Article(id=1320435162471575901, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1319373162502258839, issueId=1320435149154669015, articleNumber=null, orderNo=null, doi=10.16016/j.2097-0927.202510022, pmid=null, cstr=null, oa=null, hot=null, price=null, onlineType=0, articleFormat=0, articleType=null, articleTypeStr=null, receivedDate=1760284800000, receivedDateStr=2025-10-13, revisedDate=1765296000000, revisedDateStr=2025-12-10, acceptedDate=null, acceptedDateStr=null, onlineDate=1792745875232, onlineDateStr=2026-10-23, pubDate=1769702400000, pubDateStr=2026-01-30, doiRegisterDate=null, doiRegisterDateStr=null, onlineIssueDate=1792745875232, onlineIssueDateStr=2026-10-23, onlineJustAcceptDate=null, onlineJustAcceptDateStr=null, onlineFirstDate=null, onlineFirstDateStr=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, createTime=1792745875232, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1792745875232, updator=13701087609, issue=Issue{id=1320435149154669015, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1319373162502258839, year='2026', volume='48', issue='2', pageStart='107', pageEnd='250', issueExtLink='null', onlineDate='null', pubDate='1769702400000', pubDateStr='2026-01-30', beforeIssueId=null, nextIssueId=null, price=null, status=1, issueComplete=1, articleOrder=1, issueType=-1, specialIssue=null, createTime=1792745872057, creator='13701087609', updateTime=1792749692151, updator='13701087609', preIssue=null, nextIssue=null, articleTotal=null, ext={EN=IssueExt(id=1320451171886682715, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1319373162502258839, issueId=1320435149154669015, language=EN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=), CN=IssueExt(id=1320451171886682716, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1319373162502258839, issueId=1320435149154669015, language=CN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=)}, issueFiles=null, downloadFileDto=null}, startPage=147, endPage=157, ext={EN=ArticleExt(id=1320435162723234142, articleId=1320435162471575901, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1319373162502258839, language=EN, title=Construction of reporter phage T6::
Nluc and evaluation of its diagnostic performance: A novel method for rapid detection of
Escherichia coli urinary tract infections, columnId=1320434418116837551, journalTitle=Journal of Army Medical University, columnName=Basic Medicine, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=
Objective To construct an Escherichia coli (E. coli)-specific reporter phage, T6::Nluc, and evaluate its performance in the rapid diagnosis of E. coli-induced urinary tract infections.
Methods T6::Nluc was constructed by the CRISPR/Cas9 system combined with homologous recombination technology. Then biological characteristics of T6 and T6::Nluc were systematically compared in terms of optimal multiplicity of infection (MOI), one-step growth curves, and lysis efficiency. Time-luminescence curves were plotted to determine the limit of detection (LOD) and the impact of urine matrix. Luminescence quantification was performed to detect the specificity of the phage after being co-cultured with non-E.coli pathogens. In addition, 104 strains of E. coli isolated from clinical urine samples were collected to analyze the detection coverage of T6::Nluc. Finally, 437 clinical urine samples were obtained for clinical validation.
Results The successful construction of reporter phage T6::Nluc was validated by Sanger sequencing. Its one-step growth curve and optimal MOI differed from those of T6, and the lysis efficiency remained comparable. T6::Nluc exhibited outstanding diagnostic performance, enabling the detection of ≥10⁴ CFU/mL E. coli within 40 min, with complete resistance to interference from urine matrix and excellent pathogen-specific recognition. Additionally, T6::Nluc successfully detected 51 out of 104 clinical E. coli isolates (49.04%). And the results of the detection in clinical urine samples indicated that the phage had a sensitivity of 48.84% and a specificity of 100.00 in the detection.
Conclusion Reporter phage T6::Nluc is successfully constructed, and can sensitively and specifically detect E. coli causing urinary tract infections, significantly reducing detection time and enhancing efficiency and accuracy.
