等[9]面对EMC界面分层问题,提出一种VCCT与CZM相结合的仿真方法,利用VCCT计算界面分层过程中的SERR,基于四点弯(4PB)得到的载荷位移曲线,反推出刚度Knn与临界应力,通过不断对比仿真结果与试验结果,获取最终的CZM参数。
b. 计算资源的需求。为保证计算精度,在黏聚区需要精细化网格,与VCCT和J积分相比,CZM可能需要更多的计算资源[38,45,48,62]
MCU及SoC芯片封装的可靠性研究是保障ECUs服役性能的关键基础。本文系统梳理多物理场耦合作用机制下芯片封装失效机理,同时探讨了有限元数值模拟技术在封装界面分层失效预测中的应用进展。已有报道表明,封装结构失效主要集中表现在芯片键合、Underfill、Wire Bonding及Passivation四大关键界面,失效机理可归结为:异质材料CTE失配引发的内应力;由Cu-Al等二元金属体系在温度梯度下的非对称扩散速率引发的金属互连体系中的Kirkendall空洞现象;在高温或长期服役条件下,2种金属元素通过扩散反应形成的IMC。
有限元分析方法体系中,针对封装界面分层失效问题,目前主要采用 VCCT、J积分和CZM 3种方法。 VCCT基于线性弹性断裂力学理论,通过构建虚拟裂纹扩展路径,计算裂纹扩展过程中能量释放的情况。该方法要求预先设定裂纹扩展路径,因此,在复杂三维结构的适应性上存在一定局限。与此不同,J积分基于弹塑性断裂力学理论,通过路径无关积分表征裂纹尖端应力应变场的强度,适用于分析小变形、非线性材料中的裂纹扩展行为。CZM则采用损伤力学框架,模拟裂纹扩展过程中的界面损伤及材料的非线性行为。CZM方法与VCCT和J积分的最大区别在于不要求预设裂纹,而是通过描述界面损伤的累积演化来预测裂纹的扩展临界条件,因此更适用于分析大变形和非线性材料。
综上所述,芯片封装的失效机制是多方面、多因素共同作用的结果,通过有限元分析方法,研究人员能够更精确地预测和分析芯片封装在不同工作条件下的性能变化及失效行为,但随着2.5D/3D封装技术的发展,为进一步提高封装技术的可靠性,未来可建立多尺度耦合分析框架及发展深度学习代理模型,为芯片封装可靠性研究提供更加高效的技术手段。
  • 常州市科技合作项目(CZ20220001)
  • 广州市黄埔区科学技术局(2022GH04)
  • 广东省科学技术厅(2023A0505030017)
  • 广州市科学技术局(2024A03J0234)
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2025年第卷第7期
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doi: 10.19710/J.cnki.1003-8817.20240166
  • 首发时间:2025-11-03
  • 出版时间:2025-07-20
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常州市科技合作项目(CZ20220001)
广州市黄埔区科学技术局(2022GH04)
广东省科学技术厅(2023A0505030017)
广州市科学技术局(2024A03J0234)
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    1 广东工业大学, 广州 510006
    2 广州市香港科大霍英东研究院, 广州 511455
    3 香港科技大学, 香港
    4 广州国机润滑科技有限公司, 广州 510700
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2种不同金属材料的力学参数

Family
属数
Number of
genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of
total species (%)

Genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of total
species (%)
鹅膏菌科Amanitaceae 2 11 5.26 鹅膏菌属 Amanita 10 4.78
小菇科 Mycenaceae 2 12 5.74 丝盖伞属 Inocybe 5 2.39
多孔菌科 Polyporaceae 8 14 6.70 蜡蘑属 Laccaria 5 2.39
红菇科 Russulaceae 3 23 11.00 小皮伞属 Marasmius 6 2.87
小菇属 Mycena 11 5.26
光柄菇属 Pluteus 5 2.39
红菇属 Russula 17 8.13
栓菌属 Trametes 5 2.39
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