Article(id=1217789894190092350, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146123166801305609, issueId=1217789884081820362, articleNumber=null, orderNo=null, doi=10.12404/j.issn.1671-1815.2405944, pmid=null, cstr=null, oa=null, hot=null, price=null, onlineType=0, articleFormat=0, articleType=null, articleTypeStr=research-article, receivedDate=1722960000000, receivedDateStr=2024-08-07, revisedDate=1744646400000, revisedDateStr=2025-04-15, acceptedDate=null, acceptedDateStr=null, onlineDate=1768273336217, onlineDateStr=2026-01-13, pubDate=1753632000000, pubDateStr=2025-07-28, doiRegisterDate=null, doiRegisterDateStr=null, onlineIssueDate=1768273336217, onlineIssueDateStr=2026-01-13, onlineJustAcceptDate=null, onlineJustAcceptDateStr=null, onlineFirstDate=null, onlineFirstDateStr=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, createTime=1768273336217, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1768273336217, updator=13701087609, issue=Issue{id=1217789884081820362, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146123166801305609, year='2025', volume='25', issue='21', pageStart='8761', pageEnd='9209', issueExtLink='null', onlineDate='null', pubDate='null', beforeIssueId=null, nextIssueId=null, price=null, status=1, issueComplete=1, articleOrder=1, issueType=-1, specialIssue=null, createTime=1768273333807, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1768273602927, updator=13701087609, preIssue=null, nextIssue=null, ext={EN=IssueExt(id=1217791012932604619, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146123166801305609, issueId=1217789884081820362, language=EN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=), CN=IssueExt(id=1217791012932604620, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146123166801305609, issueId=1217789884081820362, language=CN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=)}, issueFiles=null}, startPage=9173, endPage=9183, ext={EN=ArticleExt(id=1217789894781489274, articleId=1217789894190092350, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146123166801305609, language=EN, title=Simulation on the Cavitation Characteristics in Liquid Hydrogen Transportation Pipe for Hydrogen-powered Aircraft, columnId=1156262731079607234, journalTitle=Science Technology and Engineering, columnName=Papers·Aeronautics and Astronautics, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

The development of hydrogen-powered aircraft is a key strategy for the aviation industry to achieve carbon neutrality. Compared to high-pressure gaseous hydrogen, cryogenic liquid hydrogen will be the main fuel for future hydrogen-powered commercial aviation. However, the occurrence of cavitation in liquid hydrogen during transport has the potential to result in an unstable or even interrupted fuel supply to the engine, which could ultimately lead to catastrophic risks to flight safety. Using numerical simulation method, based on homogeneous mixed flow model, Navier-Stokes (RANS) method and Zwart cavitation model, the cavitation flow characteristics and development law of liquid hydrogen in aircraft transport pipelines were deeply studied, and partially compared with normal temperature water. The results show that the cavitation number, the outlet/inlet pressure ratio, and the length/diameter ratio have a significant influence on the occurrence and development of cavitation. The condensation process of liquid hydrogen is considerably slower than the evaporation process. The effect of the cavitation number on the evaporation process is minimal, but it has a significant effect on the maximum condensation rate. The critical pressure ratio for the disappearance of cavitation in liquid hydrogen is lower than in water. At the same pressure ratio, water cavitates more easily than liquid hydrogen, with a greater number of cavitation bubbles and a thicker cavitation region. Reducing the length/diameter ratio can inhibit the occurrence and development of cavitation in liquid hydrogen. It is recommended that the diameter of the contraction section be increased to achieve a higher outlet flow, rather than shortening the length of the pipeline.