, authors=Zhiyun HAO
1, 2, Qiang ZHAO
2, Minwei LI
2, Mianyang LI
1, 2, Chi WANG
1, 2, Chengbin WANG
1, 2, authorsList=Zhiyun HAO, Qiang ZHAO, Minwei LI, Mianyang LI, Chi WANG, Chengbin WANG, authorCompany=null, correspAuthors=Chi WANG, Chengbin WANG, authorNote=null, correspAuthorsNote=null, copyrightStatement=© 2026 Journal of Army Medical University, copyrightOwner=Editorial Office of Journal of Army Medical University, extLink=null, articleAbsUrl=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, pdfUrl=null, pdf=null, pdfFileSize=null, pdfExtLink=null, richHtmlUrl=null, mobilePdfUrl=null, reviewReport=null, pdfFirstPage=null, abstractGraph=null, abstractGraphContent=null, abstractVideo=null, citation=null, cebUrl=null, magXmlContent=null, mapNumber=null, fund=null), CN=ArticleExt(id=1320435163780198759, articleId=1320435162471575901, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1319373162502258839, language=CN, title=报告噬菌体T6::
Nluc的构建与诊断性能评估:一种快速检测大肠杆菌尿路感染的新方法, columnId=1320434418343329969, journalTitle=陆军军医大学学报, columnName=论著·基础医学, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=
目的 构建大肠杆菌特异性的报告噬菌体T6::Nluc,并评估其在尿路感染大肠杆菌快速诊断中的性能。
方法 采用CRISPR/Cas9系统联合同源重组技术,构建报告噬菌体T6::Nluc。比较T6与T6::Nluc的最佳感染复数、一步生长曲线和裂解效率等生物学特性。通过测定时间-发光曲线,确认T6::Nluc的检测限、尿液基质对检测的影响。将T6::Nluc与非大肠杆菌病原菌共培养后测定发光信号,探究检测特异性。从临床收集104株尿液分离的大肠杆菌,分析T6::Nluc的检测覆盖率。收集437例临床尿液样本进行临床检测验证。
结果 T6::Nluc构建成功,其一步生长曲线、最佳感染复数与T6存在差异,但裂解效率相似。T6::Nluc可在40 min内检出≥104 CFU/mL的大肠杆菌标准菌株BL21,不受尿液基质影响,且表现出高度的检测特异性,可检出104株临床尿液大肠杆菌分离株中的51株(49.04%),在临床尿液样本中的检测灵敏度为48.84%,特异度为100.00。
结论 成功构建了报告噬菌体T6::Nluc,并且可以灵敏、特异地检出尿路感染大肠杆菌,显著缩短了检测时间,有效提升了检测效率与准确性。
, authors=郝治云
1, 2, 赵强
2, 李民伟
2, 李绵洋
1, 2, 王驰
1, 2, 王成彬
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1Chinese PLA Medical School, Beijing), AuthorCompanyExt(id=1320435164052828522, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1319373162502258839, articleId=1320435162471575901, companyId=1320435164031857000, language=CN, country=null, province=null, city=null, postcode=null, companyName=null, departmentName=null, remark=
1解放军医学院,北京)]), AuthorCompany(id=1320435165600526699, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1319373162502258839, articleId=1320435162471575901, xref=2, ext=[AuthorCompanyExt(id=1320435165604721004, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1319373162502258839, articleId=1320435162471575901, companyId=1320435165600526699, language=EN, country=null, province=null, city=null, postcode=null, companyName=null, departmentName=null, remark=
2Department of Clinical Laboratory Medicine, First Medical Center, Chinese PLA General Hospital, Beijing, China), AuthorCompanyExt(id=1320435165613109613, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1319373162502258839, articleId=1320435162471575901, companyId=1320435165600526699, language=CN, country=null, province=null, city=null, postcode=null, companyName=null, departmentName=null, remark=
2解放军总医院第一医学中心检验科,北京)])], figs=[ArticleFig(id=1320435168339407258, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1319373162502258839, articleId=1320435162471575901, language=EN, label=Figure 1, caption=
Construction of plasmids and validation of T6::Nluc, figureFileSmall=b4P8WlVNUgHACBdquuPbWA==, figureFileBig=KiWIOqcbOiJxYug7A6wn+w==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1320435168406516123, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1319373162502258839, articleId=1320435162471575901, language=CN, label=图1, caption=
