Article(id=1320434417198281292, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1319373162502258839, issueId=1320434416447500876, articleNumber=null, orderNo=null, doi=10.16016/j.2097-0927.202511066, pmid=null, cstr=null, oa=null, hot=null, price=null, onlineType=0, articleFormat=0, articleType=null, articleTypeStr=null, receivedDate=1761926400000, receivedDateStr=2025-11-01, revisedDate=1764604800000, revisedDateStr=2025-12-02, acceptedDate=null, acceptedDateStr=null, onlineDate=1792745697545, onlineDateStr=2026-10-23, pubDate=1768406400000, pubDateStr=2026-01-15, doiRegisterDate=null, doiRegisterDateStr=null, onlineIssueDate=1792745697545, onlineIssueDateStr=2026-10-23, onlineJustAcceptDate=null, onlineJustAcceptDateStr=null, onlineFirstDate=null, onlineFirstDateStr=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, createTime=1792745697545, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1792745697545, updator=13701087609, issue=Issue{id=1320434416447500876, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1319373162502258839, year='2026', volume='48', issue='1', pageStart='1', pageEnd='106', issueExtLink='null', onlineDate='null', pubDate='1768406400000', pubDateStr='2026-01-15', beforeIssueId=null, nextIssueId=null, price=null, status=1, issueComplete=1, articleOrder=1, issueType=-1, specialIssue=null, createTime=1792745697366, creator='13701087609', updateTime=1792749679774, updator='13701087609', preIssue=null, nextIssue=null, articleTotal=null, ext={EN=IssueExt(id=1320451119940227660, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1319373162502258839, issueId=1320434416447500876, language=EN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=), CN=IssueExt(id=1320451119940227661, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1319373162502258839, issueId=1320434416447500876, language=CN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=)}, issueFiles=null, downloadFileDto=null}, startPage=1, endPage=14, ext={EN=ArticleExt(id=1320434417437356622, articleId=1320434417198281292, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1319373162502258839, language=EN, title=Physiological adaptation of plateau mammals to hypoxia and cold: From organ systems to host-microbiome collaborative symbiosis, columnId=1320434417353470541, journalTitle=Journal of Army Medical University, columnName=Expert Review, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

