Article(id=1243220378856829673, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1242844143416819734, issueId=1243220377556595432, articleNumber=null, orderNo=null, doi=10.15959/j.cnki.0254-0053.2025.03.001, pmid=null, cstr=null, oa=null, hot=null, price=null, onlineType=0, articleFormat=0, articleType=null, articleTypeStr=null, receivedDate=1753027200000, receivedDateStr=2025-07-21, revisedDate=null, revisedDateStr=null, acceptedDate=null, acceptedDateStr=null, onlineDate=1774336436237, onlineDateStr=2026-03-24, pubDate=1758729600000, pubDateStr=2025-09-25, doiRegisterDate=null, doiRegisterDateStr=null, onlineIssueDate=1774336436237, onlineIssueDateStr=2026-03-24, onlineJustAcceptDate=null, onlineJustAcceptDateStr=null, onlineFirstDate=null, onlineFirstDateStr=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, createTime=1774336436237, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1774336436237, updator=13701087609, issue=Issue{id=1243220377556595432, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1242844143416819734, year='2025', volume='46', issue='3', pageStart='541', pageEnd='810', issueExtLink='null', onlineDate='null', pubDate='null', beforeIssueId=null, nextIssueId=null, price=null, status=1, issueComplete=1, articleOrder=1, issueType=-1, specialIssue=null, createTime=1774336435926, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1774336648182, updator=13701087609, preIssue=null, nextIssue=null, ext={EN=IssueExt(id=1243221267898282005, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1242844143416819734, issueId=1243220377556595432, language=EN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=), CN=IssueExt(id=1243221267898282006, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1242844143416819734, issueId=1243220377556595432, language=CN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=)}, issueFiles=null}, startPage=541, endPage=569, ext={EN=ArticleExt(id=1243220379175596781, articleId=1243220378856829673, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1242844143416819734, language=EN, title=Research Progress on Mechanical Properties of DNA-like Material, columnId=null, journalTitle=Chinese Quarterly of Mechanics, columnName=null, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), as the fundamental genetic material of life, possesses diverse mechanical characteristics endowed from its unique chemical and physical properties. These properties play a pivotal role in regulating gene expression, viral infection mechanisms, disease diagnostics, and intelligent nanodevices. A profound understanding of the mechanical properties and behaviors of DNA-like material—spanning from the molecular scale to the macroscopic device level—provides a foundation for unveiling the physical mechanisms underlying biological activities, advancing biomedical detection technologies, and enabling the precise design of dynamic nanodevices. This paper systematically reviewed recent research progress on the mechanical properties of DNA-like material and their applications in biomedicine and nanotechnology. First, some significant experimental advances across different-scale DNA systems were introduced, emphasizing how experiments revealed the influence of microstructure and environmental conditions on the mechanical properties and responses of DNA-like material. Second, the developments of theoretical models for the mechanical behavior of DNA-like material were explored, elucidating the mechanisms underlying relevant experimental findings. Finally, the paper identified the challenges in the current DNA-like material mechanics research and its practical implementation, and looked forward to the prospect of achieving breakthroughs through research paradigms such as "digital and intelligent mechanics".

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作为生命的核心遗传物质,脱氧核糖核酸(Deoxyribonucleic Acid,DNA)拥有独特的物理与化学特性,展现出丰富的力学性能,在基因表达调控、病毒侵染机制、疾病诊断和智能纳米器件中起到了关键性作用.深入理解DNA类材料从分子尺度到宏观器件尺度的力学性能与力学行为,为揭示生命活动物理本质、发展生物医学检测技术、实现动态纳米器件精准设计提供了基础.本文系统概括了DNA类材料力学性能的研究进展及其在生物医学与纳米技术中的应用.首先,介绍了不同尺度DNA系统的重要实验进展,重点阐述了实验揭示的微观结构和环境条件对于DNA类材料力学性能与响应的影响.其次,探讨了DNA类材料力学行为理论模型的发展,揭示了相关实验结果的潜在力学机制.最后,指出当前关于DNA类材料力学研究与推广应用中存在的问题,展望了通过“数智力学”等新研究范式推动DNA类材料力学研究发展的前景.

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张能辉.E-mail:
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张能辉,教授,博士.研究方向:生物芯片系统纳米力学和粘弹性结构的非线性振动.

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张能辉,教授,博士.研究方向:生物芯片系统纳米力学和粘弹性结构的非线性振动.

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张能辉,教授,博士.研究方向:生物芯片系统纳米力学和粘弹性结构的非线性振动.

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IEEE Internet of Things Journal, 2022, 9(2): 897-915., articleTitle=DNA-based molecular computing, storage, and communications, refAbstract=null)], funds=[Fund(id=1243220394941984876, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1242844143416819734, articleId=1243220378856829673, awardId=12172204; 11772182; 11272193; 10872121, language=CN, fundingSource=国家自然科学基金(12172204; 11772182; 11272193; 10872121), fundOrder=null, country=null)], companyList=[AuthorCompany(id=1243220385823568747, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1242844143416819734, articleId=1243220378856829673, xref=1., ext=[AuthorCompanyExt(id=1243220385848734572, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1242844143416819734, articleId=1243220378856829673, companyId=1243220385823568747, language=EN, country=null, province=null, city=null, postcode=null, companyName=null, departmentName=null, remark=1.School of Mechanics and Engineering Science, Shanghai Institute of Applied Mathematics and Mechanics, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Mechanics in Energy Engineering, Shanghai 200444, China), AuthorCompanyExt(id=1243220385861317485, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1242844143416819734, articleId=1243220378856829673, companyId=1243220385823568747, language=CN, country=null, province=null, city=null, postcode=null, companyName=null, departmentName=null, remark=1.上海大学 力学与工程科学学院,上海市力学与数学应用研究所,上海市力学在能源工程中的应用重点实验室,上海 200444)]), AuthorCompany(id=1243220385932620656, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1242844143416819734, articleId=1243220378856829673, xref=2., ext=[AuthorCompanyExt(id=1243220385949397874, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1242844143416819734, articleId=1243220378856829673, companyId=1243220385932620656, language=EN, country=null, province=null, city=null, postcode=null, companyName=null, departmentName=null, remark=2.Department of Engineering Mechanics, Faculty of Civil Engineering and Mechanics, Kunming University of Science and Technology, Kunming 650550, Yunnan, China), AuthorCompanyExt(id=1243220385957786483, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1242844143416819734, articleId=1243220378856829673, companyId=1243220385932620656, language=CN, country=null, province=null, city=null, postcode=null, companyName=null, departmentName=null, remark=2.昆明理工大学 建筑工程学院工程力学系,云南 昆明 650550)]), AuthorCompany(id=1243220386490463098, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1242844143416819734, articleId=1243220378856829673, xref=3., ext=[AuthorCompanyExt(id=1243220386494657403, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1242844143416819734, articleId=1243220378856829673, companyId=1243220386490463098, language=EN, country=null, province=null, city=null, postcode=null, companyName=null, departmentName=null, remark=3.School of Mechanical Engineering and Rail Transit, Changzhou University, Changzhou 213164, Jiangsu, China), AuthorCompanyExt(id=1243220386503046012, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1242844143416819734, articleId=1243220378856829673, companyId=1243220386490463098, language=CN, country=null, province=null, city=null, postcode=null, companyName=null, departmentName=null, remark=3.常州大学 机械与轨道交通学院,江苏 常州 213164)])], figs=[ArticleFig(id=1243220390798013398, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1242844143416819734, articleId=1243220378856829673, language=EN, label=Fig.1, caption=DNA microstructure and its applications in biological processes and bioengineering: (a) DNA double helix structure and base pairing, (b) DNA packaging into chromosomes and its involvement in genetic inheritance and expression, (c) fabrication of 2D patterns based on DNA origami technology[14], and (d) 3D DNA nanostructures[12], figureFileSmall=b7DGqXCkZZ4ubEj41WTRgw==, figureFileBig=yIQM+4HrWCE5mSuRJUXQKA==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1243220390932231131, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1242844143416819734, articleId=1243220378856829673, language=CN, label=图1, caption=DNA微观结构及其在生理过程与生物工程中的作用,(a)DNA双螺旋结构与碱基配对示意图,(b)DNA封装形成染色体并参与生物基因遗传与表达,(c)基于DNA纳米折纸技术构筑二维图形[14]和(d)三维DNA纳米结构[12], figureFileSmall=b7DGqXCkZZ4ubEj41WTRgw==, figureFileBig=yIQM+4HrWCE5mSuRJUXQKA==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1243220391167112164, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1242844143416819734, articleId=1243220378856829673, language=EN, label=Fig.2, caption=X-ray diffraction pattern of DNA liquid crystal: (a) for the ordered phase with its average liquid crystal vector parallel to the X-ray path; (b) perpendicular to the X-ray path; (c) for the disordered phase[19], figureFileSmall=hCEWom0gJbVlEwRcyFmcsA==, figureFileBig=UflNJm1re20mwiQVy/3/gw==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1243220391263581162, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1242844143416819734, articleId=1243220378856829673, language=CN, label=图2, caption=DNA液晶X光衍射图:(a)有序相,平均液晶矢量平行于X光路;(b)垂直于X光路;(c)无序相[19], figureFileSmall=hCEWom0gJbVlEwRcyFmcsA==, figureFileBig=UflNJm1re20mwiQVy/3/gw==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1243220391594931185, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1242844143416819734, articleId=1243220378856829673, language=EN, label=Fig.3, caption=DNA single-molecule experimental methods: (a) using optical tweezers to stretch B-form DNA[26]; (b) using angular optical tweezers to twist DNA into supercoils[27]; (c) using magnetic tweezers to stretch a DNA quadruplex into unfolding ssDNA[31]; (d) electron micrograph (left) and AFM scanning image (right) of DNA[33], figureFileSmall=u2f9g8EA6WaZ7b2VYzggkQ==, figureFileBig=8klC3Z8fI/QwEY1El/ThNw==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1243220391913698293, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1242844143416819734, articleId=1243220378856829673, language=CN, label=图3, caption=DNA单分子实验方法:(a)光镊拉伸B型DNA示意图[26];(b)采用角向光镊将DNA扭转至超螺旋示意图[27];(c)磁镊拉伸DNA四联体展开为ssDNA[31];(d)DNA电镜照片(左)与AFM扫描图像(右)[33], figureFileSmall=u2f9g8EA6WaZ7b2VYzggkQ==, figureFileBig=8klC3Z8fI/QwEY1El/ThNw==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1243220392026944504, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1242844143416819734, articleId=1243220378856829673, language=EN, label=Fig.4, caption=Experimental