, correspAuthors=Yuan-yuan CHEN, authorNote=null, correspAuthorsNote=null, copyrightStatement=null, copyrightOwner=null, extLink=null, articleAbsUrl=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, pdfUrl=null, pdf=null, pdfFileSize=null, pdfExtLink=null, richHtmlUrl=null, mobilePdfUrl=null, reviewReport=null, pdfFirstPage=null, abstractGraph=null, abstractGraphContent=null, abstractVideo=null, citation=null, cebUrl=null, magXmlContent=null, mapNumber=null, authorCompany=null, fund=null, authors=null, authorsList=Yan-yu CUI, Tao CHEN, Yuan-yuan CHEN), CN=ArticleExt(id=1217789900968088240, articleId=1217789894190092350, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146123166801305609, language=CN, title=氢燃料飞机液氢输运管路空化特性仿真, columnId=1156262731373208516, journalTitle=科学技术与工程, columnName=论文·航空、航天, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

发展氢燃料航空器是民航业实现碳中和的最主要途径之一。相较于高压气氢,低温液氢将成为未来氢动力民航商用客机的主要燃料。液氢在输运过程中一旦发生空化将导致发动机燃料供应不稳定甚至供应中断,严重时可能会对飞行安全造成灾难性影响。采用数值模拟的方法,基于均质混合流模型,采用RANS(Navier-Stokes)法和Zwart空化模型,深入研究了液氢在飞机输运管路中的空化流动特性及发展规律,并与常温水进行了部分对比。结果表明: 空化数、进出口压比和长径比对空化的发生与发展均有重要影响。液氢的凝结过程要比蒸发过程慢得多,空化数对蒸发过程几乎无影响,主要影响最大凝结速率;液氢空化消失的临界压比低于水的临界压比,同一压比下,水比液氢更容易发生空化,且空化区尾部空泡更多,空化区更厚;减小长径比可抑制液氢空化的发生和发展,相较于减小管道长度,建议增大收缩段的管径以获得更高的出口流量。

, correspAuthors=陈媛媛, authorNote=null, correspAuthorsNote=
* 陈媛媛(1989—),女,汉族,安徽桐城人,博士,讲师。研究方向:民航新能源安全应用。E-mail:
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崔艳雨(1973—),男,汉族,辽宁锦州人,博士,教授。研究方向:民航新能源应用安全及可靠性。E-mail:

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崔艳雨(1973—),男,汉族,辽宁锦州人,博士,教授。研究方向:民航新能源应用安全及可靠性。E-mail:

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崔艳雨(1973—),男,汉族,辽宁锦州人,博士,教授。研究方向:民航新能源应用安全及可靠性。E-mail:

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Harbin: Harbin Institute of Technology, 2016., articleTitle=null, refAbstract=null)], funds=[Fund(id=1217860120961274600, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146123166801305609, articleId=1217789894190092350, awardId=21JCQNJC00750, language=CN, fundingSource=天津市自然科学基金多元投入基金(21JCQNJC00750), fundOrder=null, country=null)], companyList=[AuthorCompany(id=1217860107891823437, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146123166801305609, articleId=1217789894190092350, xref=null, ext=[AuthorCompanyExt(id=1217860107900212045, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146123166801305609, articleId=1217789894190092350, companyId=1217860107891823437, language=EN, country=null, province=null, city=null, postcode=null, companyName=null, departmentName=null, remark=College of Aeronautical Engineering, Civil Aviation University of China, Tianjin 300300, China), AuthorCompanyExt(id=1217860107908600654, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146123166801305609, articleId=1217789894190092350, companyId=1217860107891823437, language=CN, country=null, province=null, city=null, postcode=null, companyName=null, departmentName=null, remark=中国民航大学航空工程学院, 天津 300300)])], figs=[ArticleFig(id=1217860112467808358, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146123166801305609, articleId=1217789894190092350, language=EN, label=Fig.1, caption=Geometric model, figureFileSmall=bwvmXs+2QOsKHtvuDhkCqw==, figureFileBig=LKoVJG8cJ1jWgmWPVhzLqw==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1217860112606220401, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146123166801305609, articleId=1217789894190092350, language=CN, label=图1, caption=几何模型, figureFileSmall=bwvmXs+2QOsKHtvuDhkCqw==, figureFileBig=LKoVJG8cJ1jWgmWPVhzLqw==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1217860112732049532, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146123166801305609, articleId=1217789894190092350, language=EN, label=Fig.2, caption=Comparison of outlet mass flow rate and error under different first boundary layer thicknesses, figureFileSmall=2o2/XvBLcu2s+3Wxf78PRw==, figureFileBig=q/UjpwOLyHGgS+U3k1l2Ug==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1217860112992096399, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146123166801305609, articleId=1217789894190092350, language=CN, label=图2, caption=不同第一边界层厚度下的出口质量流量和误差率对比, figureFileSmall=2o2/XvBLcu2s+3Wxf78PRw==, figureFileBig=q/UjpwOLyHGgS+U3k1l2Ug==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1217860113109536925, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146123166801305609, articleId=1217789894190092350, language=EN, label=Fig.3, caption=Geometric model and mesh generation for hydrofoil, figureFileSmall=TSVNYzFXlhUC6Do/qqsoDQ==, figureFileBig=zbZQCrIE3dmUgyMedmp/nw==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1217860113222783143, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146123166801305609, articleId=1217789894190092350, language=CN, label=图3, caption=水翼几何模型和网格划分, figureFileSmall=TSVNYzFXlhUC6Do/qqsoDQ==, figureFileBig=zbZQCrIE3dmUgyMedmp/nw==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1217860113344417974, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146123166801305609, articleId=1217789894190092350, language=EN, label=Fig.4, caption=Comparison of pressure calculation results and experimental data, figureFileSmall=wetujqzqic1CsLtCWtBHMg==, figureFileBig=wBvBuuJiBz/Z0vD/zkUpqA==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1217860113453469899, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146123166801305609, articleId=1217789894190092350, language=CN, label=图4, caption=压力计算结果与实验对比