Animals primarily adapt to environmental changes through morphological, behavioral and physiological adjustments. Environmental factors, such as hypoxia, cold, and seasonal resource scarcity, pose significant challenges to animal survival. How to live in a cold and hypoxic environment with limited energy supply is a core survival challenge faced by the high-altitude animals. For mammals, the strategies of physiological adaptations to high-altitude and cold environments mainly included the respiratory and circulatory systems, energy metabolism and thermogenesis, genetic and molecular adaptations, and gut microbiota. In this article, we highlight how animals optimize the morphological changes in structure and function of the oxygen transport chain to enhance oxygen uptake efficiency, how animals maintain energy homeostasis through trade-offs between basal and maximum metabolic rates and thermogenic mechanisms, as well as the molecular genetic basis of hypoxia adaptation and the synergistic role of gut microbiota in aiding host adaptation. The mechanisms of physiological adaptation to high-altitude and cold environments for mammals can offer valuable insights for human adaptation to these environments, which are of great significance for advancing high-altitude medicine and addressing public health issues such as metabolic diseases.

, authors=Dehua WANG, Na GUO, authorsList=Dehua WANG, Na GUO, authorCompany=null, correspAuthors=Dehua WANG, authorNote=null, correspAuthorsNote=null, copyrightStatement=© 2026 Journal of Army Medical University, copyrightOwner=Editorial Office of Journal of Army Medical University, extLink=null, articleAbsUrl=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, pdfUrl=null, pdf=null, pdfFileSize=null, pdfExtLink=null, richHtmlUrl=null, mobilePdfUrl=null, reviewReport=null, pdfFirstPage=null, abstractGraph=null, abstractGraphContent=null, abstractVideo=null, citation=null, cebUrl=null, magXmlContent=null, mapNumber=null, fund=null), CN=ArticleExt(id=1320434417915507280, articleId=1320434417198281292, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1319373162502258839, language=CN, title=高原哺乳动物对低氧与寒冷环境的生理适应:从器官系统到宿主-微生物协同共生, columnId=1320434417496076879, journalTitle=陆军军医大学学报, columnName=专家述评, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

动物主要通过形态结构、行为和生理调节等方面适应环境的变化。高寒、低氧及季节性资源匮乏等环境因素对于动物的生存产生巨大的挑战。尤其是如何在低氧限制能量供给的条件下,满足寒冷环境带来的高产热需求,是高原动物面临的核心生存难题。哺乳动物对高原和寒冷环境的生理适应,主要包括呼吸系统和血液循环系统、能量代谢和体温调节、遗传和分子适应、肠道微生物的作用等方面。本文重点阐述了动物如何通过氧气传输链的结构与功能优化以提升摄氧效率,通过基础代谢率与最大代谢率的权衡及多途径产热机制来维持能量稳态,低氧适应的分子遗传基础以及肠道微生态在辅助宿主适应中的协同作用。动物对高原和寒冷环境的生理适应不仅对于人类高原环境适应具有重要启发作用,而且对于推动高原医学发展和防治代谢性疾病等人类健康问题具有重要意义。

, authors=王德华, 郭娜, authorsList=王德华, 郭娜, authorCompany=null, correspAuthors=王德华, authorNote=null, correspAuthorsNote=
王德华,博士,教授,博士生导师。兼任国际生理学联合会(IUPS)比较生理学委员会委员、中国生理学会比较生理学委员会主任委员、中国动物学会动物生理生态学分会主任委员、《兽类学报》责任主编、Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology (A-D)、Journal of Comparative Physiology B 等期刊编委。主要从事野生动物的能量代谢与体温调节、行为学与生理学基础、肠道菌群与生理功能等方面的研究。E-mail:
WANG Dehua E-mail:
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王德华 , 郭娜
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高原哺乳动物对低氧与寒冷环境的生理适应:从器官系统到宿主-微生物协同共生
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王德华 , 郭娜