methods for testing the mechanical properties and responses of DNA viruses: (a) T5 bacteriophage DNA ejection experiment (top) and fluorescence micrograph of ejected DNA (bottom)[37]; (b) using optical tweezers to measure viral DNA packaging process[46]; (c) 3D reconstruction of φ29 bacteriophage and its internal DNA based on cryo-EM images[48]; (d) AFM nanoindentation experiment on HSV-1 virus (left) and 3D topography of a compressed HSV-1 virus (right)[51], figureFileSmall=HJk9TmpprBrDs/0ls510Rg==, figureFileBig=BtmhVDUkNu7/yZlMsDDDnw==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1243220392131802109, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1242844143416819734, articleId=1243220378856829673, language=CN, label=图4, caption=测试DNA病毒力学性能与响应实验方法:(a)T5噬菌体DNA喷出实验示意图(上)与DNA喷出荧光照片(下)[37];(b)光镊测量病毒DNA封装过程示意[46];(c)基于冷冻电镜照片的φ29噬菌体及内部DNA三维重构图[48];(d)基于AFM的HSV1病毒纳米压痕实验示意(左)和受压HSV1病毒的三维形貌(右)[51], figureFileSmall=HJk9TmpprBrDs/0ls510Rg==, figureFileBig=BtmhVDUkNu7/yZlMsDDDnw==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1243220392454763520, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1242844143416819734, articleId=1243220378856829673, language=EN, label=Fig.5, caption=DNA-microcantilever detection operating modes: (a) static mode; (b) dynamic mode[63], figureFileSmall=ASIXeKpERml2szl+Sgc9Fw==, figureFileBig=wnwOC/KwihnGaoU1h04UEw==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1243220392584785924, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1242844143416819734, articleId=1243220378856829673, language=CN, label=图5, caption=DNA-微梁检测工作模式:(a)静态模式;(b)动态模式[63], figureFileSmall=ASIXeKpERml2szl+Sgc9Fw==, figureFileBig=wnwOC/KwihnGaoU1h04UEw==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1243220392698032138, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1242844143416819734, articleId=1243220378856829673, language=EN, label=Fig.6, caption=Artificially constructed DNA nanostructures and devices: (a) scheme diagram of DNA nanotube (top) and AFM scanning topography (bottom)[82]; (b) DNA nanotubes with initial twist (top) and bent configurations (bottom) constructed by adjusting base-pair[83]; (c) DNT nanocage in closed tetrahedral (top) and open adamantane-like states (bottom)[91]; (d) truncated octahedral DNA nanocage in open state (left) and closed state with encapsulating macromolecular enzymes (right)[92], figureFileSmall=fi+f0l5TaoafVG4JTApEwg==, figureFileBig=oQ7DD6HT/EXyizi/Kwwcdw==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1243220392798695441, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1242844143416819734, articleId=1243220378856829673, language=CN, label=图6, caption=人工构造的DNA纳米结构与器件:(a)DNA纳米管设计概念(上)与基于AFM的形貌扫描(下)[82];(b)通过调节碱基对构建具有初始扭转(上)与弯曲构型的DNA纳米管(下)[83];(c)闭合的四面体(上)与打开的金刚烷(下)状态的DNT纳米笼[91];(d)打开状态(左)与闭合封装大分子酶(右)的截角八面体DNA纳米笼[92], figureFileSmall=fi+f0l5TaoafVG4JTApEwg==, figureFileBig=oQ7DD6HT/EXyizi/Kwwcdw==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1243220393171988504, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1242844143416819734, articleId=1243220378856829673, language=EN, label=Fig.7, caption=DNA mechanical properties predicted by different theoretical models: (a) DNA extension length with stretching force predicted by the WLC model[95]; (b) DNA persistence length with its contour length under different constraints predicted by the FWLC model[103]; (c) DNA persistence length with residual charge on the DNA chain predicted by the MD simulations[107]; (d) DNA persistence length with experimental conditions and ionic concentration predicted by the DNA buckling model[116], figureFileSmall=vf4N0cjJQeKshv7wwEhuJg==, figureFileBig=i9vPqi9JVUT40I9MrhFTvg==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1243220393268457503, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1242844143416819734, articleId=1243220378856829673, language=CN, label=图7, caption=不同理论模型预测的DNA力学性能:(a)WLC模型预测DNA拉伸长度随拉伸力变化[95];(b)FWLC模型预测不同约束条件下DNA持续长度随轮廓长度变化情况[103];(c)分子动力学模拟预测DNA持续长度随DNA链上残余电荷变化情况[107];(d)DNA屈曲模型预测DNA持续长度随实验条件与离子浓度变化情况[116], figureFileSmall=vf4N0cjJQeKshv7wwEhuJg==, figureFileBig=i9vPqi9JVUT40I9MrhFTvg==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1243220393381703721, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1242844143416819734, articleId=1243220378856829673, language=EN, label=Fig.8, caption=Interactions between adjacent DNA chains predicted by different theoretical models: (a) scheme diagram of the electrostatic zipper model (left) and its predicted interaction energy between adjacent DNA chains with the DNA interchain distance (right)[123]; (b) osmotic pressure of DNA solution with the DNA interchain distance predicted by the Parsegian's free energy model[126], figureFileSmall=CHvKtqy4KHcCjp24nmjjNA==, figureFileBig=9ryNR1EU2Fu1YPiI1gM7Kw==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1243220393675305012, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1242844143416819734, articleId=1243220378856829673, language=CN, label=图8, caption=有关理论模型预测的DNA链间相互作用:(a)静电拉链模型示意(左)及其预测的DNA链间作用能随链间距的变化(右)[123];(b)Parsegian自由能模型预测的DNA溶液渗透压随链间距的变化[126], figureFileSmall=CHvKtqy4KHcCjp24nmjjNA==, figureFileBig=9ryNR1EU2Fu1YPiI1gM7Kw==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1243220393796939837, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1242844143416819734, articleId=1243220378856829673, language=EN, label=Fig.9, caption=DNA virus mechanical properties predicted by different theoretical models: (a) longitudinal cross-section of the viral DNA inverse-spool structure proposed by Purohit et al. (left) and predicted viral internal osmotic pressure with ejected DNA length (right)[133, 135]; (b) optimal size range for viral capsids determined by Li et al. based on the maximum shear stress model and viral internal osmotic pressure model[142]; (c) transverse cross-section of the viral DNA two-zone structure proposed by Zhang et al. (left), the structural ordering of viral DNA at different sizes (middle) and predicted equivalent stiffness of the virus with the temperature (right)[146], figureFileSmall=rbxgjZfZuuDHroZgQ6/wtQ==, figureFileBig=sNsBRvvc+3yxNAEYFVoujA==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1243220394090541124, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1242844143416819734, articleId=1243220378856829673, language=CN, label=图9, caption=有关理论预测的DNA病毒力学性能:(a)Purohit等提出的病毒DNA“逆线轴”结构的纵向剖面(左)与预测病毒内渗透压随DNA喷出变化情况(右)[133,135];(b)Li等基于最大剪应力模型与病毒DNA渗透压模型确定病毒衣壳尺寸最优范围[142];(c)Zhang等提出的病毒DNA双区结构横向剖面(左),以及不同尺寸病毒DNA的结构有序性(中)与病毒等效刚度随温度变化情况(右)[146], figureFileSmall=rbxgjZfZuuDHroZgQ6/wtQ==, figureFileBig=sNsBRvvc+3yxNAEYFVoujA==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1243220394166038603, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1242844143416819734, articleId=1243220378856829673, language=EN, label=Fig.10, caption=DNA adsorbed film mechanical properties and DNA-microcantilever detection signals predicted by different theories: (a) DNA-microcantilever deflection (left), and the contributions of flexoelectric and piezoelectric effects on the DNA adsorbed film to the deflection (right) a with the DNA packing conditions[158]; (b) scheme diagram of hexagonal packaged DNA adsorbed film (left), elastic modulus of the adsorbed film with DNA structure and ionic conditions (middle), and contributions of three microscopic interactions with interchain distance, height regime, and salt concentration (right)[162]; (c) relative frequency shift of the DNA-microcantilever with packaging mode and density[172], figureFileSmall=8ct4SYWKGJDyds87Vu76iQ==, figureFileBig=UF175m5fb2w4Y9b3hvXqVw==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1243220394283479122, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1242844143416819734, articleId=1243220378856829673, language=CN, label=图10, caption=相关理论预测的DNA吸附膜力学性能与DNA-微梁检测信号:(a)DNA-微梁挠度(左)和DNA吸附膜挠曲电与压电效应对挠度的贡献(右)随DNA封装条件的变化[158];(b)DNA吸附膜六边形封装示意(左)、吸附膜弹性模量随DNA结构与离子条件的变化(中)、三种微观作用贡献随链间距离、高度区域、盐浓度的变化(右)[162];(c)DNA-微梁相对频率漂移随封装模式和密度的变化[172], figureFileSmall=8ct4SYWKGJDyds87Vu76iQ==, figureFileBig=UF175m5fb2w4Y9b3hvXqVw==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1243220394631606362, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1242844143416819734, articleId=1243220378856829673, language=EN, label=Fig.11, caption=DNA nanostructure mechanical properties and responses predicted by different theoretical models: (a) scheme diagrams of a DNA nanotube (left), interactions between DNA chains in a DNA nanotube (middle), and effect of pre-tension force on DNA nanotube tensile stiffness predicted by a multiscale model (right)[182]; (b) energy landscape for a planar DNA dynamic structure with morphological changes predicted by a pseudo-rigid-body energy model[185]; (c) scheme diagram of the autonomous iterative optimization process for DNA nanostructures based on machine learning[190], figureFileSmall=rzvBUy4mXLbQDuEpr6sILQ==, figureFileBig=YN186EpsNNBESdmfNOWw9w==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1243220394757435492, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1242844143416819734, articleId=1243220378856829673, language=CN, label=图11, caption=有关理论模型预测的DNA纳米结构力学性能与响应:(a)DNA纳米管的拉伸(左)、链间相互作用(中)、多尺度模型预测的预拉伸力对DNA纳米管拉伸刚度的影响(右)[182];(b)伪刚体能量模型预测的平面DNA动态结构随形态变化的能量景观[185];(c)基于机器学习进行DNA纳米结构自主迭代优化的流程示意[190], figureFileSmall=rzvBUy4mXLbQDuEpr6sILQ==, figureFileBig=YN186EpsNNBESdmfNOWw9w==, tableContent=null)], attaches=null, journal=Journal(id=1242844054459826197, delFlag=0, nameCn=力学季刊, nameEn=Chinese Quarterly of Mechanics, nameHistory1=null, nameHistory2=null, issn=0254-0053, eissn=null, cn=31-1829/O3, coden=null, periodic=2, language=CN, oaType=null, ccby=null, superviseOffice=null, ownerOffice=null, pubOffice=null, editorOffice=null, officeType=null, aims=null, clcCode=null, officeProv=null, officeCity=null, officeAddr=null, 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DNA类材料力学性能的研究进展
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张能辉 1 , 张乘胤 1, 2 , 谭邹卿 3 , 刘翰林 1
力学季刊 | 2025,46(3): 541-569
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力学季刊 | 2025, 46(3): 541-569
DNA类材料力学性能的研究进展
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张能辉1 , 张乘胤1, 2, 谭邹卿3, 刘翰林1
作者信息
  • 1.上海大学 力学与工程科学学院,上海市力学与数学应用研究所,上海市力学在能源工程中的应用重点实验室,上海 200444
  • 2.昆明理工大学 建筑工程学院工程力学系,云南 昆明 650550
  • 3.常州大学 机械与轨道交通学院,江苏 常州 213164
  • 张能辉,教授,博士.研究方向:生物芯片系统纳米力学和粘弹性结构的非线性振动.