质粒构建及T6::Nluc的验证A: PCR amplification results of upstream and downstream homologous arms and Nluc gene block; B: PCR validation results of homologous recombinant plasmid. The primers for lane 1 are M13-F, DHR-T6-R, 2 683 bp. The primers for lane 2 are M13-F and Nluc-T6-R, 1 657 bp. The primers for lane 3 are UHR-T6-F, DHR-T6-R, 2 636 bp. The primers for lane 4 are UHR-T6-F, M13-R, 2 715 bp. The primers for lane 5 are Nluc-T6-F, M13-R, 1 774 bp; C: PCR validation results of pCas9 plasmid transformation into BL21. The primers are pCas9-F and pCas9-R, 1 335 bp; D: PCR validation results of pCRISPR-sg-1~10 plasmids construction. The primers are hoc-sg-1~10-F and pCRISPR validation primer R, 646 bp; E: PCR validation results of T6::Nluc. The primers are T6 recombinant primer F and R. The template for lane 1 is T6 (3 863 bp), and the templates for lanes 2 and 3 are T6::Nluc (3 907 bp). M: Marker; Nluc: NanoLuciferase
, figureFileSmall=b4P8WlVNUgHACBdquuPbWA==, figureFileBig=KiWIOqcbOiJxYug7A6wn+w==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1320435170197483932, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1319373162502258839, articleId=1320435162471575901, language=EN, label=Figure 2, caption=
Efficiency of plating for sgRNA, figureFileSmall=f5BpgV3f2XwS76DQNoxDGA==, figureFileBig=qpCG9QIDH0f2ia7SBhDSiQ==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1320435170482696605, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1319373162502258839, articleId=1320435162471575901, language=CN, label=图2, caption=
sgRNA的成斑率测定结果, figureFileSmall=f5BpgV3f2XwS76DQNoxDGA==, figureFileBig=qpCG9QIDH0f2ia7SBhDSiQ==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1320435170545611166, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1319373162502258839, articleId=1320435162471575901, language=EN, label=Figure 3, caption=
Comparison of biological characteristics between T6 and T6::Nluc, figureFileSmall=vS+hA68oFKQnJxP3xjCO+Q==, figureFileBig=7kh5JBUdaj/BgC55miItaA==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1320435170608525727, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1319373162502258839, articleId=1320435162471575901, language=CN, label=图3, caption=
T6与T6::Nluc的生物学特性比较A: Comparison of one-step growth curves; B: Comparison of the optimal MOI; C: Comparison of lytic efficiency.
, figureFileSmall=vS+hA68oFKQnJxP3xjCO+Q==, figureFileBig=7kh5JBUdaj/BgC55miItaA==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1320435170671440288, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1319373162502258839, articleId=1320435162471575901, language=EN, label=Figure 4, caption=
Detection performance of T6::Nluc, figureFileSmall=jaPoX0dMXZ5BfToHFJW8NA==, figureFileBig=Z09PFit5UwxOqyO/A/BRCg==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1320435170893738401, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1319373162502258839, articleId=1320435162471575901, language=CN, label=图4, caption=
T6::Nluc的检测性能A: Limit of detection of T6::Nluc. The positive threshold is set at RLUs ≥10.71, and T6::Nluc can detect BL21 at concentrations ≥1×104 CFU/mL within 40 min; B: Effect of urine on the detection performance of T6::Nluc; C: Detection specificity of T6::Nluc; D: Detection coverage of T6::Nluc in 104 clinical E. coli strains