x0为与水翼头部的水平距离

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x为与收缩段起始位置的轴向距离;Pwall为壁面压力

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Paxis为管道轴线处的压力

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Simulation conditions at different cavitation numbers

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
模拟工况 v1/(m·s-1) P2/MPa σ
1 60 0.17 0.5
2 0.23 1
3 0.30 1.5
4 0.36 2
5 0.42 2.5
6 0.48 3
7 0.55 3.5
8 0.61 4
), ArticleFig(id=1217860118599881314, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146123166801305609, articleId=1217789894190092350, language=CN, label=表1, caption=

不同空化数下的模拟工况设置

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
模拟工况 v1/(m·s-1) P2/MPa σ
1 60 0.17 0.5
2 0.23 1
3 0.30 1.5
4 0.36 2
5 0.42 2.5
6 0.48 3
7 0.55 3.5
8 0.61 4
), ArticleFig(id=1217860118708933230, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146123166801305609, articleId=1217789894190092350, language=EN, label=Table 2, caption=

Physical parameters of liquid hydrogen and water

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
物质 温度/K 定压比热容/
(J·kg-1·K-1)
液体密度/
(kg·m-3)
饱和蒸汽压/
Pa
298 4 200 997 12 341
液氢 20 9 816 71 101 325
), ArticleFig(id=1217860118838956670, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146123166801305609, articleId=1217789894190092350, language=CN, label=表2, caption=

液氢与水的物性参数

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
物质 温度/K 定压比热容/
(J·kg-1·K-1)
液体密度/
(kg·m-3)
饱和蒸汽压/
Pa
298 4 200 997 12 341
液氢 20 9 816 71 101 325
), ArticleFig(id=1217860118981563027, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146123166801305609, articleId=1217789894190092350, language=EN, label=Table 3, caption=

Simulation conditions at different outlet/inlet pressure ratios

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
入口压力P1/MPa 出口压力P2/MPa 进出口压比P2/P1
2.07 0.62 0.3
0.83 0.4
1.04 0.5
1.24 0.6
1.45 0.7
1.65 0.8
), ArticleFig(id=1217860119111586462, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146123166801305609, articleId=1217789894190092350, language=CN, label=表3, caption=

不同压力比下的模拟工况设置

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
入口压力P1/MPa 出口压力P2/MPa 进出口压比P2/P1
2.07 0.62 0.3
0.83 0.4
1.04 0.5
1.24 0.6
1.45 0.7
1.65 0.8
), ArticleFig(id=1217860120063693483, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146123166801305609, articleId=1217789894190092350, language=EN, label=Table 4, caption=