通讯作者:

张能辉.E-mail:
Research Progress on Mechanical Properties of DNA-like Material
Nenghui ZHANG1 , Chengyin ZHANG1, 2, Zouqing TAN3, Hanlin LIU1
Affiliations
  • 1.School of Mechanics and Engineering Science, Shanghai Institute of Applied Mathematics and Mechanics, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Mechanics in Energy Engineering, Shanghai 200444, China
  • 2.Department of Engineering Mechanics, Faculty of Civil Engineering and Mechanics, Kunming University of Science and Technology, Kunming 650550, Yunnan, China
  • 3.School of Mechanical Engineering and Rail Transit, Changzhou University, Changzhou 213164, Jiangsu, China
出版时间: 2025-09-25 doi: 10.15959/j.cnki.0254-0053.2025.03.001
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作为生命的核心遗传物质,脱氧核糖核酸(Deoxyribonucleic Acid,DNA)拥有独特的物理与化学特性,展现出丰富的力学性能,在基因表达调控、病毒侵染机制、疾病诊断和智能纳米器件中起到了关键性作用.深入理解DNA类材料从分子尺度到宏观器件尺度的力学性能与力学行为,为揭示生命活动物理本质、发展生物医学检测技术、实现动态纳米器件精准设计提供了基础.本文系统概括了DNA类材料力学性能的研究进展及其在生物医学与纳米技术中的应用.首先,介绍了不同尺度DNA系统的重要实验进展,重点阐述了实验揭示的微观结构和环境条件对于DNA类材料力学性能与响应的影响.其次,探讨了DNA类材料力学行为理论模型的发展,揭示了相关实验结果的潜在力学机制.最后,指出当前关于DNA类材料力学研究与推广应用中存在的问题,展望了通过“数智力学”等新研究范式推动DNA类材料力学研究发展的前景.

DNA类材料  /  微梁检测  /  DNA纳米结构  /  多尺度力学

Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), as the fundamental genetic material of life, possesses diverse mechanical characteristics endowed from its unique chemical and physical properties. These properties play a pivotal role in regulating gene expression, viral infection mechanisms, disease diagnostics, and intelligent nanodevices. A profound understanding of the mechanical properties and behaviors of DNA-like material—spanning from the molecular scale to the macroscopic device level—provides a foundation for unveiling the physical mechanisms underlying biological activities, advancing biomedical detection technologies, and enabling the precise design of dynamic nanodevices. This paper systematically reviewed recent research progress on the mechanical properties of DNA-like material and their applications in biomedicine and nanotechnology. First, some significant experimental advances across different-scale DNA systems were introduced, emphasizing how experiments revealed the influence of microstructure and environmental conditions on the mechanical properties and responses of DNA-like material. Second, the developments of theoretical models for the mechanical behavior of DNA-like material were explored, elucidating the mechanisms underlying relevant experimental findings. Finally, the paper identified the challenges in the current DNA-like material mechanics research and its practical implementation, and looked forward to the prospect of achieving breakthroughs through research paradigms such as "digital and intelligent mechanics".

DNA-like material  /  microcantilever detection  /  DNA nanostructure  /  multiscale mechanics
张能辉, 张乘胤, 谭邹卿, 刘翰林. DNA类材料力学性能的研究进展. 力学季刊, 2025 , 46 (3) : 541 -569 . DOI: 10.15959/j.cnki.0254-0053.2025.03.001
Nenghui ZHANG, Chengyin ZHANG, Zouqing TAN, Hanlin LIU. Research Progress on Mechanical Properties of DNA-like Material[J]. Chinese Quarterly of Mechanics, 2025 , 46 (3) : 541 -569 . DOI: 10.15959/j.cnki.0254-0053.2025.03.001
脱氧核糖核酸(Deoxyribonucleic Acid,DNA)是地球上绝大部分生命的核心遗传物质,通过由A、G、C、T四类碱基编码,将遗传信息存储于DNA特定序列中.利用Watson-Crick碱基配对原则[1],单根DNA链(single-strand DNA,ssDNA)可以与其它互补ssDNA形成双螺旋结构的双链DNA(double-strand DNA,dsDNA),如图1(a)所示,或自行折叠成发卡链、四联体等次级结构,在生命过程中起到对遗传信息的存储、保护、复制与表达等重要作用.以DNA分子为基础的实体功能性材料可称为DNA类材料,包括自然界中存在的DNA遗传物质和人工构建的合成基因、DNA疫苗、DNA检测探针、DNA纳米结构与DNA复合材料等.DNA类材料凭借特殊的物理化学特性、优异的力学性能和可编程的自组装能力等优势,在可控人工纳米结构构建与器件开发中展现出显著潜力,在纳米光刻制造[2]、分子计算[3]和医疗应用[4]等领域具有广泛的应用前景.
对于DNA类材料的力学性能研究有助于从物理层面理解生命运行的机制.研究表明,生命过程不仅依赖于DNA的碱基序列,也与不同尺度下DNA的力学性能密切相关.例如,真核细胞核内数米长的DNA基因组需要通过弯曲与扭转变形完成在微米级空间的压缩,如图1(b)所示,DNA的持续长度(Persistence Length)将直接影响核小体中DNA缠绕的拓扑构型[5];基因转录调控中的启动子环化(Looping)和重组过程中DNA片段局部超螺旋(Supercoiling)产生的扭转应力直接控制蛋白质结合位点[6].此外,活细胞中的DNA持续承受多种机械力作用,包括细胞骨架传递的外力[7]、DNA聚合酶/解旋酶运动时施加的分子马达扭矩[8]和有丝分裂期纺锤体微管施加的定向拉伸力等[8];这些力信号通过力敏感蛋白(Mechanosensitive Proteins)转化为生化响应,构成力学-表观遗传调控网络(Mechano-Epigenetic Regulation)的核心环节.由此可见,识别与表征DNA从分子级别碱基对(Base Pair)到染色体尺度的力学性能对理解生命遗传与表达过程具有重要意义.
与病理相关的异常DNA序列已成为多种疾病高特异性生物标志物,DNA芯片(传感器)通过精准捕获此类序列变异信息,实现对疾病的快速精准诊断.DNA传感器技术关键之一在于利用分子杂交原理,将已知序列的ssDNA探针固定于芯片基底表面,通过与目标核酸碱基配对实现特异性识别[9],并将DNA杂交信息转化为光学、电学或力学信号输出,其中力学类传感器因无需标记试剂和抗环境干扰能力强等优势,显著提升了检测速度与灵敏度[10-11].然而,DNA芯片基于特异性结合产生信号涉及物理、化学、生物与力学等多学科的交叉,并且还涉及从分子之间的微观相互作用到微弹性结构宏观变形的涌现行为和跨尺度问题等.因此,DNA芯片技术的核心挑战在于建立跨尺度、多物理化学耦合机制的信号解读模型,这不仅关系着合理解读检测结果、优化信号,也为设计新的高精度、抗噪声检测方法提供理论基础,推进DNA芯片技术向低成本临床诊断场景的转化.
以DNA为基础材料的可编程纳米结构与器件,凭借序列导向的精确自组装特性和可响应外部刺激而转换构象的能力,为临床靶向治疗提供了兼具生物相容性与分子级操控精度的高效平台.通过DNA模块化组装、DNA折纸和DNA复合材料组装等纳米技术,可精确构建DNA图形、DNA药物载体、纳米机器人、逻辑门控制器等二维/三维(2D/3D)功能纳米结构[12-14],如图1(c)和(d)所示;通过结合目标分子、改变环境条件和调节外部场作用等方法可以驱动DNA纳米结构形态动态变化与运动,执行药物载体触发释放、纳米机器人预设运动和DNA计算网络逻辑运算等[15].为实现DNA纳米器件从静态拓扑结构设计向动态力-化耦合控制的升级,亟需开展对DNA纳米结构局部构件与整体力学性能的研究,以推动新型DNA纳米结构的发展与应用.
目前,DNA类材料力学性能研究面临如下诸多挑战:对于DNA本征的力学性能及其在生物学中作用方面,需要精确量化和表征复杂生物环境条件下DNA持续长度和扭转刚度等力学性能、超螺旋和次级发卡链等结构特征与基因复制和表达等生物学过程之间的关联;而在DNA作为诊断识别标志物与纳米技术材料的应用方面,亟待解决复杂生物样本中多物理化学场耦合噪声干扰条件下DNA芯片信号解读,开发基于力学响应的快速、高灵敏度、无标记检测技术,以突破传统生化检测的时效性限制,设计在体内复杂环境中实现动态力-化耦合的智能分子机器,以实现精准靶向与定量定时给药控制,进一步优化基于DNA碱基配对原则的分子逻辑门控制器,以提高生物分子计算的速度与精度等问题.为揭示多场耦合条件下DNA类材料的微观化学作用-宏观力学特征-生物过程与器件功能的关联机制,需要发展多维度的实验方法与跨尺度理论建模协同研究体系.
随着单分子操控技术、高分辨成像和微流控力谱等实验技术的革新,DNA力学实验研究逐步实现了从体外到体内、从物理宏系统(Bulk System)统计到单分子精度捕捉、从基本物性表征到工程应用的跨越式发展.通过多维度和高精度的实验测量,系统地量化了DNA分子力学性能及其对环境条件与自身序列等因素的依赖性,揭示了DNA力学调控机制在染色质组装、病毒封装等生命过程中发挥的重要作用,开发出基于DNA力学响应的生物芯片与药物载体等纳米结构,为构建不同尺度下DNA类材料力学模型奠定了关键数据基础与实用化基础.
相比较于生物体内DNA,体外DNA系统的微观结构与力学性能更容易通过实验手段进行观察与测量.从体外环境中的DNA宏系统到DNA单分子,逐渐更新的实验技术量化了DNA构象、微观作用与力学性能等,揭示了这些力学特性对环境条件的响应机制,为DNA的应用奠定了基础.