, figureFileSmall=jaPoX0dMXZ5BfToHFJW8NA==, figureFileBig=Z09PFit5UwxOqyO/A/BRCg==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1320435170994401698, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1319373162502258839, articleId=1320435162471575901, language=EN, label=Table 1, caption=
Summary of primer sequences
, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
| Primer | Sequence (5′→3′) | Tm |
|---|
| UHR-T6-F | ttcaactgccgttcgacgatATAATCGACATTCTTCT | 60 ℃ |
| UHR-T6-R | gtcgtattaTCATCTATACCTATCCAT | 60 ℃ |
| Nluc-T6-F | ggtatagatgaTAATACGACTCACTATAGC | 60 ℃ |
| Nluc-T6-R | agtaaTTATGCTAAAATACGTTCACACAGACG | 60 ℃ |
| DHR-T6-F | cgtattttagcataaTTACTTGGGCTACGC | 60 ℃ |
| DHR-T6-R | aattcggatcttccagagatGACTGATGGGTTATCTATT | 60 ℃ |
| M13-F | GTAAAACGACGGCCAGT | 60 ℃ |
| M13-R | CAGGAAACAGCTATGACCATGA | 60 ℃ |
| pCRISPR validation primer R | CCCGCTTCAGTGACAACG | 60 ℃ |
| pCas9-F | GGTGATGTCGGCGATATAGG | 58 ℃ |
| pCas9-R | TCCGTTAAAGAGTTACTAGGGATCAC | 58 ℃ |
| T6 recombinant primer F | CGATTGCGATTAGGC | 53 ℃ |
| T6 recombinant primer R | CATCTGAAGCGAGGA | 53 ℃ |
), ArticleFig(id=1320435171069899171, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1319373162502258839, articleId=1320435162471575901, language=CN, label=表1, caption=
引物汇总表
, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
| Primer | Sequence (5′→3′) | Tm |
|---|
| UHR-T6-F | ttcaactgccgttcgacgatATAATCGACATTCTTCT | 60 ℃ |
| UHR-T6-R | gtcgtattaTCATCTATACCTATCCAT | 60 ℃ |
| Nluc-T6-F | ggtatagatgaTAATACGACTCACTATAGC | 60 ℃ |
| Nluc-T6-R | agtaaTTATGCTAAAATACGTTCACACAGACG | 60 ℃ |
| DHR-T6-F | cgtattttagcataaTTACTTGGGCTACGC | 60 ℃ |
| DHR-T6-R | aattcggatcttccagagatGACTGATGGGTTATCTATT | 60 ℃ |
| M13-F | GTAAAACGACGGCCAGT | 60 ℃ |
| M13-R | CAGGAAACAGCTATGACCATGA | 60 ℃ |
| pCRISPR validation primer R | CCCGCTTCAGTGACAACG | 60 ℃ |
| pCas9-F | GGTGATGTCGGCGATATAGG | 58 ℃ |
| pCas9-R | TCCGTTAAAGAGTTACTAGGGATCAC | 58 ℃ |
| T6 recombinant primer F | CGATTGCGATTAGGC | 53 ℃ |
| T6 recombinant primer R | CATCTGAAGCGAGGA | 53 ℃ |
), ArticleFig(id=1320435171321557412, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1319373162502258839, articleId=1320435162471575901, language=EN, label=Table 2, caption=
Summary of sgRNAs
, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
| sgRNA | Sequence (5′→3′) |
|---|
| hoc-sg-1-F | aaacGGAGGAGTCAATGTAACCTGg |
| hoc-sg-1-R | aaaacCAGGTTACATTGACTCCTCC |
| hoc-sg-2-F | aaacATGTAAGCTGAAGTACGATGg |
| hoc-sg-2-R | aaaacCATCGTACTTCAGCTTACAT |
| hoc-sg-3-F | aaacATAATCAGTAGCAGTAACGAg |
| hoc-sg-3-R | aaaacTCGTTACTGCTACTGATTAT |
| hoc-sg-4-F | aaacCACCAGATGTAAGCTGAAGTg |
| hoc-sg-4-R | aaaacACTTCAGCTTACATCTGGTG |
| hoc-sg-5-F | aaacTGTTGAACGTTAATAGAAGGg |
| hoc-sg-5-R | aaaacCCTTCTATTAACGTTCAACA |
| hoc-sg-6-F | aaacGTGGATTCATTGTCTTCTTAg |
| hoc-sg-6-R | aaaacTAAGAAGACAATGAATCCAC |
| hoc-sg-7-F | aaacAGTTTGACTTCCAATAGATGg |
| hoc-sg-7-R | aaaacCATCTATTGGAAGTCAAACT |
| hoc-sg-8-F | aaacGCTGAAGTACGATGTGGAAGg |
| hoc-sg-8-R | aaaacCTTCCACATCGTACTTCAGC |
| hoc-sg-9-F | aaacTCTGCTGTAATAGTTTTGCTg |
| hoc-sg-9-R | aaaacAGCAAAACTATTACAGCAGA |
| hoc-sg-10-F | aaacACCGCACCAGATGTAAGCTGg |
| hoc-sg-10-R | aaaacCAGCTTACATCTGGTGCGGT |
), ArticleFig(id=1320435171837456805, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1319373162502258839, articleId=1320435162471575901, language=CN, label=表2, caption=