作者信息
  • 1山东大学生命科学学院,山东 青岛
通讯作者:
王德华,博士,教授,博士生导师。兼任国际生理学联合会(IUPS)比较生理学委员会委员、中国生理学会比较生理学委员会主任委员、中国动物学会动物生理生态学分会主任委员、《兽类学报》责任主编、Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology (A-D)、Journal of Comparative Physiology B 等期刊编委。主要从事野生动物的能量代谢与体温调节、行为学与生理学基础、肠道菌群与生理功能等方面的研究。E-mail:
WANG Dehua E-mail:
Physiological adaptation of plateau mammals to hypoxia and cold: From organ systems to host-microbiome collaborative symbiosis
Dehua WANG , Na GUO
Affiliations
  • 1School of Life Sciences, Shandong University, Qingdao, Shandong Province, China
出版时间: 2026-01-15 doi: 10.16016/j.2097-0927.202511066
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动物主要通过形态结构、行为和生理调节等方面适应环境的变化。高寒、低氧及季节性资源匮乏等环境因素对于动物的生存产生巨大的挑战。尤其是如何在低氧限制能量供给的条件下,满足寒冷环境带来的高产热需求,是高原动物面临的核心生存难题。哺乳动物对高原和寒冷环境的生理适应,主要包括呼吸系统和血液循环系统、能量代谢和体温调节、遗传和分子适应、肠道微生物的作用等方面。本文重点阐述了动物如何通过氧气传输链的结构与功能优化以提升摄氧效率,通过基础代谢率与最大代谢率的权衡及多途径产热机制来维持能量稳态,低氧适应的分子遗传基础以及肠道微生态在辅助宿主适应中的协同作用。动物对高原和寒冷环境的生理适应不仅对于人类高原环境适应具有重要启发作用,而且对于推动高原医学发展和防治代谢性疾病等人类健康问题具有重要意义。

高原环境  /  褐色脂肪组织  /  非颤抖性产热  /  肠道微生物  /  生理适应

Animals primarily adapt to environmental changes through morphological, behavioral and physiological adjustments. Environmental factors, such as hypoxia, cold, and seasonal resource scarcity, pose significant challenges to animal survival. How to live in a cold and hypoxic environment with limited energy supply is a core survival challenge faced by the high-altitude animals. For mammals, the strategies of physiological adaptations to high-altitude and cold environments mainly included the respiratory and circulatory systems, energy metabolism and thermogenesis, genetic and molecular adaptations, and gut microbiota. In this article, we highlight how animals optimize the morphological changes in structure and function of the oxygen transport chain to enhance oxygen uptake efficiency, how animals maintain energy homeostasis through trade-offs between basal and maximum metabolic rates and thermogenic mechanisms, as well as the molecular genetic basis of hypoxia adaptation and the synergistic role of gut microbiota in aiding host adaptation. The mechanisms of physiological adaptation to high-altitude and cold environments for mammals can offer valuable insights for human adaptation to these environments, which are of great significance for advancing high-altitude medicine and addressing public health issues such as metabolic diseases.

high-altitude environment  /  brown adipose tissue  /  non-shivering thermogenesis  /  gut microbiota  /  physiological adaptation
王德华, 郭娜. 高原哺乳动物对低氧与寒冷环境的生理适应:从器官系统到宿主-微生物协同共生. 陆军军医大学学报, 2026 , 48 (1) : 1 -14 . DOI: 10.16016/j.2097-0927.202511066
Dehua WANG, Na GUO. Physiological adaptation of plateau mammals to hypoxia and cold: From organ systems to host-microbiome collaborative symbiosis[J]. Journal of Army Medical University, 2026 , 48 (1) : 1 -14 . DOI: 10.16016/j.2097-0927.202511066