Simulated conditions at different length/diameter ratios with varying L0

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L0/mm R0/mm L0/R0
3.175 3.175 1
6.350 2
12.700 4
19.050 6
25.400 8
31.750 10
47.625 15
63.500 20
), ArticleFig(id=1217860120239854260, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146123166801305609, articleId=1217789894190092350, language=CN, label=表4, caption=

不同长径比(变L0)下的模拟工况设置

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
L0/mm R0/mm L0/R0
3.175 3.175 1
6.350 2
12.700 4
19.050 6
25.400 8
31.750 10
47.625 15
63.500 20
), ArticleFig(id=1217860120407626430, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146123166801305609, articleId=1217789894190092350, language=EN, label=Table 5, caption=

Simulated conditions at different length/diameter ratios with varying R0

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
L0/mm R0/mm L0/R0
12.7 6.350 0 2
3.175 0 4
2.116 7 6
1.587 5 8
), ArticleFig(id=1217860120587981519, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146123166801305609, articleId=1217789894190092350, language=CN, label=表5, caption=

不同长径比(变R0)下的模拟工况设置

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
L0/mm R0/mm L0/R0
12.7 6.350 0 2
3.175 0 4
2.116 7 6
1.587 5 8
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氢燃料飞机液氢输运管路空化特性仿真
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崔艳雨 , 陈韬 , 陈媛媛 *
科学技术与工程 | 论文·航空、航天 2025,25(21): 9173-9183
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科学技术与工程 | 论文·航空、航天 2025, 25(21): 9173-9183
氢燃料飞机液氢输运管路空化特性仿真
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崔艳雨 , 陈韬, 陈媛媛*
作者信息
  • 中国民航大学航空工程学院, 天津 300300
  • 崔艳雨(1973—),男,汉族,辽宁锦州人,博士,教授。研究方向:民航新能源应用安全及可靠性。E-mail:

通讯作者:

* 陈媛媛(1989—),女,汉族,安徽桐城人,博士,讲师。研究方向:民航新能源安全应用。E-mail:
Simulation on the Cavitation Characteristics in Liquid Hydrogen Transportation Pipe for Hydrogen-powered Aircraft
Yan-yu CUI , Tao CHEN, Yuan-yuan CHEN*
Affiliations
  • College of Aeronautical Engineering, Civil Aviation University of China, Tianjin 300300, China
出版时间: 2025-07-28 doi: 10.12404/j.issn.1671-1815.2405944
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发展氢燃料航空器是民航业实现碳中和的最主要途径之一。相较于高压气氢,低温液氢将成为未来氢动力民航商用客机的主要燃料。液氢在输运过程中一旦发生空化将导致发动机燃料供应不稳定甚至供应中断,严重时可能会对飞行安全造成灾难性影响。采用数值模拟的方法,基于均质混合流模型,采用RANS(Navier-Stokes)法和Zwart空化模型,深入研究了液氢在飞机输运管路中的空化流动特性及发展规律,并与常温水进行了部分对比。结果表明: 空化数、进出口压比和长径比对空化的发生与发展均有重要影响。液氢的凝结过程要比蒸发过程慢得多,空化数对蒸发过程几乎无影响,主要影响最大凝结速率;液氢空化消失的临界压比低于水的临界压比,同一压比下,水比液氢更容易发生空化,且空化区尾部空泡更多,空化区更厚;减小长径比可抑制液氢空化的发生和发展,相较于减小管道长度,建议增大收缩段的管径以获得更高的出口流量。