Strzelecka等[16]早在上世纪80年代开始关注体外DNA宏系统的构相,他们采用核磁共振光谱和冷冻刻蚀电子显微镜研究了体外高浓度DNA片段(平均长度146碱基对)的排列方式,结果显示体外DNA在处于与体内环境中相当的高浓度下,至少会形成“前胆甾相”、“胆甾相”、“层状相”三种不同的液晶相,其中“前胆甾相”的DNA分子排列较为松散,而“胆甾相”与“层状相”的排列具有较高有序性;此后,该课题组[17]又采用X光衍射等实验技术揭示了DNA宏系统中的构相变化,结果显示随着DNA浓度的增加,DNA液晶相从胆甾相转变为六角柱相(Columnar Hexagonal Phase),DNA链螺旋周期增加,并且在高度有序的六角柱相状态下,DNA分子之间的间距约为2.97 nm.Podgornik等[18]通过渗透压控制结合X光衍射与偏光显微镜技术,揭示了高密度状态下六角柱相DNA分子间主导作用为水合作用,而低密度状态下胆甾相DNA分子间主导作用为静电作用,并且六角柱相DNA系统自由能更高.这些研究揭示了不同DNA液晶相对应的结构参数与物理性质,为不同环境条件下DNA凝聚态和DNA相互作用研究奠定了基础.图2展示了不同DNA液晶相的X光衍射图的差异[19]
作为由磷酸集团构成主要骨架的DNA,当宏系统中DNA彼此靠近时,相邻DNA之间会产生类似于磷脂双层膜间的相互排斥作用.Parsegian课题组[20-21]通过渗透压实验首次测量了体外凝聚态DNA系统中相邻且平行的DNA链间排斥力,发现在短程范围内(15 Å>表面间距>5 Å),该排斥力随距离增加呈指数衰减,并且该短程排斥力与离子强度无关,与磷脂双层膜测量的水合力(Hydration Force)高度相似,这项研究颠覆了基于双电层理论描述DNA相互作用的传统认知;此后,他们[22]采用渗透压控制结合X光衍射技术,研究了高价盐离子与温度对DNA链间相互作用的影响,结果显示在高价盐离子环境中,DNA链间相互作用由排斥转变为吸引,且温度升高会加剧这种转换,而这种相互作用的温度依赖性意味着熵的影响不可忽略;此外,在长程范围内(表面间距>15 Å),DNA链间相互作用以静电排斥作用为主导,并受到环境中离子条件的影响[23].基于渗透压技术对于DNA链间相互作用的量化,揭示了特定环境中DNA的凝聚机制,加深了关于细胞中DNA成核与病毒DNA封装等生命现象的理解,也为DNA纳米结构自组装方案优化提供了参考.
随着实验表征技术的提升,尤其是微纳尺度操控技术的开发与进步,例如,光镊、磁镊和原子力显微镜(Atomic Force Microscope,AFM)等,可实现对单分子施加皮牛级的力与纳米级的位移,这为研究DNA单分子力学性能、响应与结构转变提供了更加直接与便捷的方式.光镊技术利用高度聚焦的激光束,对作用于其中的微观粒子产生梯度力与散射力,可捕捉并控制粒子产生亚纳米精度的位移[24],如图3(a)所示.Bustamante课题组[25]利用光镊技术首次在溶液环境中直接测量单根dsDNA与ssDNA的弹性性能,实验发现在较大拉伸力(>65 pN)作用下,dsDNA微观结构发生可逆相变(B型→S型),形成超拉伸态(Overstretched Form),并且低盐条件下导致相变的拉伸临界力降至45 pN;通过光镊拉伸ssDNA实验数据拟合得到ssDNA持续长度约为0.75 nm,远低于传统关于ssDNA弹性性能的认知.文献[26]给出了光镊拉伸B型DNA示意图,如图3(a)所示.Deufel等[27]采用角向光镊将单根dsDNA扭转至超螺旋状态,如图3(b)所示,揭示了扭转过程中DNA构象由B型转换为P型(临界扭矩约33 pN·nm),并且扭转过程伴随着轻度拉伸,这表明DNA双螺旋结构特征引起了扭转与拉伸耦合效应.
磁镊技术(Magnetic Tweezers)与光镊技术类似,通过外加磁场对磁性微粒施加力与位移.Bustamante课题组[28]利用磁镊技术研究了盐浓度和部分化学试剂对DNA力学性能的影响,低盐条件下DNA刚度显著增加,而溴化乙锭等嵌入剂虽然与DNA结合后导致DNA长度增加,但并不改变DNA拉伸过程的弹性曲线.Lipfert等[29]开发了一种直接测量DNA扭矩的单分子磁镊技术,发现DNA扭转持续长度随扭矩发生变化,挑战了传统均匀弹性假设,并揭示了蛋白质-DNA复合物扭转饱和现象.除了针对单根DNA进行力学测量,文献[30-31]还利用光镊与磁镊等单分子操作技术对DNA发卡链、四联体等次级结构施加载荷,揭示了影响次级结构稳定性的解链临界力等力学参数,如图3(c)所示.单分子操作技术突破了传统针对宏系统平均测量的局限,精准测量了DNA弹性性能等基本力学性质,为DNA在工程技术中的应用奠定了基础.
单分子层面除通过直接对DNA分子施加荷载,监测其力学响应,测量DNA力学性能外,还可以通过冷冻透射电子显微镜(Cryo-Electron Microscopy,Cryo-EM,简称冷冻电镜)和AFM等微观成像设备扫描不同状态下DNA单分子构象,根据高分子链统计力学理论确定不同构象DNA对应的力学性能.Zhang等[32]利用冷冻电镜和单分子电子断层成像技术,获得溶液中DNA分子构象,并基于蠕虫链(Worm-Like Chain,WLC)模型计算得到实际DNA分子弯曲能高于传统理论预测的结果.Faas等[33]利用冷冻电镜和AFM扫描了三维与二维状态下的DNA构型,如图3(d)所示,基于统计链模型对构型进行分析,结果表明吸附在表面系统上的DNA弯曲持续长度为25~30 nm,远小于公认的50 nm,这表明DNA力学性能还受到其约束状态的影响.
作为生命遗传信息的重要载体,DNA的力学性能与响应在复制、转录和修复等关键生物过程中发挥着重要性作用.通过相关实验探究环境条件、蛋白质结合等生化作用对部分病毒与细胞中DNA力学行为的影响机制,为阐明DNA微观结构、力学响应与生物功能的多层耦合规律提供了实验依据,对理解生命活动的物理基础与发展相关医疗技术具有重要意义.
病毒是地球上具有最简单结构的有机物种,大部分病毒仅由含有遗传物质的核酸与起保护作用的蛋白质衣壳构成.这种核酸-蛋白质的二元组成既保留了生命活动的基本特征,又极大简化了生命活动研究的复杂性,在一定程度上使得病毒成为研究生命物理机制的目标客体.在诸多种类病毒中,dsDNA病毒因结构完整、衣壳形状规则、体积较大且稳定性更高等特点,更适合作为研究病毒DNA力学响应与机制的客体.一些DNA病毒与噬菌体在接触到宿主细胞或细胞核后,将DNA释放到宿主细胞内部,通过转录等形式“劫持”宿主细胞合成自己所需蛋白[34].Evilevitch等[35]采用特定受体蛋白打开λ噬菌体尾部出口,使DNA自由喷出(Ejection),实验发现外部环境中渗透压的上升将抑制病毒DNA喷出.Bauer等[36]采用单纯疱疹病毒I型(Herpes Simplex Virus I,HSV-1)进行了类似的实验,结果显示外部渗透压越高,病毒喷出DNA长度越短.病毒DNA喷出实验表明,病毒衣壳内部存在最高可达数十个大气压的内压,以驱动DNA喷出.研究者将这种形式的DNA喷出称之为被动喷出,因为喷出过程只依靠病毒DNA封装所储存的能量,不需要借助其它机制.
随着微流控和高速观测技术的提升,我们可捕获病毒DNA喷出过程中更多的动态力学特征.Mangenot等[37]在T5噬菌体DNA中插入荧光染色剂,用微流控设备引导DNA喷出方向,并通过高速摄像机记录病毒DNA喷出的完整过程,如图4(a)所示,首次在单分子层面测量了病毒DNA的喷出速度,发现病毒DNA的喷出呈现出先快后慢的动力演化特征.Grayson等[38]与Evilevitch等[39]采用荧光染色法测量了病毒DNA喷出速度,最高可达数微米/秒,并且环境中阳离子的增加会抑制病毒DNA的喷出,降低DNA喷出速度.Evilevitch等[40]利用X光散射技术,观察到阳离子强度较高环境中的病毒内部DNA链间距更小,他们推测这是由于阳离子中和了DNA磷酸骨架的负电荷,在一定程度上屏蔽了链间静电排斥,降低了病毒DNA储存的能量,导致了驱动DNA喷出效率降低.除离子依赖性外,温度上升也会促进部分病毒DNA的喷出[41]
喷出后病毒DNA利用宿主细胞通过复制表达生成子代病毒所需的蛋白与DNA,所生成的衣壳蛋白质粒组装成中空衣壳[42].大多数DNA病毒衣壳为对称多面体,对称轴顶点处为带有马达蛋白的入口,DNA通过马达蛋白运转将DNA封装入衣壳中[43],通过水解腺嘌呤核苷三磷酸(Adenosine Triphosphate,ATP)为马达蛋白提供能量[44].Bustamante课题组[45]开创性地利用光镊夹持正在封装的φ29噬菌体与DNA,对封装过程中马达蛋白产生的封装力进行了全程测量,结果显示随封装DNA长度的增加,马达蛋白对DNA施加的封装力逐渐增大,最高可达57 pN,约是人体肌肉蛋白的10倍.图4(b)展示了Fuller等[46-47]采用光镊技术测量的λ噬菌体封装DNA所需封装力和封装速度,实验结果揭示了环境中多价阳离子会降低封装力,但提升封装速度.Comolli等[48]利用冷冻电镜观测噬菌体DNA封装过程中衣壳内DNA结构的变化过程,发现随着进入衣壳内部的DNA长度增加,DNA结构从混乱无序状态逐渐转变为外部有序、内部混乱的双区结构,如图4(c)所示,由此推测病毒DNA封装力随封装过程增加是由于DNA结构转变引起的.
DNA的力学和化学性能会影响病毒喷出和封装等动态过程,此外,衣壳内紧密缠绕排布的DNA会形成较高的渗透压,调控病毒颗粒整体等效刚度[49],帮助病毒通过胞吞作用侵入细胞[50].目前常用AFM纳米压痕方法测量病毒颗粒尺寸、形貌和等效刚度等,如图4(d)所示[51].Plomp等[52]采用AFM对完整HSV-1病毒颗粒、衣壳上蛋白亚基排布、破损病毒所释放的DNA进行了高分辨率扫描成像,结果显示病毒衣壳呈二十面体结构,识别了构成衣壳的五聚体、六聚体蛋白亚基在衣壳上的排布方式.Ivanovska等[53]通过AFM压痕实验发现高价阳离子会导致由DNA贡献的λ噬菌体等效抗压刚度急剧下降;Sae-Ueng等[54]利用AFM压痕实验揭示了HSV-1病毒颗粒的抗压刚度随温度上升而下降,他们将这种变化归因于升温后病毒DNA结构的变化.但de Frutos等[55]针对其它种类噬菌体的X光散射实验却发现在20~40 ℃温度范围内噬菌体DNA结构并无明显变化,这一结果与Sae-Ueng等[54]的实验结果相互矛盾.