sgRNA汇总表
, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
| sgRNA | Sequence (5′→3′) |
|---|
| hoc-sg-1-F | aaacGGAGGAGTCAATGTAACCTGg |
| hoc-sg-1-R | aaaacCAGGTTACATTGACTCCTCC |
| hoc-sg-2-F | aaacATGTAAGCTGAAGTACGATGg |
| hoc-sg-2-R | aaaacCATCGTACTTCAGCTTACAT |
| hoc-sg-3-F | aaacATAATCAGTAGCAGTAACGAg |
| hoc-sg-3-R | aaaacTCGTTACTGCTACTGATTAT |
| hoc-sg-4-F | aaacCACCAGATGTAAGCTGAAGTg |
| hoc-sg-4-R | aaaacACTTCAGCTTACATCTGGTG |
| hoc-sg-5-F | aaacTGTTGAACGTTAATAGAAGGg |
| hoc-sg-5-R | aaaacCCTTCTATTAACGTTCAACA |
| hoc-sg-6-F | aaacGTGGATTCATTGTCTTCTTAg |
| hoc-sg-6-R | aaaacTAAGAAGACAATGAATCCAC |
| hoc-sg-7-F | aaacAGTTTGACTTCCAATAGATGg |
| hoc-sg-7-R | aaaacCATCTATTGGAAGTCAAACT |
| hoc-sg-8-F | aaacGCTGAAGTACGATGTGGAAGg |
| hoc-sg-8-R | aaaacCTTCCACATCGTACTTCAGC |
| hoc-sg-9-F | aaacTCTGCTGTAATAGTTTTGCTg |
| hoc-sg-9-R | aaaacAGCAAAACTATTACAGCAGA |
| hoc-sg-10-F | aaacACCGCACCAGATGTAAGCTGg |
| hoc-sg-10-R | aaaacCAGCTTACATCTGGTGCGGT |
), ArticleFig(id=1320435171921342886, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1319373162502258839, articleId=1320435162471575901, language=EN, label=Table 3, caption=
Comparison of results between luminescence assay and gold standard method
, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
| Luminescence assay | Urine culture and mass spectrometry (gold standard) | Total |
|---|
| Positivea | Negativeb |
|---|
| Positive | 21 | 0 | 21 |
| Negative | 22 | 394 | 416 |
| Total | 43 | 394 | 437 |
), ArticleFig(id=1320435172252692903, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1319373162502258839, articleId=1320435162471575901, language=CN, label=表3, caption=
发光测定法与金标准方法的检测结果比较
, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
| Luminescence assay | Urine culture and mass spectrometry (gold standard) | Total |
|---|
| Positivea | Negativeb |
|---|
| Positive | 21 | 0 | 21 |
| Negative | 22 | 394 | 416 |
| Total | 43 | 394 | 437 |
), ArticleFig(id=1320435172684706216, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1319373162502258839, articleId=1320435162471575901, language=EN, label=Table 4, caption=
Comparison of novel detection technologies for uropathogens
, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
| Detection principle | Detection target | Detection time | Limit of detection | Advantage | Disadvantage | Reference |
|---|
| An isothermal amplification platform integrated phage strand exchange amplification with CRISPR/Cas12a | P. aeruginosa | 3.5 h | 103 CFU/mL | Sensitive, rapid, specific, accurate, viable-bacteria-targeting, self-amplifying signal, and professional equipment-free | Complex operational procedures, potential interference of urine components, limited host range | [7] |
| Electrochemical oxidation-reduction reaction based on a bare boron-doped diamond electrode | Sodium nitrite (NaNO₂), a characteristic metabolic product of pathogenic bacteria | ~ 10 min | 0.82 mg/L | Cost-effective, sensitive, rapid, simple, and low equipment requirement | Susceptible to ascorbic acid interference, lack of pathogenic bacteria identification specificity, inability to differentiate viable from non-viable bacteria | [27] |