氢燃料飞机  /  液氢输运  /  空化  /  数值模拟

The development of hydrogen-powered aircraft is a key strategy for the aviation industry to achieve carbon neutrality. Compared to high-pressure gaseous hydrogen, cryogenic liquid hydrogen will be the main fuel for future hydrogen-powered commercial aviation. However, the occurrence of cavitation in liquid hydrogen during transport has the potential to result in an unstable or even interrupted fuel supply to the engine, which could ultimately lead to catastrophic risks to flight safety. Using numerical simulation method, based on homogeneous mixed flow model, Navier-Stokes (RANS) method and Zwart cavitation model, the cavitation flow characteristics and development law of liquid hydrogen in aircraft transport pipelines were deeply studied, and partially compared with normal temperature water. The results show that the cavitation number, the outlet/inlet pressure ratio, and the length/diameter ratio have a significant influence on the occurrence and development of cavitation. The condensation process of liquid hydrogen is considerably slower than the evaporation process. The effect of the cavitation number on the evaporation process is minimal, but it has a significant effect on the maximum condensation rate. The critical pressure ratio for the disappearance of cavitation in liquid hydrogen is lower than in water. At the same pressure ratio, water cavitates more easily than liquid hydrogen, with a greater number of cavitation bubbles and a thicker cavitation region. Reducing the length/diameter ratio can inhibit the occurrence and development of cavitation in liquid hydrogen. It is recommended that the diameter of the contraction section be increased to achieve a higher outlet flow, rather than shortening the length of the pipeline.