对于结构更加复杂的生物细胞,DNA力学响应也会对基因表达等重要生命过程产生极大的影响.通过细胞骨架[56]和细胞膜表面离子通道[57],细胞所受到的外部力学刺激可以传递到细胞质中,并通过细胞骨架微丝与蛋白的分子连接传递至基因组[58-59].文献[7,60]开发了三维磁力扭曲系统,对动物细胞施加外力,观测到染色质会随施加外力的增加从折叠转变为打开状态,打开后的折叠结构更容易结合核糖核酸(Ribonucleic Acid,RNA)聚合酶,进而直接影响基因表达.基因表达首先依靠RNA聚合酶沿模板DNA移动,依靠RNA聚合酶产生的扭矩使DNA解链[61],方便模板DNA上记录的遗传信息转录给RNA.RNA聚合酶产生的扭矩则会使RNA尚未达到DNA链段就产生超螺旋的拓扑结构;超螺旋的累计将会导致转录暂停[6],甚至增加细胞核小体的不稳定性[62].由此可见,DNA力学性能-力学响应-基因表达的关联机制构成了细胞感知和响应外界力学信号的重要生物学基础.
基于传统光学信号检测的DNA芯片因依赖标记技术面临灵敏度受限、操作复杂、经济成本高和检测速度慢等瓶颈问题,而基于力学信号检测的DNA-微悬臂梁芯片实现了无标记、高灵敏度和多通路的定量检测模式,为药物筛选、疾病诊断和环境检测等领域提供了革新方案.在借助微梁生物传感器进行检测时,可利用微梁表面分子吸附或识别导致的弯曲挠度或共振频率的变化而识别生物信息的变化,如图5所示[63].根据检测信号的不同,微梁传感器的工作方式可分为静态模式(弯曲挠度)和动态模式(振动频率)[63]
在静态模式方面,Fritz等[64]利用微梁传感技术首次实现了对DNA杂交过程的实时检测;在阵列中两个微悬臂梁上分别修饰互补和非互补的ssDNA探针,当目标ssDNA溶液流经悬臂梁时,通过读出检测梁和参考梁之间弯曲挠度的差异实现了DNA特异性识别,该方法可区分12个寡核苷酸中单个碱基的错配.Wu等[65]通过实验研究了碱基对数和缓冲盐溶液浓度等因素对微梁弯曲挠度的影响,他们认为梁表面应力变化的本质在于DNA链间相互作用引发的构型熵与分子间能量变化的协同作用;通过调控DNA杂交过程中的熵变,实现了对微梁挠度方向的控制.Biswal等[66]通过实时监测微梁表面接枝dsDNA的热变性(解螺旋相变)过程,将其转化为可测量的力学信号,揭示了dsDNA熔解温度随盐浓度和寡核苷酸长度的变化规律,发现表面固定化与溶液中DNA的熔解动力学差异,该技术因其普适性优点,已成为传统量热法和荧光检测法的重要补充.Mertens等[67]通过测量微梁上ssDNA自组装单分子层因水合作用产生的表面应力变化,检测了水分子的吸附过程,结果表明,DNA链间水合作用力是主导微梁表面应力变化的关键因素,文献[67]的测试技术实现了飞摩尔级的检测灵敏度.Agarwal等[68]将变构转录因子与对应序列DNA修饰的微悬臂梁结合,引起DNA梁产生弯曲挠度,而待测污水中目标污染物与变构转录因子结合触发转录因子与DNA解离,导致微梁回弹,利用AFM监测微梁回弹挠度变化实现对污染物定量检测,灵敏度较传统细胞游离生物传感器提升2个数量级.Zhang等[69]研究了pH值对微梁检测信号的影响,发现通过调节pH值可精确调控微梁弯曲挠度的方向和大小,揭示了pH值在杂交诱导纳米机械表面应力产生过程中的关键作用;通过优化杂交pH范围,能够实现杂交效率的最大化,可显著提升DNA-微梁阵列传感器的灵敏度.Eom等[70]实现了由光辐照诱导i-motif DNA构象变化驱动的三角形微梁可逆纳米力学响应,研究表明,这种光驱动纳米机械运动可通过DNA杂交和/或离子浓度变化进行调控.除了传统悬臂梁基底(硅、二氧化硅、氮化硅)外,Huang等[71]采用低杨氏模量的聚二甲基硅氧烷(Polydimethylsiloxane,PDMS)圆膜,研究了末端修饰短dsDNA间的相互作用能,测定了圆膜中心挠度随DNA链长和溶液盐浓度的变化规律.
在动态模式方面,Su等[72]利用谐振式硅微悬臂梁,结合金纳米颗粒修饰的DNA探针,实现对特定序列DNA的检测,能够有效区分DNA链上单碱基的错配,检测灵敏度可低至0.05 nM以下.Ilic等[73]利用氮化硅悬臂梁纳米谐振器阵列,在高真空条件下研究了单分子水平DNA吸附所引起的微梁谐振频率漂移,实现了对长度约103个碱基对的单个dsDNA分子质量的测定,结果表明,利用高频谐振检测能够实现对目标DNA分子的定量计数.Kwon等[74]在缓冲溶液中实时监测了DNA杂交过程,实现了对人类免疫缺陷病毒(Human Immunodeficiency Virus,HIV)DNA片段等特定序列的原位无标记检测,研究表明,DNA链间的相互作用决定了DNA在传感器表面的吸附和杂交动力学特征.Kim等[75]在溶液条件下观察了ssDNA单分子吸附引起微悬臂梁谐振频率的变化,他们认为吸附引起谐振频率的异常降低是吸附分子与微梁之间水动力学相互作用所致.Aloraini等[76]利用修饰DNA探针为悬臂梁与新冠病毒DNA杂交引起微梁动态共振频率偏移,实现了对新冠病毒摩尔级浓度的免扩增、无标记定量检测.Domínguez等[77]利用微梁技术检测了环境相对湿度变化引起的DNA吸附膜杨氏模量在10 GPa范围内的变化,发现当ssDNA与互补链杂交后,DNA吸附膜的杨氏模量会显著降低,且其对水合状态的依赖性急剧减弱,该研究揭示了水分子在DNA类材料力学性能调控中的重要作用.
自20世纪80年代以来,快速发展的DNA纳米技术为构建DNA纳米结构提供了条件.DNA刚柔相济的力学特性和DNA次级结构的可折叠与展开特性为精确控制DNA纳米结构提供了潜在可能,而新型DNA纳米结构的开发对DNA力学性能与响应的表征和定量化研究提出了更高的需求.借助单分子技术和微纳成像技术,可探究DNA纳米结构局部构件与完整器件的力学性能与对环境条件的响应规律,揭示DNA纳米结构实际运行机制.
DNA纳米管(DNA Nanotube,DNT)作为由DNA纳米技术构建的纳米结构之一,因其独特的化学、物理和力学特性,已成为构建DNA纳米机器中常用基础构件之一.Schuldt等[78]利用自组装技术制备出DNT,通过改变DNA螺线数调控DNT弯曲刚度,并通过荧光显微镜成像和图像分析,直接测量了DNT的持续长度,验证了刚度的调节效果.此外,他们还通过动态剪切流变学实验,进一步研究了纳米管刚度变化对网络力学性质的影响.Kauert等[79]利用磁镊技术直接测量了4螺线-和6螺线-DNT的弯曲刚度和扭转刚度,利用蒙特卡洛(Monte Carlo,MC)模拟和有限元方法分析了实验数据,发现Holliday结点和DNA螺线数对DNT的弯曲刚度和扭转刚度的影响是不可忽略的.Pfitzner等[80]利用DNA origami技术设计并合成了包含6、8、10和12个dsDNA的DNT,通过光镊实验,即利用生物素、链霉亲和素将DNT连接到两个光学镊子的聚苯乙烯微球上,然后施加外力,测量了DNT的力-伸长曲线.此外,文献[80]还评估了DNT在低力范围内对噪声抑制效果和对单分子构象变化的高分辨率检测能力,他们指出DNA螺线数增多有利于DNT刚性的增加,可显著提高基于DNT部件的单分子力学测量分辨率,实现对DNA发夹结构折叠和展开过程的高分辨率检测,为研究生物大分子构象动态转换提供了新的工具.Shrestha等[81]利用光镊实验观察到DNT的机械异构化现象,揭示了DNT力学稳定性与Holliday连接体密度的关系.这些发现不仅为设计具有特定力学性能的DNT提供了理论依据,还提出了Holliday结点作为“机械响应基团”的新概念,为DNA纳米技术在生物传感器和纳米执行器中的应用提供了重要指导.Ma等[82]首先基于caDNAno软件设计DNT结构,然后利用DNA origami技术制造出DNT结构,如图6(a)所示;通过AFM获得力-位移曲线,并利用修正的Hertz模型和有限元方法对测量数据进行分析,首次直接测量了DNT的径向模量,发现径向模量表现出明显的与微观相互作用有关的各向异性,这一发现为理解DNT的力学性能提供了重要数据,也为DNT作为DNA纳米器件的基础组件进行设计和应用奠定了理论基础.
不同于由金属和聚合物等材料构造的宏观机械结构,DNA类材料本身分子结构、物理、化学性质和力学性能等对外源分子与环境条件的敏感性会导致DNA纳米结构的局部甚至整体形态发生改变.Dietz等[83]通过DNA origami技术将多根dsDNA构建成DNT,由于DNA每隔7个碱基对双螺旋扭转240°,当纳米管中一条DNA中删除或插入碱基对,会引起该条DNA发生过扭转或次扭转,这种局部位错通过连接DNA的Holliday结点传递给相邻DNA胞元,最终导致DNT整体发生手性扭转和弯曲变形,因此,通过精确控制插入和删除碱基对数量,可以定量控制DNA束的扭曲和弯曲程度,甚至可以将其组合成齿轮状纳米结构,如图6(b)所示.Sun等[84]利用DNA tile技术设计并自组装了不同厚度和扭曲密度的重复单元,突破了以往DNT直径的限制,成功构建了大直径尺寸的手性DNT,且通过调整重复单元的厚度或改变双螺旋的扭曲密度,实现了对纳米管刚度和手性的精确调控,为纳米材料的设计和生物医学应用提供了新的策略和方案.此外,DNA纳米结构在自组装过程中产生的单链空隙[85]以及与外源分子的结合[86-87]都会导致DNT及其它DNA纳米结构发生形状变化.Zhang等[88]利用DNA origami技术构建了具有六方密堆积排列的框架核酸结构,与传统dsDNA相比,该框架刚度提升了8倍,可用于单分子力学传感器,以有效降低测量噪声,并显著提高光镊检测的时空分辨率.DNA纳米结构力学性能在一定程度上可影响结构在机体内的稳定性,Ijäs等[89]发现刚度更大的DNA结构更能抵抗机体内酶分解,从而延长这些结构所携带的抗癌药物分子在体内的留存时间,达到缓释药物的目的.