地球环境复杂多样,高原和寒冷地区(如青藏高原、内蒙古高原及极地地区)因其独特的极端环境特征,构成了地球上最严酷的生存区域之一[1]。其中,以“第三极”青藏高原和内蒙古高原为代表的高寒低氧及高纬度干旱寒冷地区,不仅孕育了独特的生物多样性,更构成了我国重要的国家生态安全屏障和战略边防前沿[2-3]。然而,低压低氧、极端低温及强紫外线辐射等复合环境应激,严重干扰了人体内环境稳态,导致机体有氧代谢能力下降与认知功能受损[4-5]。这种生理适应性障碍已成为制约高原部队军事作业效能、重大工程建设进度以及移居人群长期健康的关键限制性因素。相比之下,高原土著哺乳动物在数百万年自然选择的驱动下,已经演化出了系统且高效的生理适应机制[6-7]。它们在低温低氧环境下的内环境稳态维持能力与生理机能,远超仅依赖短期生理习服的平原物种[8]。因此,深入解析高原土著哺乳动物的生理适应策略,对于提升我国国防边境安全保障能力、推动高原医学发展以及防治代谢性疾病等人类健康问题,具有重大的国家战略意义和生物医学转化价值。
在生理学层面,适应高寒低氧环境面临着极大的挑战,其核心在于解决能量代谢中“高需氧-低供氧”的矛盾[9]。恒温动物为了在严寒环境中维持体温恒定,必须大幅提高代谢产热能力,这本质上是一个高耗氧的生物氧化过程[10]。随着海拔升高,大气氧分压呈指数级下降,极大地限制了机体的氧气摄取能力及有氧代谢空间[11]。这种“低温驱动的高氧需求”与“低氧环境导致的氧供给受限”之间的双重胁迫,构成了制约生物生存的严酷选择压力。为突破这一生理瓶颈,高原土著动物并非依赖某一器官或系统的局部调整,而是机体在整体水平上对氧气传输、能量代谢、产热调节及宿主-微生物互作等关键生理功能的整合与优化[11-13]。基于此,本文聚焦于高原哺乳动物复杂的生存策略,多维度梳理其生理适应特征。首先,呼吸与血液循环系统的协同进化是保障氧气摄取与运输的基础,直接决定了有氧代谢的上限;其次,能量代谢策略的调整,特别是褐色脂肪组织(brown adipose tissue, BAT)及骨骼肌介导的非颤抖性产热(non-shivering thermogenesis, NST),是恒温动物抵御寒冷、维持生存的关键;同时,从低氧诱导因子(hypoxia-inducible factor, HIF)信号通路的调控到血红蛋白基因的变异,揭示了适应性状背后的遗传学基础。近年来,“宿主-微生物”全生物概念的兴起,揭示了肠道微生物通过调节宿主能量代谢、免疫稳态等功能,在动物适应极端环境过程中发挥着关键作用。系统整合上述多维度的适应证据,不仅有助于阐明动物极端环境适应的生理规律,亦可为人类高原适应性训练、抗缺氧药物研发及代谢性疾病的防治提供关键的理论依据。
面对低温低氧等极端环境的多重胁迫,动物通过多层次的形态重塑来维持内环境稳态。这种适应不仅体现在体表隔热与肢体比例等外部形态的调整上,更深入到内脏器官的结构与功能重塑。其内在驱动在于,高昂的代谢产热需求高度依赖于消化系统与呼吸系统持续提供物质与氧气,从而促使相关器官形态发生适应性改变。
在应对低温环境时,减少热量散失与增强产热能力是动物形态适应的核心策略。体表隔热与肢体形态调整是减少物理散热的第一道防线。寒冷环境下,啮齿类动物通过增加被毛的直径、密度和长度来建立更有效的隔热层。符合“艾伦定律(Allen’s rule)”的形态特征在冬季或寒冷地区的小型啮齿动物中普遍存在,即为了最小化散热表面积,其脊椎和尾巴往往较短、耳廓较小;四肢也通过减少流向末梢的血流量和抑制软骨细胞增殖而变得短小[14]。这种形态调整导致缺乏隔热被毛覆盖的末梢部位(如耳朵、尾巴、四肢和眼)形成局部异温性,主要通过缩小相对表面积来有效减少核心体温向环境的热散失[15]。为应对寒冷诱导的代谢产热增加,动物的体质量与内脏器官也会产生适应性改变。在冬季,部分小型啮齿动物会降低体质量,这有利于减少维持基础代谢的绝对能量需求,并动用脂肪储备以弥补能量消耗[16]。然而,与体质量降低形成对比的是,为了支持高强度的NST能力,关键代谢器官往往出现适应性肥大。心脏作为循环动力源,因代谢产热导致血流量需求加大而发生代偿性肥大;肝脏和肾脏作为重要的高耗氧代谢器官,其体积增大也有助于提升机体的总产热能力,为抵御严寒提供内源性热量支持。
消化道结构(如大小、长度和绒毛形态等)决定了动物从食物中获得营养物质和能量的效率,是小型哺乳动物应对环境温度、食物质量及能量需求变化的关键适应性特征。增加消化道容量与长度是应对寒冷和高纤维低蛋白食物的普遍策略。处于低温环境时,许多啮齿动物可以通过增加摄食量来抵御寒冷,这就要求消化器官具备更大的容纳和处理能力。如冬季的大绒鼠(Eothenomys miletus)显著增加小肠、盲肠以及消化道总长度以提升消化效率[17]。长爪沙鼠(Meriones unguiculatus)也能在季节性变化中调节消化道形态,以维持能量平衡[18]。同样,面临高纤维低蛋白食物胁迫的动物往往进化出更大的胃容量,以延长食物贮存和消化时间[19]。对于生活在寒冷缺氧环境中的高原鼢鼠(Eospalax baileyi)而言,为了从低质量植物根茎中充分获取养分,它们进化出了较长的小肠,从而增加了食物在肠道内的滞留和发酵时间[20]。肠道黏膜的形态学重塑进一步优化了动物的消化吸收功能及黏膜免疫屏障。低温暴露下的布氏田鼠(Lasiopodomys brandtii)表现出明显的微观结构重塑,其肠道绒毛长度增加,扩大了吸收表面积;同时上皮内淋巴细胞和杯状细胞增多,体现了形态与免疫的协同适应[21]。消化道形态改变还具有代偿效应,如甘肃鼢鼠(Eospalax cansus)的小肠长度虽仅为相同体质量高原鼢鼠的70%,但其通过缩减绒毛间距等微观调整,有效扩增了吸收表面积,实现了对肠道长度不足的功能代偿[22]。此外,栖息生境的稳定性差异进一步驱动了同域物种分化的适应策略。营地下生活的高原鼢鼠得益于相对恒定的洞道微环境,其消化道形态在季节间维持稳定[23];而地面活动的高原鼠兔(Ochotona curzoniae),则依赖显著的季节性重塑以维系生存[24]。
肺作为机体气体交换的核心器官,其形态调整是动物应对高寒低氧环境的首要策略。为了满足高代谢需求并克服低氧分压,高原动物在肺部形态上表现出了显著的趋同进化特征。大量研究表明,高原动物普遍具有较大的肺/体质量比、更多的肺泡和微血管密度,以及更薄的气-血屏障,这些特征增加了气体扩散容量与交换面积,扩大了气血屏障通透性,加强了气体交换能力,从而提高氧气的摄入、转运和扩散能力[25-26]。与低海拔近缘物种相比,人类、哺乳动物等高原土著物种通常拥有更大的肺容积和气体交换表面积[27-29]。这种增强机制源于缺氧诱导肺生长的发育可塑性与长期遗传进化的共同作用。