hydrogen-powered aircraft  /  liquid hydrogen transportation  /  cavitation  /  numerical simulation
崔艳雨, 陈韬, 陈媛媛. 氢燃料飞机液氢输运管路空化特性仿真. 科学技术与工程, 2025 , 25 (21) : 9173 -9183 . DOI: 10.12404/j.issn.1671-1815.2405944
Yan-yu CUI, Tao CHEN, Yuan-yuan CHEN. Simulation on the Cavitation Characteristics in Liquid Hydrogen Transportation Pipe for Hydrogen-powered Aircraft[J]. Science Technology and Engineering, 2025 , 25 (21) : 9173 -9183 . DOI: 10.12404/j.issn.1671-1815.2405944
当前,实现“碳中和”目标已成为全球共识[1]。民航业是全球温室气体排放的重要领域之一,占全球碳排放总量的2%~3%[2],而航空燃油燃烧产生的二氧化碳约占民航碳排放的95%以上[3],开发包括太阳能、生物燃料和氢燃料等化石燃料以外的替代能源,成为民航业实现碳减排目标的重要手段。氢燃料的能量密度是标准航空燃料的3倍[4],可满足民用航空器对燃料能量密度的强烈需求,使用氢燃料可完全消除二氧化碳以及其他温室气体的排放,具有非常明显的优势。因此,发展氢燃料航空器是民航业实现碳中和的最主要途径之一[5]。自2012年起,德国、新加坡、美国、法国等纷纷加入氢动力飞机研发计划[6]。2020年9月,空客公司首次发布了号称“航空业有史以来最重要转型”的未来氢动力零排放商用客机概念方案“ZEROe”,计划于2035年投入运营[7]。中国近几年也正在加快氢动力民用航空器研制的步伐。
氢燃料有高压气氢和低温液氢两种形式,若使用高压气氢,将对飞机的质量和体积提出巨大挑战。相比之下,低温液氢具有极高的能量密度,将成为未来氢动力民航商用客机的主要燃料[8]。液氢的安全输运对于民用氢燃料航空器安全至关重要,然而国内外关于民用氢燃料航空器中液氢安全输运技术鲜有报道。目前,液氢仅被广泛用于液体火箭推进系统。然而,在火箭诱导轮叶片周围、文丘里管喉部、弯管内侧、贮箱出口流道等关键部件处极易产生负压区,导致液氢发生空化。历史上曾发生过多起与液氢空化相关的火箭发射失败事故,如美国267 kN推力的Astral火箭发射失败[9]、欧洲阿里安5火神火箭发动机失效[10]、日本H-2火箭发射失败[11]等。2020年3月16日,中国长七A运载火箭首飞失利[12],原因即是助推器出流口发生了空化现象,导致泵入口压力降低,不满足发动机工作的下限要求,最终造成火箭发射168 s后坠毁。对于贮箱及下游输运管路,由于贮箱出口流道快速收缩,易出现局部低压区,当压力低于饱和蒸气压时,出流口及下游区域会发生空化形成气液两相流动[13]。两相区域不断扩展,使发动机泵入口状态突变,将会导致发动机燃料供应不稳定甚至供应中断等故障,严重时将发生机毁人亡、无法挽回的灾难性后果。
空化研究最早追溯到1897年,英国Barnaby等[14]将螺旋桨叶片中出现的水动力学击穿现象定义为空化(cavitation)。1924年,Thomas[15]提出了使用空化数来描述空化现象,空化由定性分析变成了定量描述。1961年,Sarosdy等[16]最早发现了低温流体与常温水空化的区别,对氟利昂和水进行了可视化试验,对比发现空化区存在明显不同。1968年,Hord等[17]对文丘里管中液氢和液氮的空化特性进行了试验研究,测量了空泡内压力和温度。1972—1973年,Hord等[18-19]在NASA的支持下,针对文丘里管、水翼和尖顶拱体,开展了较为全面的液氮和液氢空化试验,试验结果至今仍是低温流体空化数值模拟的检验标准。
近年来, Li等[20]结合局部流动特性、监督学习和遗传算法改进了空化模型,并通过监督学习和遗传算法确定了蒸发/冷凝系数与质量流量之间的关系。Shyy等[21]在利用Merkle空化模型对液氮和液氢进行研究时,基于全局敏感性分析,评估了Merkle模型用于低温流体时的模型参数影响规律,并对这两种不同流体的空化模型参数进行了校准。Rodio等[22]通过考虑对流换热系数进行了模型的参数化研究,与实验数据对比发现,合适的对流换热系数对于正确预测空化区温降具有重要作用。杨新霞等[23]对大涡模拟(large eddy simulation,LES)和RANS(Navier-Stokes)模型进行了对比分析,认为LES模型对风琴管喷嘴结构优化、打击力度与目标靶距的预测更准确。在中国航天领域,陈士强等[24]提出了针对运载火箭低温液氧输送系统的初生空化数计算方法,采用数值仿真和地面全尺寸出流试验相结合的方法,系统研究了低温输送系统空化特性及发展规律。项乐等[25]基于诱导轮,通过改变流量、水温等条件进行可视化实验研究,记录了不同阶段的空化区形态,引入了一种半经验理论模型预测热效应对空化性能的影响。丁蕾等[26]针对低温液体输送系统开展仿真分析,对比了两种空化裕度准则,提出基于气蚀流量的出流口限流准则实用性更好,更便捷、有效。