DNA纳米结构形态的变化尽管有可能导致所构造的纳米结构偏离预设形态,影响其原定功能,但也为设计新型动态可变的DNA纳米结构提供了灵感与思路.DNA纳米结构的动态可变性主要来源于在DNA-DNA杂交、DNA-蛋白质相互作用、化学刺激和机械载荷作用下DNA类材料、局部构件的力学性能和微观结构发生的各种变化.Douglas等[90]构造出一种基于DNA origami技术的逻辑门控纳米机器,通过前端两套DNA配体锁实现“与门”逻辑控控制,即仅当同时结合两种特定细胞表面抗原时,六边形桶状结构才会打开并暴露内部药物.实验结果验证了该设计可精准识别不同癌细胞,在混合细胞或全血的复杂环境中被准确激活.Zhang等[91]采用DNT作为主骨架,ssDNA与发卡链作为连接骨架间的关节,构件了一种新型DNA纳米笼结构;利用发卡链与互补ssDNA链杂交配对形成dsDNA的响应特性,使纳米笼在类似四面体的闭合形态与类似金刚烷的打开形态之间转换,如图6(c)所示,并利用这种形态转换实现了对病毒蛋白大分子的捕捉.此外,利用一些DNA次级结构自身特性对环境条件的响应,可以设计出随环境条件动态变化的DNA纳米结构.Juul等[92]利用发卡链对温度的敏感性,以发卡链为截角八面体DNA纳米笼一处截角联结构件,高温下较为刚性的发卡链展开为柔性ssDNA长链,由此实现了通过温度控制实现DNA纳米笼的打开、闭合,如图6(d)所示.Marras等[93]构造了钳形的DNA纳米结构,通过调节环境中盐离子浓度,促进或抑制钳形结构开口处互补ssDNA链的相互结合,实现了对该结构开合的控制.
由于DNA纳米结构分子尺度的微观效应,相比于宏观动态机械结构的运动与变形,动态DNA纳米结构的形态变化除了考虑力学因素外,化学效应和热噪声造成的熵波动是不可忽视的.因此,DNA纳米结构的动态变化可以用潜在的自由能景观图进行刻画,每个构象或形态都与能量景观中的一个特定点相关联.从这个角度来说,对于DNA纳米结构形态的精准控制或许更加依赖对整体结构自由能的理解与掌握.
根据体外和体内实验结果,无论是深入了解DNA参与的生命过程,还是解读DNA-微梁传感器检测信号、提升传感器灵敏度、设计新型智能DNA纳米结构,对DNA单分子力学性能的深度理解是不可或缺的.因此,需要基于上述光镊和磁镊等实验所获DNA单分子实验结果,借助理论模型系统探究DNA单分子力学性能的定量化表征理论.
对于DNA单分子力学性能的理论研究最早可追溯到20世纪40年代,根据高分子聚合物链键角和键长等几何特征,利用统计力学理论,提出自由结合链模型和蠕虫链模型(Worm-Like Chain,WLC)模型等.WLC模型对均匀长链采用无限分割方法获得了描述DNA半柔性力学性能的持续长度与其统计构型之间的数学关系[94],WLC模型适合于利用长链DNA构型实验数据拟合获取DNA持续长度,但模型本身并不能解释DNA力学性能变化的本质原因.Marko课题组[95-96]基于DNA链的连续蠕虫链假设,考虑在拉伸过程中DNA链的局部弯曲能量泛函,推导出DNA链拉伸力-拉伸长度关系为
式中,F为对DNA链施加的拉伸力,x为拉伸变形后DNA两端的距离,kB为玻尔兹曼常数,T为环境温度,lp为DNA持续长度,lc为DNA轮廓长度(即总链长).式(1)预测了DNA拉伸长度随拉伸力的变化,如图7(a)所示.Gross等[97]在WLC模型的拉伸能量部分中添加了由焓驱动的扭转-拉伸耦合项,以解释实验中观察到扭转引起DNA的伸长变化,该模型被称为扭转WLC(twistable WLC,tWLC)模型,其DNA伸长量δl和拉伸力的具体关系为
式中,γCg分别为DNA拉伸模量、扭转模量与扭转-拉伸耦合模量.Chou等[98]提出了弹簧(Springiness)模型,通过MC模拟预测了DNA链扭转-拉伸耦合的力学响应.
类WLC模型在量化长链DNA力学性能方面具有较高的适配性,但对于长度在100 nm以下短链DNA适用性并不理想.AFM实验[99]和DNA环化实验[100]等均显示短链DNA更加柔软且易弯.Marin-Gonzalez等[101]将短链DNA简化为一维弹簧串联的圆珠系统,并定义“弯曲度(Crookedness)”参数用以衡量短链DNA力学性能,模型预测短链DNA拉伸与弯曲的力学性能由各串联弹簧刚度决定.Wu等[102]采用分子动力学(Molecular Dynamics,MD)研究了短链DNA持续长度对轮廓长度的依赖性,结果表明随着短链DNA轮廓长度增加,DNA持续长度随之增加,这是由于端部的收缩-扭转耦合效应使两端区域的DNA柔性更强,而越短DNA链的两端局部效应对整体影响越不可忽略.Seol等[103]考虑到机械约束(有限链长、链端边界条件和粘附圆珠旋转),研究了DNA链构型分布概率的影响,建立了有限蠕虫链(Finite Worm-Like Chain,FWLC)模型,预测了DNA端部约束和轮廓长度对拉伸力-位移响应的影响,如图7(b)所示,解释了DNA持续长度对轮廓长度的依赖性.
对于实验中所发现的DNA持续长度的盐离子依赖性,Odijk[104]和Skolnick等[105]采用Debye-Hückel电势模型,描述了WLC链中微小链段间存在的静电排斥,考虑静电效应对DNA变形能的贡献,推导出DNA持续长度等于本征弹性持续长度与静电持续长度两部分相加之和,即Odik-Skolnick-Fixman(OSF)理论;由于环境中阳离子会屏蔽DNA链上负电荷所产生的静电相互作用,该理论对DNA持续长度的离子效应在一定程度做出了解释.Manning[106]提出了一种无荷电的类DNA结构“DNA零电异构体”的概念,将连续介质力学中宏观杆件屈曲和介观静电作用力相结合,通过DNA零电异构体弹性杆的欧拉屈曲推导出一个新的固有项和DNA持续长度的非叠加数学关系.该理论引入了盐离子依赖的介观静电力,很好地预测了DNA持续长度随单价阳离子浓度变化情况.Savelyev等[107-108]采用粗粒化MD模拟研究了DNA上所带负电荷对DNA持续长度的影响,结果表明DNA链上负电荷数量越少,DNA持续长度越小,如图7(c)所示,可见DNA链上所携带负电荷之间的静电排斥对于DNA具有硬化效应.
此外,还有相当多理论模型与计算方法用以分析与揭示DNA单分子弹性性能的力学机制.文献[109-110]考虑碱基配对能、相邻碱基对间堆叠能与静电排斥效应,改进自由结合链模型,揭示了DNA熵弹性、次级结构折叠/展开和超螺旋的力学机制.Purohit等[111]考虑了实验DNA端部横向布朗波动对DNA链构型的影响,采用统计力学均分定理处理被拉伸DNA链沿构型积分所得的弹性能,该理论能够体现不同实验仪器所施加的边界条件对DNA弹性性能的影响.刘延柱与薛纭等[112-114]采用弹性细杆模型研究了DNA几何大变形与平衡稳定性,指出弹性杆平衡态会产生混沌分岔现象,对应了实际观察到DNA在空间中无规则分布的缠绕状态.Wang等[115]研究了受管状或平面夹层侧向约束的DNA链,将边界对DNA链的约束描述为约束半径依赖的势能,并基于统计力学方法获得了侧向约束引起的DNA链两端的拉力.Zhang等[116]结合介观静电作用、热波动作用和宏观弹性压杆屈曲理论,建立了由DNA屈曲长度表征的DNA持续长度跨尺度定量新模型,该模型不仅可以识别离子效应和机械约束对DNA持续长度的影响,还考虑了环境温度效应,如图7(d)所示,适用性更加广泛.Qiang等[117]通过全原子MD模拟揭示不同碱基序列的DNA链中小股沟宽窄程度有别,导致磷酸骨架密度差别,引起静电排斥强弱变化,导致最终DNA抗弯性能的序列依赖性.
渗透压实验[20-22]显示溶液中彼此靠近的DNA分子之间存在显著的相互作用,这种相互作用无论是对于生命过程中DNA折叠和封装,还是对于DNA芯片上DNA阵列与DNA纳米结构自组装都会产生不可忽略的影响.因此,需要相应的理论模型对不同环境条件下DNA相互作用进行定量估计,从而更好地理解DNA生命过程,推进DNA纳米工程应用.
全面描述DNA间相互作用需要正确理解造成DNA链间作用的物理机制,并对其进行有效的量化.开创性的DLVO理论(以Derjaguin、Landau、Verwey、Overbeek等四位提出者命名)[118]采用Debye-Hiickel电势描述了带电分子之间的排斥作用,将DLVO理论用于圆柱形聚合物,基于平均场方法描述Poisson-Boltzmann(PB)方程,可以根据DNA链上连续的电荷密度或空间分布概率计算静电排斥作用[119].Manning[120-121]提出反离子凝聚理论,即当带电聚合物的线性电荷密度超过临界值时,反离子会自发凝聚在聚合物表面,形成致密的凝聚层,导致聚合物有效电荷发生“重归一化”,该理论可以解释高价盐离子引起DNA凝聚现象,并将DNA链间吸引作用等效为静电驱动的吸引力.Kornyshev等[122]考虑DNA双螺旋几何特征,提出了静电拉链(Electrostatic zipper)模型,发现阳离子主要通过氢键吸附在DNA的大沟或小沟中,形成局域化的正电荷带,因此一条DNA螺旋上的负电荷区域与另一条DNA螺旋上的正电荷产生互补性地相对排列,类似于一个将两条分子结合在一起的“拉链”,这种“静电拉链”的强度依赖于反离子在DNA两条沟槽中的具体分布模式、轴向相对位移和螺旋螺距,如图8(a)所示.He等[123]采用MD模拟研究了DNA序列对于DNA链间相互作用的影响,结果显示均匀序列DNA容易形成静电拉链吸引,在二价阳离子环境中就可自发凝聚,而混合序列的阳离子熵损较高,对凝聚具有抑制作用.上述理论模型基于相关静电理论,主要考虑了溶液中作为溶质的盐离子对于DNA间静电作用的影响,在一定程度上量化了DNA链间相互作用.
实际上,通常作为溶剂的水分子,在≤1 nm的表面间隙中,所产生的水合作用力将主导DNA链间相互作用.根据表面电荷的不同,聚合物表面的水合壳可以被视为指向分子表面外部或内部,水合壳方向性导致接近的表面具有相反或相同的水合结构.相反的水合结构导致破坏性的脱水,从而产生排斥性水合力,而一致的水合结构导致吸引性水合力[124].Parsegian课题组[21]根据渗透压实验结果,给出了水合排斥力的数学形式,即Fhyd∝e-d/λ,其中d为DNA链间距,λ为水合衰减长度,通常为2.5~3.5 Å.Todd等[125]基于多价阳离子导致DNA链间存在吸引作用的渗透压实验结果,结合Debye-Hückel静电理论与水合作用有序参数理论,提出了关于DNA链间渗透压的唯象模型,即,其中AR分别为吸引与排斥的强度系数,λAλR分别为排斥与吸引的衰减长度.