| Digital β-D-glucuronidase antimicrobial susceptibility testing assay | E. coli | 4.5 h | 39 CFU/mL | Enables simultaneous specific identification, quantification, antibiotic susceptibility testing, and minimum inhibitory concentration determination of pathogenic bacteria, with viable/non-viable bacterial differentiation capability | Requirement for urine sample pretreatment involving centrifugation and bacterial isolation, challenges associated with chip production and cost control, dependence on specialized equipment | [28] |
| Smartphone-assisted microfluidic paper analytical device | E. coli | < 30 s | 10 CFU/mL | Low-cost, point-of-care testing-compatible, specific, sensitive | Inconsistent results caused by smartphone performance variations, inability to differentiate viable from non-viable bacteria | [29] |
| Microfluidic electrochemical biosensor for performing Loop-mediated isothermal amplification | E. coli | 1 h | 24 CFU/mL | No need for immobilized probes, DNA extraction-free, rapid, sensitive | Elevated cost, high equipment requirements, potential interference of urine, inability to differentiate viable from non-viable bacteria | [30] |
), ArticleFig(id=1320435172995084713, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1319373162502258839, articleId=1320435162471575901, language=CN, label=表4, caption=
尿路感染病原菌检测新技术的比较
, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
| Detection principle | Detection target | Detection time | Limit of detection | Advantage | Disadvantage | Reference |
|---|
| An isothermal amplification platform integrated phage strand exchange amplification with CRISPR/Cas12a | P. aeruginosa | 3.5 h | 103 CFU/mL | Sensitive, rapid, specific, accurate, viable-bacteria-targeting, self-amplifying signal, and professional equipment-free | Complex operational procedures, potential interference of urine components, limited host range | [7] |
| Electrochemical oxidation-reduction reaction based on a bare boron-doped diamond electrode | Sodium nitrite (NaNO₂), a characteristic metabolic product of pathogenic bacteria | ~ 10 min | 0.82 mg/L | Cost-effective, sensitive, rapid, simple, and low equipment requirement | Susceptible to ascorbic acid interference, lack of pathogenic bacteria identification specificity, inability to differentiate viable from non-viable bacteria | [27] |
| Digital β-D-glucuronidase antimicrobial susceptibility testing assay | E. coli | 4.5 h | 39 CFU/mL | Enables simultaneous specific identification, quantification, antibiotic susceptibility testing, and minimum inhibitory concentration determination of pathogenic bacteria, with viable/non-viable bacterial differentiation capability | Requirement for urine sample pretreatment involving centrifugation and bacterial isolation, challenges associated with chip production and cost control, dependence on specialized equipment | [28] |
| Smartphone-assisted microfluidic paper analytical device | E. coli | < 30 s | 10 CFU/mL | Low-cost, point-of-care testing-compatible, specific, sensitive | Inconsistent results caused by smartphone performance variations, inability to differentiate viable from non-viable bacteria | [29] |
| Microfluidic electrochemical biosensor for performing Loop-mediated isothermal amplification | E. coli | 1 h | 24 CFU/mL | No need for immobilized probes, DNA extraction-free, rapid, sensitive | Elevated cost, high equipment requirements, potential interference of urine, inability to differentiate viable from non-viable bacteria | [30] |
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