综上所述,前人围绕水翼、尖顶拱体、文丘里管和诱导轮等经典几何模型的低温空化特性已开展了大量的研究工作,取得了丰硕的研究成果。但是目前针对未来氢能客机输运管路的液氢空化研究鲜有报道。飞机使用液氢作为燃料后,由于液氢的饱和蒸气压远高于航空煤油,相同工况下可能更易发生空化,严重威胁飞行安全。因此,现基于ANSYS Fluent平台开展氢燃料飞机液氢输运管路空化特性仿真研究,分析不同工况条件下空化的发生和发展特性,以期为未来氢能飞机空化抑制措施的制定、保障氢燃料供应系统的安全运行奠定理论基础。
假设空化过程中温度保持不变,采用均质混合流模型[27]对空化流动过程进行描述,表达式为
$ \frac{\partial \rho_{\mathrm{m}}}{\partial t}+\frac{\partial}{\partial x_{j}}\left(\rho_{\mathrm{m}} u_{j}\right)=0$
$ \begin{array}{c} \frac{\partial\left(\rho_{\mathrm{m}} u_{i}\right)}{\partial t}+\frac{\partial\left(\rho_{\mathrm{m}} u_{i} u_{j}\right)}{\partial x_{j}}=-\frac{\partial p}{\partial x_{i}}+\frac{\partial}{\partial x_{j}}\left[\left(\mu_{\mathrm{m}}+\right.\right. \\ \left.\left.\mu_{\mathrm{tur}}\right)\left(\frac{\partial u_{i}}{\partial x_{j}}+\frac{\partial u_{j}}{\partial x_{i}}-\frac{2}{3} \frac{\partial u_{k}}{\partial x_{k}} \delta_{i j}\right)\right] \end{array}$
$ \frac{\partial\left(\alpha_{v} \rho_{v}\right)}{\partial t}+\frac{\partial\left(\alpha_{v} \rho_{v} u_{j}\right)}{\partial x_{j}}=\dot{m}$
$ \dot{m}=\dot{m}^{+}+\dot{m}^{-}$
$ \rho_{\mathrm{m}}=\alpha_{\mathrm{v}} \rho_{\mathrm{v}}+\left(1-\alpha_{\mathrm{v}}\right) \rho_{\mathrm{l}}$
$ \mu_{\mathrm{m}}=\alpha_{\mathrm{v}} \mu_{\mathrm{v}}+\left(1-\alpha_{\mathrm{v}}\right) \mu_{\mathrm{l}}$
式中:ρupα分别为密度、速度、压力和气体体积分数;下标l、v、m分别为液相、气相和混合相;下标ijk分别为笛卡尔坐标系中的xyz方向; m · +为蒸发过程中单位体积的混合物由液相转为蒸气相的液体质量; m · -为反向凝结过程的传质量;μmμtur分别为混合物黏度和湍流黏度;δij为Kronecker符号。
RANS方法采用时间平均的方法,将流动分解为时间平均流动和瞬时脉动流动,并分别求解。这一处理方法避免了直接求解Navier-Stokes方程,可在保证计算精度的同时节省大量计算资源,并在实际应用中取得了很好的效果。因此采用RANS方法进行求解。
目前应用广泛的RANS模型是k-ε两方程湍流模型,该模型对湍流流动预测更加精准,求解稳定性更好,所以选取基于Boussinesq假设的k-ε两方程湍流模型对液氢空化的湍流流动现象进行数值仿真分析。
采用Zwart模型对空化传质过程进行求解。Zwart空化模型是基于Rayleigh-Pleasset空泡动力学方程发展而来的,考虑非凝结性气体的影响,不考虑空化过程中的温度变化且忽略表面张力项及黏性项的影响,其输运源项表达式如下。
$ \begin{aligned} \dot{m}^{+}= & C_{\mathrm{vap}} \frac{3 \alpha_{\mathrm{nuc}} \rho_{\mathrm{v}}\left(1-\alpha_{\mathrm{v}}\right)}{R_{\mathrm{B}}} \sqrt{\frac{2}{3} \frac{p_{\mathrm{v}}\left(T_{\infty}\right)-p}{\rho_{\mathrm{l}}}}, \\ & p \leqslant p_{\mathrm{v}}\left(T_{\infty}\right) \end{aligned}$