Parsegian课题组[126-127]针对实验中发现的DNA链间存在三种不同主导相互作用的渗透压区间,提出了一种基于向列相液晶自由能的理论模型,将DNA溶液视为介观液晶材料,考虑热波动对DNA静电排斥和水合排斥作用的增强效应,通过计算配分函数,推导出DNA溶致液晶的自由能表达式,即
其中,系数abc分别为水合、静电、构象熵的强度系数,λD为Debye衰减长度,λH为水合衰减长度,lp为DNA链的持续长度,kB为玻尔兹曼常数,T为环境温度,kc=lpkBT为DNA链的抗弯刚度.如图8(b)所示,该理论模型首次量化了构型熵对聚合物液晶链间排斥的增强效应,适用于量化具有一定排列相位DNA系统(如DNA阵列、病毒中封装的DNA结构)的自由能.
鉴于细胞DNA系统在复制和转录等生命过程中涉及高度复杂的生物与化学相互作用,其理论建模面临巨大挑战.相较之下,力学行为直观和结构功能简单的DNA病毒研究为探索生命过程中的DNA力学机制和病毒感染机制奠定了物理基础,提供了理想的理论模型体系,促进了微纳生物力学进步.
对于完整的DNA病毒,衣壳尺寸约在数十到一百纳米范围内,dsDNA的封装长度可达到数千甚至上万纳米.在衣壳中紧密缠绕DNA不仅引起强烈的链间相互作用,而且使得DNA链自身也产生不可忽视的弯曲能量.文献[128-129]根据布朗动力学结果,提出DNA完全封装在衣壳中时呈现出线轴状(Spool-like)紧密缠绕的结构,DNA链间距约为2.5 nm.Rapaport[130]通过MD模拟,研究了分子链弯曲刚度对高分子聚合物链在球形壳体中封装的影响,发现高刚性链会在外层自发形成有序的同轴多层线轴结构,而当弯曲刚度下降时,封装结构的无序性增加,线轴结构减少.Curk等[131]将DNA链离散为具有排斥作用的珠链,采用粗粒化MD模拟揭示出病毒中DNA结构具有温度依赖性:低温时会形成有序线轴结构,随温度升高结构趋向无序.
紧密封装的DNA会在病毒内产生极高的能量与压强,有利于驱动病毒感染细胞时DNA的喷出.文献[128]基于病毒DNA线轴状结构,建立了包含DNA弯曲能、内聚能和表面能的理论模型,预测显示当大部分DNA喷出后,线轴DNA结构的链间距突然增加,DNA喷出力急剧下降.Evilevitch等[132]基于体相DNA六角形液晶链间距的渗透压模型,计算出λ噬菌体内部可能产生数十个大气压,根据衣壳内外压差预测了单价阳离子环境条件下DNA初始喷出力约为10 pN.Purohit等[133-135]在文献[128]的病毒DNA线轴状结构的基础上提出了“逆线轴”DNA结构假设,如图9(a)所示,并综合考虑DNA弹性效应与DNA链间相互作用,针对不同形状的病毒衣壳,提出了病毒DNA自由能模型;并根据功能互等定理,将DNA自由能对DNA长度求导得到DNA喷出力,预测出DNA喷出力随DNA喷出长度增加而减小.目前Purohit提出的病毒DNA逆线轴结构假设与DNA自由能模型在学界得到了较为普遍的认可,Grayson等[136]使用Purohit病毒DNA模型估算了λ噬菌体的喷出力,结果与实验结果一致.Wang等[137]基于Purohit的病毒DNA喷出力模型,考虑DNA喷出过程中固液摩擦与粘滞耗散,建立了病毒DNA喷出的动力学方程,获得了DNA喷出速度、喷出长度与喷出时间的定量关系.Zhang等[138]基于Parsegian提出的DNA液晶自由能模型与Purohit提出的DNA逆线轴结构假设,发展了病毒DNA自由能跨尺度模型,揭示了在DNA喷出过程中不同微观作用的相互竞争,并且考虑了DNA液晶自由能模型中参数对环境离子条件的依赖性,该模型可以定量预测病毒DNA力学性能随离子条件的变化情况.此外,部分理论基于病毒外部因素讨论了病毒DNA释放的动力机制.例如,Inamdar等[139]将DNA穿过细胞膜的运动视为大分子扩散运动,并考虑到已经喷出的DNA与宿主细胞内蛋白质结合引起的棘轮效应,提出DNA广义扩散方程,预测了DNA向宿主细胞内的释放过程,该理论表明存在3个大气压的外压抑制条件下病毒DNA仍然能够全部释放.而Molineux等[140]认为细胞质或环境中存在明显离子梯度,水分子沿着离子梯度穿过噬菌体进入细胞,并对DNA产生拖拽力,促进了病毒DNA进入宿主细胞.
紧密封装的DNA除了产生强大的内力驱动DNA喷出外,其产生高达数个大气压的渗透压对于维持完整DNA颗粒稳定性具有一定的作用.Ivanovska等[53]基于病毒DNA逆线轴结构,考虑纳米压痕过程中病毒内DNA体积变化对DNA链间水合作用的影响,根据DNA渗透压量化了病毒DNA对病毒颗粒贡献的表观抗压刚度.Carrasco等[141]考虑了封装在衣壳中DNA产生的内压引起衣壳上的预应力,根据带有预应力弹性衣壳受压过程中弹性能变化,推导出病毒颗粒的抗压刚度,研究表明内压引起的衣壳预应力对于衣壳具有硬化作用.Li等[142]考虑了病毒衣壳的弹性变形,建立了包含衣壳变形能和DNA自由能的病毒势能模型,并通过最大剪应力模型确定噬菌体λ的最佳尺寸范围,如图9(b)所示,以保证其在非喷出状态的稳定性和喷出感染过程的快速高效性.Hernando-Pérez等[143]建立了具有内压的φ29噬菌体的有限元模型,模拟了受压过程病毒的力学响应,预测显示病毒内部DNA紧密排布所产生的内压对病毒颗粒刚度的贡献占主导作用.
然而,传统DNA自由能模型、以及基于该类模型构造的相关病毒DNA自由能模型对于温度变化并不敏感,这导致相关理论模型无法解释温度变化对病毒DNA等效刚度及喷出过程中力学响应的影响.基于实验[144-145]与MD模拟[131]可得到病毒衣壳中DNA的多区结构特征,Zhang等[146-147]提出了病毒DNA双区结构假设,发展了病毒DNA新的跨尺度介观能量模型,揭示了病毒DNA纳米结构随温度升高会产生由有序向无序转变,并且病毒衣壳尺寸越大,转变越明显,如图9(c)所示,这种结构的转变导致病毒DNA自由能、表观刚度与DNA喷出力、喷出速度等力学性能具有尺寸和温度依赖性,这不仅揭示了相关实验结果[41,54,148]的潜在机制,也厘清了关于DNA结构温度依赖性的争议[55]
由于DNA-微梁传感器产生的信号涉及到物理、化学、生物和力学等多学科交叉,且在尺度上跨越了分子间微观作用、DNA吸附膜力学性能与弹性结构宏观变形[11],因此,相比较于DNA-微梁传感器领域大量的实验研究,理论研究较少,这不利于信号的合理解读和DNA-微梁传感器的开发和临床应用.
Hagan等[149]首次利用Strey介观DNA液晶理论、标度理论和MC方法,研究了静电自由能、水合能、构型熵、反离子渗透压自由能和单层硅基底变形能对DNA-微梁总能量的影响,结果表明,对于dsDNA吸附,水合力是决定悬臂梁偏转的主导因素,而ssDNA吸附引起的微梁挠度小于dsDNA吸附挠度.文献[150-151]采用两变量方法建立了多层微悬臂梁能量模型,研究了DNA链间距和弹性模量的随机波动特性,结果表明,为确保检测可靠性,在探针分子自组装过程中链间距应不小于4 nm.而Liu等[152]认为挠曲电效应是导致悬臂梁弯曲的主导机制,通过引入挠曲电自发曲率,建立了微梁弯曲变形与DNA聚合物特性的解析关系式.之后,文献[153-154]融合了连续介质力学中的压电吸附膜理论、线性化Possion-Boltzmann(PB)方程和聚电解质刷理论的标度方法,分析了微梁弯曲变形与ssDNA分子纳米结构特征、缓冲盐浓度及ssDNA膜宏观力学/压电参数的关系,首次揭示了生物聚合物刷层的压电效应是悬臂梁纳米力学弯曲的主要因素.考虑四种电学边界条件,Zhang等[155]还进一步建立了以DNA薄膜压电系数和电势差表征的新型Stoney方程,解释了表面应力与表面电荷密度/偏置电压之间的线性关系.Tan等[156-157]利用变分原理,建立了ssDNA-微梁弯曲变形的力-电-化学耦合模型,采用线性或非线性PB方程获得了ssDNA层内外区域的电势分布,获得了微梁弯曲变形与ssDNA层电势差的解析表达式.综合DNA吸附膜压电与挠曲电效应,Yang等[158]建立DNA-微悬臂梁的多尺度模型,阐明了检测条件对DNA微观相互作用、力电耦合系数及偏转信号的影响,如图10(a)所示.
DNA吸附膜的力学特性在生物传感器和纳米器件领域具有关键作用,吸引了众多学者的关注.文献[159-160]将DNA吸附膜视为具有宏观弹性模量的薄层,借助能量守恒定律和DNA液晶自由能理论,解析预测轴向压缩条件基底上dsDNA吸附膜载荷-变形关系,结果表明:dsDNA吸附膜的杨氏模量约为1~10 MPa,与人类角膜的力学性能相当.此外,轴向压缩作用下dsDNA吸附膜表现出塑性行为,即存在应变硬化现象.随后,该课题组将该方法拓展至预测纯弯曲状态下dsDNA吸附膜的弯矩-转角关系[161],研究发现,dsDNA吸附膜弹性模量随封装密度的增加呈指数增长,但随缓冲盐浓度的升高而降低.Zhang等[162]进一步考虑电荷沿吸附膜厚度非均匀分布,研究了双轴等应变压缩条件下DNA吸附膜弹性特性的非均匀性,如图10(b)所示.文献[163-164]将ssDNA吸附膜内相互作用粗粒化为柔性圆柱体间的等效作用,量化了DNA链无序封装模式、弹性模量与微梁挠度之间的关系,研究了DNA链纳米尺度分布对ssDNA吸附膜弹性模量的影响.Zhou等[165]建立了考虑pH效应的多尺度理论模型,揭示了pH依赖的离子非均匀性对DNA吸附膜梯度弹性特性及微悬臂梁挠度的影响机制.Wu等[166]跨尺度关联了dsDNA吸附膜弹性性质与DNA-微梁动态频率漂移之间的关系,并通过对比吸引主导型与排斥主导型DNA吸附膜,发现多价盐溶液中吸引与排斥相互作用的竞争赋予dsDNA吸附膜异常的弹性特性(如拉伸表面应力和负弹性模量),其中吸引主导的DNA吸附膜表出现拉伸的表面应力,为生物体内DNA凝聚现象提供了可能的物理解释机制.Zhang等[167]采用层合梁热弹性理论,研究了DNA杂交放热效应对悬臂梁纳米力学偏转的影响机制.Tan等[168]利用DNA液晶自由能理论和层合梁两变量方法,探究了吸附-热载荷共同作用下DNA-微悬臂梁的热效应,分析了该生物传感器的灵敏度与热稳定性.Tan等[169]利用扩展的能量方法揭示了其生物相互作用与环境温变、离子强度变化的耦合机制,探讨了DNA-微悬臂梁生物传感器在特定杂交条件下出现的检测失效现象.文献[170-171]结合介观自由能理论和DNA圆柱体非线性弹性方法,探究了DNA封装模式对DNA吸附膜热力学性能、微悬臂梁检测信号及其温度依赖性的影响机制,解析预测了DNA吸附膜的弹性模量、预应力及热膨胀系数等关键参数,结果表明,相较于传统凸角封装模式,凹角蜂窝状封装模式赋予DNA吸附膜弹性模量和预应力具有更宽泛的调控范围,从而使DNA-微梁在增强动态检测信号灵敏度的同时,降低了温度噪声的干扰.Zhang等[172]探索通过不同封装模式对DNA吸附膜热弹性特性及复杂检测条件下微梁共振频率的调控,如图10(c)所示,这为基于频移的检测灵敏度提升创造了条件.王振兴等[173]通过3D有限元模拟揭示了表面吸附作用下微悬臂梁横截面切应变的非对称分布特征及翘曲零点位置的空间变化规律,将DNA分子吸附简化为均匀表面应力,确定了与翘曲非对称性匹配的切应力分布和剪力表达式,量化了剪切效应和轴力效应对微梁静态挠度的影响.