值得注意的是,高原动物的肺部适应不仅存在趋同进化,也展现出丰富的物种特异性。例如,为了在寒冷和高气流下维持气道开放,藏羚羊(Pantholops hodgsonii)的小支气管外膜具备完整的纵行平滑肌层和透明软骨,以调整肺脏内的无效腔气体的快速排出[30]。牦牛(Bos grunniens)的肺部富含弹性纤维,增强了肺组织的收缩能力和顺应性,以适应高原呼吸的力学需求[31]。藏猪则通过增加肺泡壁血管分布来优化血氧结合[32]。对于地下活动的动物而言,它们面临高海拔低氧和洞道缺氧的双重压力。相比于同域分布的地上活动的高原鼠兔,高原鼢鼠的肺泡隔厚度和微血管中膜肌层厚度/血管外径比更高[25],这可能与其应对极端缺氧下的肺动脉高压有关。裸鼹鼠(Heterocephalus glaber)保留了胎儿期的肺部特征(如立方上皮延伸至呼吸区),通过双毛细血管排列模式补偿扩散能力不足,以适应极端缺氧的洞穴环境[33-34]。然而,高原适应并非必须通过提升生理通量来实现。在肺通气环节,几乎没有证据表明高海拔世居者(如藏族人群)在最大运动强度下通过增加通气量或提升呼吸频率来获取氧气。相反,他们往往表现出较低的通气率,这主要得益于其更高的肺弥散能力,即前述形态结构优化所带来的扩散容量提升。这种“低通气、高效率”的生理策略,在确保供氧的同时,有效降低了呼吸性水分丢失与热量散失,并有助于维持体液酸碱平衡,这正是肺部结构适应性改变所赋予的直接生理优势。
氧气自肺部摄取后,其向组织的高效输送是血液循环系统的核心环节。心脏作为血液循环系统的主要部位,其形态也会发生适应性改变。与大鼠和高原鼠兔,以及近缘物种甘肃鼢鼠相比,高原鼢鼠表现出相对心脏质量显著增加,其心脏指数与海拔呈正相关,反映了增强的心泵功能对于高海拔低氧适应至关重要[20]。相反,裸鼹鼠则采取了“节能策略”,以较小的心脏和较低的基础心率来适应较低的基础代谢率[35-37]。在组织末端,微循环网络的重塑进一步缩短了氧弥散的距离。高原物种骨骼肌的毛细血管密度显著高于低海拔物种,且这种差异往往具有遗传基础[38-39]。微血管生成能力的增强确保了氧气可被高效地输送至靶器官。
与此同时,红细胞(red blood cell, RBC)的数量与形态也发生了适应性调整,以平衡“载氧量”与“血液黏稠度”之间的矛盾。尽管RBC数量的增加会伴随血液黏稠度升高,并增大循环阻力,但高原动物演化出了相应的适应性策略。与平原动物相比,高原动物RBC数量与血红蛋白(hemoglobin,Hb)含量显著提升,平均红细胞血红蛋白浓度(mean corpuscular hemoglobin concentration, MCHC)更高,但平均红细胞容积(mean corpuscular volume, MCV)和血细胞比容(hematocrit, HCT)维持在相对较低水平。这些形态调整增大了红细胞的比表面积,既提升了氧气结合效率,又有效缓解了血液黏稠度,减轻了心脏负荷[38-39]。藏族人和高海拔拉布拉多白足鼠(Peromyscus maniculatus)表现为钝化的红细胞生成反应,避免血液过黏,维持微循环的通畅[38]。这些心肺结构的协同进化,共同保障机体在低氧环境下的氧气供给。
栖息地环境是影响物种特定生理功能表达的关键因素。动物通过高效感知环境信号并灵活调整能量分配与体温调节策略,以应对食物匮乏、低氧及低温等环境胁迫,从而维持内环境稳态。
体温调节是动物赖以生存的本能行为,其紊乱不仅影响正常的生理代谢和反应能力,甚至可能危及生命。体温的维持主要依赖于代谢产热与环境热交换之间的平衡。对于恒温动物来说,体温通常维持在35~42 ℃。由于其体温一般高于环境温度,增加产热能力成为其主要的生理适应策略。哺乳动物的产热主要包括3部分:基础代谢率(basal metabolic rate,BMR)、颤抖性产热(shivering thermogenesis,ST)和NST。这种产热策略使内温动物进化出了独特的内源性代谢能力,即通过肝脏和BAT等关键产热器官和组织显著提高代谢率来维持体温。在长期冷暴露条件下,小型哺乳动物首先利用NST作为附加热源;只有在极寒条件下,ST才会发挥作用。如冬季的黑线毛足鼠(Phodopus sungorus)在很大的温度范围内(-36~20 ℃)主要利用NST产热,当温度低于-36 ℃时,ST才会逐渐增加[40]。
然而,营地下生活为动物带来了独特的微环境挑战,使其体温调节策略与地面活动的物种显著不同。裸鼹鼠因缺乏隔热皮毛,其湿热传导率极高,为同体型地表啮齿动物的2~5倍[41-43],这种高传导率导致代谢热量迅速散失,使其难以维持体温恒定。因此,裸鼹鼠采取了行为与生理调节相结合的适应策略来维持体温,在行为上高度依赖环境热源,并通过深层巢穴中的“聚群行为”以有效减少热散失[44-45];而在代谢调控层面,尽管其体温表现出随环境波动的异温性特征,但仍能通过上调甲状腺激素水平来响应冷暴露,进而激活糖异生、呼吸链酶及β-肾上腺素能受体等通路以启动补偿性产热[46]。这种对热不稳定性的耐受性在撒哈拉以南的地下滨鼠科物种中普遍存在,即使是体型较大且有皮毛的马绍纳鼹鼠(Fukomys darlingi)也表现出类似的体温调节限制[47]。这表明高热传导率以及相对稳定的洞穴热环境,可能是地下啮齿动物趋同进化的结果[48-49]。
BMR是哺乳动物能量通量的一个关键组成部分,反映了动物维持生命活动的基本能量需求,并与多种生活史特征密切相关[50]。高原土著物种的BMR呈现出显著的适应性分化,具体性状则依赖于物种的体型大小与生态位差异,这种适应策略的多样性反映了它们在“能量维持”与“极限输出”之间的权衡。生存在青藏高原的牦牛BMR在不同海拔梯度下保持稳定,这得益于其在长期进化中形成的卓越氧气利用效率[51]。相反,许多体型较小的哺乳动物如高原鼠兔和高原鼢鼠则演化出了高能耗的代谢维持策略,它们的BMR普遍显著高于同体型低海拔物种的期望值(比期望值高138%~225%)[52-53],这是为抵御严寒而形成的生理适应。相比之下,初入高原的移居者(如黄牛和低海拔人群)BMR的升高更多地反映了机体应对低氧胁迫时所付出的非适应性生理代价[54-55]。因此,高海拔对BMR的影响不仅具有物种特异性,也反映了不同的进化机制:即土著物种的BMR响应是经长期自然选择塑造的适应性状,而外来物种的BMR变化则更多地表现为一种生理应激。此外,高原动物的能量代谢策略表现出对环境变化的适应性调节。尽管大量室内研究表明低温能诱导BMR升高,但处于自然环境中的高原鼠兔、根田鼠(Microtus oeconomus)、牦牛等高原动物的BMR均在食物匮乏的冬季出现显著下降[56-57],这表明动物采取了降低基础能耗的能量保存策略以度过能量受限期。