除上述研究外,Merlo等[174]基于离子溶液中dsDNA分子阵列的刚性圆柱体模型,研究了DNA分子间静电场及其对微悬臂梁弯曲变形的机制.Sushko[175]利用密度泛函理论和Shutleworth公式获得了吸附DNA分子产生表面应力的定量关系,该计算无需引入任何拟合参数.Huang等[71]提出了DNA链间排斥体积模型,预测dsDNA表面覆盖度及其诱导的表面应力,解释了盐溶液浓度对DNA-圆膜中心挠度的影响.Wu等[176]将DNA吸附视为基底上表面等效的均匀分布切向载荷,利用最小势能原理研究了固定端约束引起非均匀变形对DNA-微悬臂梁静态检测信号的影响,阐明了中性轴偏移效应在非对称层合梁中的重要性.Eom等[177]利用哈密顿原理构建了DNA-微悬臂梁动态响应模型,研究表明DNA吸附产生的微梁共振频率漂移不仅取决于吸附生物分子的质量,还与生物分子间相互作用相关.
DNA纳米结构从DNA碱基互补到最终的器件,其力学响应从分子间微观相互作用到宏观机械力的传递,跨越了多个时空尺度.现有单一尺度模型难以全面捕捉所有时空尺度下DNA纳米结构的力学行为,亟需发展不同尺度的理论研究DNA纳米结构特别是动态DNA纳米结构的形态变化,以期提升DNA纳米结构与分子机器的精准设计及功能实现.
对于DNA纳米结构的基础构件(DNA Nanotube,DNT),在宏观连续介质方面,O'Neill等[178]与Wang等[179]采用简单连续介质力学模型评估DNT弯曲刚度,他们只是将其近似为各向同性的圆柱体,而且忽略了纳米尺度Holiday连接结点、微尺度相互作用和预张力状态的影响,导致某些条件下会低估DNT的刚度.在介观粗粒化方面,Pfitzner等[80]利用可拉伸蠕虫链(e-WLC)模型与自由连接链模型研究了dsDNA束的力学行为,对于简单杆状系统的预测与实验结果吻合,但由于未考虑DNA链间相互作用,该模型可能不适用于大型复杂框架结构[15].在微观模拟方面,Kauert等[79]和Arbona等[180]采用粗粒化MC模拟,在DNA螺线数和连接结点密度变化条件下,研究了静电效应对DNT局部形变与整体持续长度的影响,并提出了包含Holliday结点的DNT力学模型,能够较好地重现实验现象,但其计算成本明显高于解析模型.为综合考虑DNT的复杂结构形式与微观/介观效应,研究者们提出了若干多尺度模型.例如,Ma等[181]通过将有限元法与修正的Hertz接触模型相结合,考虑链间静电相互作用,估算了松散封装DNT的径向弹性模量,但该方法较难描述紧密封装DNT的局部形变.文献[182-183]发展多尺度模型,研究了环境条件依赖的链间相互作用对DNT拉伸刚度的影响,仅需数秒计算时间即可复现实验测得的力-拉伸曲线,如图11(a)所示.迄今为止,尚未见报道能同时考虑结构和溶液因素对DNT弯曲特性影响的多尺度模型,值得庆幸的是,前期关于受限DNA链[150]的研究为理解受限空间中DNT力学特性提供了重要启示[182]
对于器件级别DNA纳米笼或其它DNA纳米结构,常采用宏观柔顺机构的线弹性理论对其形态转换进行理论研究.Chen等[184]将片状DNA折纸结构中的结点简化为可弯曲和拉伸的弹簧,这些弹簧组成一系列串、并联弹簧网络,并估计了整体结构由平面卷曲转换为圆筒状态结构的弹性能以及各弹簧所承受的载荷变化,提出了降低能垒以促进形态转换的设计策略.文献[185]针对由柔性ssDNA与刚性dsDNA纳米管组成的平面DNA柔顺机构,采用伪刚体模型,将柔性ssDNA关节简化为扭簧,计算发现该机构能量景观具有两个极小值,如图11(b)所示,该研究揭示了其形态存在双稳态的物理机制.对于过于复杂的DNA纳米结构,可以将结构离散为小体积单元,采用有限元方法获得数值解.例如,Li等[186]将弹性梁理论应用于具有柔性关节的二维DNA线框结构中,预测表明结构具有负泊松比效应的整体变形行为,并且基于线框受力与变形分析给出了保证线框中dsDNA构件不发生屈曲失效的设计准则.Castro课题组[187]开发了一种专门用于分析DNA纳米结构力学行为的有限元计算软件——CanDo,单个碱基对被视为非线性梁单元,需要输入弹性模量等材料参数;在CanDo平台中输入设计的DNA结构初始构象,设置边界条件与结构中的连接,开始计算后结构逐渐松弛直至稳定构象.Kim等[188]采用CanDo分析了“A”形、“S”形、张拉整体结构等多种DNA纳米折纸结构,发现这些结构在弛豫后通常会产生弯曲和扭转等设计之外的变形.与微观模型相比,采用宏观弹性理论对DNA纳米结构的受力与变形的分析更加直观,计算速度更快,但也存在忽略DNA微观化学作用、无法预测构件几何构型改变等不足[15]
在某些情况下可以联合使用微观、介观和宏观理论模型,突破单一尺度理论模型的限制.Maffeo等[189]建立了一种可变分辨率的DNA跨尺度模型,该模型首先采用球链介观模型对大规模DNA结构的初始构象进行松弛,此后再分步添加微观相互作用,进行多次迭代平衡,直至转换为全原子级模型,通过这种方法可以对复杂的DNA纳米结构进行原子级别分辨率的力学分析,并且运算速度获得了大幅提升.随着计算机技术的发展,人工智能和机器学习作为新兴学科已在诸多领域获得了广泛应用,目前已被用于DNA结构优化设计.图11(c)展示了Benson等[190]采用卷积神经网络机器学习方法,随机自主生成具有局部支撑调整或碱基对增减的随机DNA纳米结构变体,基于粗粒化MD对DNA纳米结构刚度的评估结果,自主筛选刚性提升的结构变体,经过多轮迭代,实现了增强DNA纳米结构刚度的自主优化设计流程.
综上所述,不同尺度DNA类材料力学的研究生动展现了实验与理论相互驱动、协同演化的发展历程.在不同时空获取的实验测量结果的积累和更新不断揭示着复杂生物、化学、物理与力学耦合的效应与影响,充实并修正着理论模型的简化假设,而不断发展的理论模型则超越了单纯的现象描述,为DNA生理功能和力学响应等提供了深入的机制探索,也为DNA纳米技术的实用设计与工程应用提供了关键的理论依据和预测性指导.这种“实验驱动-理论反馈”的闭环逻辑,推动DNA类材料力学研究从对现象描述,迈向机制解析直至最终的工程应用.
目前,关于DNA类材料力学行为的研究尚处于起步阶段,对于DNA类材料静态力学性能、动态力学响应、拓扑结构与细胞级别以上的生物功能之间仍缺少更加充分、直接的关联性.在应用层面,DNA芯片技术距离临床推广与市场化存在一定差距,亟待提升多通路和大数据信号的采集分析能力,降低背景噪声并增强检测灵敏度与检测速度;而DNA纳米结构与分子机器的应用则需进一步突破从体外到体内的限制,朝智能化和靶向化发展,并且确保DNA纳米结构在机体内不会对现有基因造成污染.为此,未来需要通过生物、化学和力学等多学科交叉,考虑多场耦合效应,发展跨尺度建模和多数据融合的研究范式,通过传统力学、机器学习与人工智能等信息学技术深度结合,以“数智力学”[191]和“力学信息学”[192]等新型力学研究范式为核心方法,驱动DNA类材料力学研究在深入解析生命活动机制、实现高效精准的疾病早期诊断与靶向治疗、DNA计算[3,193]等领域取得突破.
  • 国家自然科学基金(12172204; 11772182; 11272193; 10872121)
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2025年第46卷第3期
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doi: 10.15959/j.cnki.0254-0053.2025.03.001
  • 接收时间:2025-07-21
  • 首发时间:2026-03-24
  • 出版时间:2025-09-25
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  • 收稿日期:2025-07-21
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国家自然科学基金(12172204; 11772182; 11272193; 10872121)
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    1.上海大学 力学与工程科学学院,上海市力学与数学应用研究所,上海市力学在能源工程中的应用重点实验室,上海 200444
    2.昆明理工大学 建筑工程学院工程力学系,云南 昆明 650550
    3.常州大学 机械与轨道交通学院,江苏 常州 213164

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2种不同金属材料的力学参数

Family
属数
Number of
genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of
total species (%)

Genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of total
species (%)
鹅膏菌科Amanitaceae 2 11 5.26 鹅膏菌属 Amanita 10 4.78
小菇科 Mycenaceae 2 12 5.74 丝盖伞属 Inocybe 5 2.39
多孔菌科 Polyporaceae 8 14 6.70 蜡蘑属 Laccaria 5 2.39
红菇科 Russulaceae 3 23 11.00 小皮伞属 Marasmius 6 2.87
小菇属 Mycena 11 5.26
光柄菇属 Pluteus 5 2.39
红菇属 Russula 17 8.13
栓菌属 Trametes 5 2.39
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