一般而言,栖息于寒冷环境的动物普遍演化出更高的MMR[通过最大耗氧率(maximal oxygen uptake, V̇O2 max)测定]以应对热耗散[58]。然而,高海拔地区动物的寒冷适应策略面临着寒冷和低氧的双重制约:低温环境要求增加代谢产热,而氧气供应的减少则限制了动物有氧代谢的能力[11,59]。对北美拉布拉多白足鼠的研究表明,拥有更高产热V̇O2max的个体不仅能在更低的环境温度下维持体温,还能在极寒时期保持更长时间的地面活动[60-64]。青藏高原的高原鼠兔和根田鼠同样表现出极高的MMR,显著高于根据体质量预测的期望值(分别为期望值的104.9%~112.2%和136.8%~169.7%),而且表现出强烈的季节性节律,冬季的产热能力远超夏季[65-66]。
NST是小型哺乳动物适应寒冷的主要产热途径。高原小型哺乳动物在低温低氧条件下维持恒定体温,必须具备极强的产热能力[67]。分布于北美落基山脉高海拔地区的拉布拉多白足鼠在模拟其海拔分布上限的低氧水平下,产热最大耗氧量显著高于来自低海拔的白足鼠(Peromyscus leucopus)[67]。这表明在低氧环境下,高海拔物种依然能维持更强的产热能力。对青藏高原土著物种的研究揭示了NST在应对寒冷中的关键作用。高原鼠兔和根田鼠的BAT质量、结构及其产热能力均表现出显著的季节性变化,并在冬季达到峰值[68-69]。根田鼠的NST能力在冬季比夏季提高了79%,高原鼠兔则提高了21%[68],这与寒冷激活NST的生理过程有关。动物在低温低氧环境下增强的产热能力,可归因于BAT在细胞和分子水平上发生的进化与可塑性变化。在冬季或经低温暴露后,高原动物BAT中的线粒体蛋白含量和关键呼吸链酶-细胞色素c氧化酶(cytochrome c oxidase, COX)的活性均显著增加[68,70],从而为增强线粒体能量代谢提供了基础。
NST的产热功能主要通过BAT介导。BAT的产热活动受交感神经系统调控[71]。在寒冷刺激下,交感神经系统被激活并释放去甲肾上腺素,后者与褐色脂肪细胞中高度表达的β3-肾上腺素能(adrenergic receptor beta 3,ADRB3)受体结合,进而诱导产热关键因子-解偶联蛋白1(uncoupling protein 1, UCP1)的表达[72]。具体而言,冷刺激通过激活cAMP-PKA与AMPK等信号通路,共同调节BAT中UCP1介导的NST过程。UCP1作为BAT中线粒体内膜的特异性跨膜通道蛋白,是BAT产热的终末效应分子。当其被激活时,线粒体质子梯度通过UCP1发生“泄漏”,导致氧化磷酸化解偶联,能量不再用于合成ATP,而是转化为热能释放。在高原鼠兔和根田鼠中,BAT内UCP1的含量在冷季显著高于暖季,其动态变化与NST能力的季节性波动一致[10,56]。这表明UCP1在抵御严寒、维持体温以及提升高原小型哺乳动物越冬存活率方面发挥着核心作用。
尽管UCP1介导的NST至关重要,但研究表明,Ucp1基因敲除小鼠经过渐进式适应后,仍能在寒冷中存活[73-74],暗示了存在不依赖于UCP1的产热机制。目前,已证实多种UCP1非依赖性产热途径参与机体能量稳态的调节,主要包括钙循环产热与肌酸循环产热。钙循环产热,即米色脂肪细胞等表达的肌质网/内质网Ca²⁺-ATP酶(sarcoplasmic endoplasmic reticulum Ca2+-dependent adenosine triphosphatase,SERCA)亚型 SERCA2B与兰尼碱受体2可介导无效的钙离子跨膜循环,此过程消耗ATP并以热能形式释放能量[75]。肌酸循环是另一种重要机制,在ADP受限条件下,线粒体肌酸激酶驱动肌酸的磷酸化与磷酸肌酸的水解同时发生,形成一个无效的肌酸底物循环,从而实现产热[76]。
基于18个胎盘哺乳动物目的系统发育分析显示,其中至少有8个目发生了Ucp1基因的失活,且主要集中于体型较大的物种,表明这些动物可能无需依赖BAT中的UCP1即可维持产热[77]。事实上,骨骼肌作为一个重要的产热器官,其产热方式不仅包括通过颤抖(快速不自主收缩)性产热,还包括NST。研究证实,骨骼肌NST是内源性产热的关键来源,对维持恒温至关重要[78]。在骨骼肌的多种产热机制中,SERCA蛋白介导的钙循环扮演了关键角色,肌肉的收缩和舒张与胞质Ca2+浓度密切相关,而Ca2+主要储存于肌质网内[79]。研究发现,在肩胛间BAT缺失的情况下,布氏田鼠仍能通过上调骨骼肌中SERCA的产热作用来维持正常体温,这证明了骨骼肌在冷诱导产热中具有重要作用,并能有效补偿BAT的产热缺陷[80]。上述骨骼肌等组织的产热补偿机制,最终依赖于线粒体的高效运作。在氧输送的终端,线粒体的适应策略呈现出显著的物种特异性。对于需要在高海拔维持剧烈代谢活动的物种(如高海拔拉布拉多白足鼠),其运动肌肉的线粒体氧利用能力显著增强,表现出腓肠肌氧化型纤维比例和线粒体密度的增加,共同赋予了其更强的有氧呼吸能力[38]。相比之下,高原世居人群则未见类似的肌肉线粒体增加。这种差异提示不同物种在增加氧气输送与优化代谢之间存在差异化的生理应对机制。
除低温和低氧的直接刺激外,光周期与营养状况等环境因素亦能调控动物的产热能力,这种效应具有物种特异性。例如,短光照条件可显著增强根田鼠的NST能力,但对同域分布高原鼠兔的影响则有限[81]。这揭示了两种同域分布物种可能具备不同的环境响应机制:根田鼠可能主要利用光周期作为预测冬季来临的信号,温度起到强化调节的作用;而高原鼠兔则更直接地对环境温度的实际变化做出反应性调节。此外,营养信号也是调控适应性产热的关键因素。冬季低蛋白食物会增加高原鼠兔的NST[82]。由此可见,温度、光周期与营养信号共同构成一个综合调控网络,以调节动物的产热适应,这对于其成功越冬至关重要。
高寒低氧环境下的能量供需矛盾构成了强烈的选择压力,驱动高原物种在基因组层面演化出了显著的适应性特征。随着多组学技术的发展,对这一机制的解析已从早期的单基因组扫描,深入到代谢网络重编程、基因组结构变异及染色体演化等更为复杂的系统层面。
HIF信号通路是脊椎动物感知低氧并调节代谢的核心枢纽。尽管HIF-1α已被证实是调控促红细胞生成素(erythropoietin, EPO)、血管内皮生长因子(vascular endothelial growth factor, VEGF)等下游靶基因转录的关键因子[83-84],但HIF-2α(由EPAS1编码)因其在红细胞生成、铁稳态及代谢重编程中的独特功能,成为高原适应性进化的核心靶点[85-86]。基因组学研究证实,HIF通路相关基因(特别是EPAS1)在藏獒(Canis lupus familiaris)、藏羊(Ovis aries)、高原鼢鼠及藏族人群中均受到强烈的正选择,表现出显著的趋同进化特征[87-90]。EPAS1的功能变异不仅通过钝化促红细胞生成反应来降低血液黏稠度,还可能参与调控线粒体呼吸效率,从源头上优化机体的整体能耗。
除单核苷酸多态性(single nucleotide polymorphisms,SNPs)外,基因组结构变异(structural variations,SVs)和染色体水平演化在高原适应中亦发挥着不可忽视的作用。研究表明,缺失和插入等结构变异广泛存在于高原鼢鼠基因组中,并富集于与低氧免疫调节相关的基因区域[87]。这可能涉及染色体重排,DNA损伤修复基因的变异可能驱动了染色体结构变异,这不仅加速了物种分化,还可能通过“锁定”适应性基因簇,促进对环境的快速适应[91]。
遗传变异最终会转化为分子生理层面的功能重塑。这些生化适应涵盖了从氧气传输效率的提升、细胞能量利用的优化,到系统性的组织保护策略。
在HIF通路的下游,效应蛋白的功能变化直接决定了氧气传输效率。通过编码珠蛋白(Globin)的基因发生关键氨基酸替代,是提升血液结合氧能力的主要策略[59]。例如,高海拔拉布拉多白足鼠和高原鼢鼠的血红蛋白α或β链发生了特定的氨基酸突变,减弱了血红蛋白与有机磷酸盐(如BPG)的变构效应,从而显著提高了血红蛋白对氧的亲和力[11, 92-94]。高原鼢鼠和高原鼠兔的肺表面活性物质中同源四聚体血红素蛋白(分别为γ4-like和δ4)较高,这种独特的珠蛋白亚型显著增强了机体在低氧环境下的摄氧能力[27-28]。此外,一些高原动物(如高原鼠兔)还采取了基因表达调控策略,在成年期重新表达对氧亲和力更高的胎儿型血红蛋白基因[94],裸鼹鼠则终生维持对氧亲和力极高的胎儿血红蛋白[19],以应对极端的低氧胁迫。
细胞层面的能量利用与损伤防御同样关键。低氧胁迫会诱导机体从依赖氧气的脂肪酸β氧化转向糖酵解途径,并通过PPAR等信号通路调节脂质代谢,以维持能量平衡并减少活性氧(reactive oxygen species, ROS)产生[95]。在组织保护方面,地下生活的鼹形鼠属(Spalax)通过上调VEGF增强组织毛细血管密度,并高表达神经珠蛋白(neuroglobin, NGB)作为ROS清除剂以保护神经系统,展示了独特的组织保护机制[96-97]。
相较于高原土著动物,人类对高原环境的适应表现出明显的局限性与独特的进化路径。尽管藏族人群通过HIF-2α等关键基因的正选择,实现了对红细胞生成的精细调控(如避免红细胞过度增生)[88-98],并利用GTP cyclohydrolase 1(GCH1)基因变异调节一氧化氮(NO)代谢以保护心血管[99]。但这种多基因协同的进化适应模式难以被移居人群短期获得,因此仍无法消除其慢性高原病风险[100]。
高原土著动物作为天然的适应性模型,为解析这些复杂机制提供了关键视角。例如,高海拔拉布拉多白足鼠与藏族人群在钝化的缺氧性交感神经激活反应方面,展现出显著的生理趋同性[101-102]。此外,无论是藏族人群还是高原动物,其血管系统都可能通过上调NO等血管舒张因子,来抵消或平衡交感神经激活带来的潜在负面影响,维持有效的组织血流灌注[103]。这些在动物模型中发现的多层次适应机制,包含DNA修复能力、骨骼肌产热策略以及心血管调节模式等[92-93,104-105],为理解人类高原适应的生理基础。
近年来,大量证据揭示了与动物共生的胃肠道微生物群落对宿主生理与适应性具有重要影响,其作用涉及能量代谢、产热调节、免疫应答、内分泌功能及神经调控等多个方面[106-107]。这种微生物群落与宿主同步多样化的趋势,提示二者之间存在着长期的协同进化关系[108-109],并形成一个功能整合的共生系统。宿主-微生物共生进化理论认为:肠道微生物的定植是进化驱动下的结果,其通过特定代谢途径为宿主提供关键的生理调节物质[110]。肠道菌群不仅能将膳食纤维分解为短链脂肪酸(short chain fatty acids,SCFAs,如乙酸、丙酸、丁酸等),还能借助细菌酶催化去结合、脱氢和脱羟基等反应,将初级胆汁酸转化为次级胆汁酸[111]。这些代谢产物既能刺激肠道激素分泌以调节食欲和产热,又能直接与肠神经系统(enteric nervous system,ENS)交互,从而构建起“微生物-肠-脑”的调控网络[112]。基于上述分子机制,肠道微生物在宿主应对环境温度变化、食物匮乏以及高海拔低氧等极端环境压力时,发挥着不可或缺的适应性调节作用。
维持体温恒定是小型哺乳动物在寒冷环境中生存的首要任务。肠道微生物不仅通过直接的厌氧代谢贡献了宿主相当比例的基础产热能力,更关键的是它们通过“微生物-肠道-内分泌”轴调节宿主的产热能力。对布氏田鼠和长爪沙鼠的研究发现,肠道菌群与调节NST的核心激素——甲状腺激素存在密切的双向调节关系。冷暴露诱导的菌群重塑往往伴随着血清活性三碘甲状腺原氨酸(triiodothyronine,T3)水平的升高,而利用抗生素清除肠道菌群会导致血清T3水平下降、BAT中UCP1表达受到抑制,最终削弱宿主的耐寒能力[113]。机制分析表明,菌群可能通过脂多糖(lipopolysaccharide,LPS)-TLR4通路调节下丘脑脱碘酶的活性,促进T4向高活性T3转化。此外,为了满足产热增加带来的能量需求,肠道菌群还进一步通过调节血清瘦素(leptin)和胃饥饿素(ghrelin)的水平,并影响下丘脑中食欲调节神经肽(如AgRP、NPY等)的表达,协同促进宿主的摄食行为,从而维持能量收支的动态平衡[114]。
除了经典的激素调节,神经递质系统与特异性代谢通路也是微生物介导产热的关键环节。低温暴露下,肠道菌群的组成与下丘脑中多巴胺(dopamine, DA)、5-羟色胺(5-hydroxytryptamine, 5-HT)及去甲肾上腺素(norepinephrine, NE)等单胺类神经递质的代谢紧密相关,特定共生菌群可能通过迷走神经刺激这些神经递质的释放,进而激活交感神经系统对BAT的支配以启动产热[115-116]。研究进一步揭示,微生物代谢产物可作为直接的信号分子参与调控。例如,针对高原鼠兔适应低温与低蛋白双重胁迫的研究发现,重塑的肠道菌群通过增加次级胆汁酸[特别是脱氧胆酸(deoxycholic acid, DCA)]的合成,激活肝脏成纤维细胞生长因子21(fibroblast growth factor 21,FGF21)的分泌;FGF21作为一种关键的代谢调节因子,直接作用于BAT并上调UCP1表达[82]。这表明,宿主整合了来自甲状腺、食欲激素、神经递质及微生物代谢物(如DCA、SCFAs等)的多维信号,构建了一个多层次的体温调节网络,以应对极端环境的生存挑战。
除生理适应机制外,宿主还进化出了主动的行为调节策略以重塑共生菌群的结构与功能。这种行为与微生物的协同作用是宿主应对环境挑战的重要进化策略,如社会性聚群、食粪及冬眠行为等。
社会性聚群作为小型哺乳动物应对寒冷的高度保守策略,其功能远超物理性的热量保存,主要通过增加个体间的接触,促进了有益菌群的交换与传播[115]。研究证实,聚群行为能够重塑肠道微生态结构,这种肠道菌群结构与功能的协同调整,共同调控了宿主的能量摄入与体温调节能力[95, 117],表明社会性行为通过微生物介导的机制,赋予了宿主超越个体生理极限的环境适应能力。
食粪行为是后肠发酵草食动物关键的微生物自我再接种机制,既保障菌群定植,又通过“微生物-肠-脑”轴维护神经认知功能[118]。在极端环境下,这种策略展现出高度可塑性。例如,高原鼠兔在冬季通过跨物种食粪(取食牦牛粪便)引入外源菌群,不仅通过降低DCA水平以抑制FGF21介导的产热、促进脂肪储备,还增强了尿素氮利用以维持蛋白质稳态[82]。此外,冬眠动物如棕熊也表现出菌群的季节性重塑,其夏季菌群能促进脂肪高效堆积而不损害代谢健康,协助度过冬季禁食期[119]。这表明宿主能够通过行为策略主动筛选和重塑共生菌群,在能量权衡中灵活应对环境挑战。
在高海拔环境中,宿主面临低氧、低温与食物资源(尤其是碳水化合物与蛋白质)匮乏的多重生存极限,高原哺乳动物(如牦牛、高原鼠兔)与肠道菌群的协同进化,形成了物质代谢与免疫防御协同的共适应体系。在能量获取与免疫调节方面,与低海拔近缘物种相比,高原物种的肠道菌群中阿克曼菌(Akkermansia)、普雷沃菌属(Prevotella)以及乳酸杆菌(Lactobacillus)等菌群的特异性富集[120-122]。这种群落结构的特化赋予了宿主极强的纤维降解能力,使其能从低质量的植物中高效摄取能量,并将难以消化的植物多糖转化为宿主可直接利用的短链脂肪酸(SCFAs),从而弥补恶劣环境下的能量需求[123-124]。低压低氧环境易诱发机体的系统性炎症和血管通透性增加,而适应性菌群产生的代谢产物(特别是丁酸)具有显著的抗炎功能,能够促进调节性T细胞(Tregs)的分化并抑制促炎因子的释放,形成抗炎屏障,从而有效缓解由低氧导致的组织损伤[120, 125-126]。
高原哺乳动物对低氧和寒冷环境的适应,体现了生物在极端选择压力下形成的协同稳态调节机制。这一适应过程涉及从氧气传输到能量利用的多层次协同机制,展现了生理功能的系统性重塑。在氧气传输层面,动物通过心肺结构特化、血红蛋白功能优化及微循环系统增强,形成了高效的氧气传输体系,显著提升了机体的氧气供给能力。在能量代谢层面,则表现出产热能力与代谢模式的动态可塑性,包括基础代谢率与最大代谢率的策略性调整,以及褐色脂肪组织和骨骼肌产热途径的季节性调控,确保在能量受限环境下维持核心生理功能。这些适应性表型的确立,依赖于遗传进化的内在驱动与宿主-微生物互作的协同调节。关键基因(如EPAS1)的自然选择为适应性提供了遗传基础,而肠道菌群则通过参与营养物质代谢和免疫调节,调节了宿主的生理功能。
未来高原动物生理学研究应整合多组学(基因组、转录组、蛋白组、代谢组及宏基因组等)技术,系统解析由宿主遗传调控与共生微生物功能协同驱动的高原适应性生理网络,阐明其在高效氧传输、产热调节与能量代谢稳态中的具体分子机制与互作关系;进而将所揭示的关键靶点与生理适应策略,转化为干预高原相关疾病及保障特殊环境人员健康的新型手段。这将不仅有助于深化对极限环境适应规律的认识,也为高原医学与特殊环境作业保障等应用领域提供关键的理论支撑。

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2026年第48卷第1期
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doi: 10.16016/j.2097-0927.202511066
  • 接收时间:2025-11-01
  • 首发时间:2026-10-23
  • 出版时间:2026-01-15
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  • 收稿日期:2025-11-01
  • 修回日期:2025-12-02
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    1山东大学生命科学学院,山东 青岛

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王德华,博士,教授,博士生导师。兼任国际生理学联合会(IUPS)比较生理学委员会委员、中国生理学会比较生理学委员会主任委员、中国动物学会动物生理生态学分会主任委员、《兽类学报》责任主编、Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology (A-D)、Journal of Comparative Physiology B 等期刊编委。主要从事野生动物的能量代谢与体温调节、行为学与生理学基础、肠道菌群与生理功能等方面的研究。E-mail:
WANG Dehua E-mail:
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2种不同金属材料的力学参数
科
Family
属数
Number of
genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of
total species (%)
属
Genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of total
species (%)
鹅膏菌科Amanitaceae 2 11 5.26 鹅膏菌属 Amanita 10 4.78
小菇科 Mycenaceae 2 12 5.74 丝盖伞属 Inocybe 5 2.39
多孔菌科 Polyporaceae 8 14 6.70 蜡蘑属 Laccaria 5 2.39
红菇科 Russulaceae 3 23 11.00 小皮伞属 Marasmius 6 2.87
小菇属 Mycena 11 5.26
光柄菇属 Pluteus 5 2.39
红菇属 Russula 17 8.13
栓菌属 Trametes 5 2.39
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