$ \begin{array}{c} \dot{m}^{-}=C_{\text {cond }} \frac{3 \alpha_{\mathrm{v}} \rho_{\mathrm{v}}}{R_{B}} \sqrt{\frac{2}{3} \frac{p-p_{\mathrm{v}}\left(T_{\infty}\right)}{\rho_{\mathrm{l}}}}, \\ p>p_{\mathrm{v}}\left(T_{\infty}\right) \end{array}$
式中:CvapCcond分别为蒸发系数和冷凝系数;αnuc为非凝结气体体积分数;RB为气泡平均半径;pv(T)为流体的饱和蒸汽压。
建立的几何模型如图1所示,由于管道上下表面对称,为节省计算资源,沿管道轴线取一半作为计算域。上游管道长L1=20 mm,收缩段长L0=12.7 mm,下游管道长L2=37.15 mm,总长L=69.85 mm,收缩段管道半径R0=3.175 mm,上下游段管道半径R0=14.25 mm[28]。采用ICEM软件对几何模型进行四边形结构化网格划分,并对收缩段壁面处网格进行局部加密处理,使其满足Fluent壁面函数的使用条件,确保更精确地捕捉边界层附近流场的流动情况。
将流场入口设置为压力或速度入口,出口设置为压力出口,对壁面进行静止无滑移处理。使用耦合求解器求解控制方程。动量、湍动能和湍流耗散率采用一阶迎风格式进行离散,选取连续方程、x方向速度、y方向速度、湍流动能和湍流耗散率作为收敛判据。当残差低于1×10-5时,认为计算已收敛。
为了提高计算精度,保证正交性和网格质量,提高网格数量和加厚第一层边界层厚度(如图1所示)成为提高数值模拟精度的主要手段。采用后者对网格独立性进行验证[20]。选取6种不同的第一层边界层厚度:0.005、0.01、0.015、0.02、0.025和0.03 mm,采用出口质量流量作为验证标准,结果如图2所示。随着第一边界层厚度的减小,质量流量逐渐减小。当第一边界层厚度降至0.01 mm时,误差率最小,为0.092%。另外,边界层计算采用标准壁面函数,要求无因次壁面距离y+在0~50范围内。以0.01 mm作为第一边界层计算得到的最大y+满足要求。综合考虑质量流量和y+,选择0.01 mm作为第一边界层厚度,网格层数由相邻网格单元增长率决定,设置增长率为1.1。
为了验证数值模型的适用性,将模拟结果与Hord的水翼实验数据进行对比[18]。建立了水翼二维轴对称模型,并选择水翼的上半部分作为计算域,边界条件设置为速度入口和压力出口,水翼表面设置为壁面。网格划分采用四边形结构化网格,并对水翼表面进行网格加密,具体几何参数和网格划分如图3所示。图 4 给出了水翼表面的压力计算结果和实验数据的对比。可以看出,数值模型的计算结果与实验数据吻合较好。因此,可以采用所提的数值模型来研究液氢的空化特性。
通常用空化数来表征流体空化的难易程度,空化数按照式(9)进行计算。
$ \sigma=\frac{P_{2}-P_{v}\left(T_{\infty}\right)}{\frac{1}{2} \rho_{1} v_{1}^{2}}$
式(9)中:σ为空化数;v1为入口速度, m/s;P2为出口压力, Pa。通过固定入口速度、改变出口压力以研究不同空化数下液氢的空化特性。模拟工况设置如表1所示,不同空化数下液氢空化过程中气体体积分数的变化如图5所示。可以看出,随着空化数的增大,空化区域越来越小,即增大空化数,空化受到抑制。
图6图7分别给出了不同空化数下收缩段壁面压力和空化区液氢传质速率的变化情况。图7中,a-b-c为液氢蒸发区域,c-d-e为液氢凝结区域。对比图6图7可以看出,当液氢流入收缩段后,由于壁面处压力迅速降为饱和蒸气压,导致液氢快速蒸发,传质速率迅速增大,在x/L0=0.007 87位置处蒸发速率达到最大,随后开始逐渐降低。在x/L0=0~0.62段内,由于壁面压力始终为液氢的饱和蒸气压,蒸发过程一直持续。从x/L0=0.62处开始,壁面压力开始缓慢上升,高于液氢的饱和蒸气压,空泡区开始凝结,传质速率开始降为负值。在x/L0=0.62~0.96区域内,由于压力梯度变化较小,所以凝结速率也变化不大。而从x/L0=0.96开始,壁面压力迅速增大,且相较于x/L0=0.992~1.0段,x/L0=0.96~0.992段的压力变化梯度更大,所以凝结速率表现出先急剧增大随后快速减小的趋势,最大凝结速率发生在压力梯度转折的x/L0=0.992位置处,如图7所示。整体来看,相对于蒸发速率的绝对值,凝结速率的绝对值要小得多,说明凝结过程要比蒸发过程慢得多。此外,还可以看出,空化数对蒸发过程几乎无影响,而凝结过程受空化数影响较大。图8给出了最大凝结速率随空化数的变化规律。可以看出,随着空化数的增大,最大凝结速率也逐渐增大。由1.3节中的空化模型可知,传质速率大小主要由压差决定,而根据图7,最大凝结速率对应的壁面压力随空化数的增大逐渐增大,因此,压差逐渐增大,进而最大凝结速率也逐渐增大,凝结过程更加剧烈。
为了探究低温液氢和常温流体(水)在不同空化数下的质量传输特性,定义无量纲传质率[29] m · c
$ \dot{m}_{\mathrm{c}}=\frac{\dot{m} L_{\mathrm{c}}}{v_{1} \rho_{1}}$
式(10)中: m · c为模型源项,蒸发取正值,凝结取负值;Lc为特征长度,取收缩段半径,即Lc=R0
图9对比了收缩段内液氢和水的无量纲质量传输率分布。a-b-c-d为液氢蒸发区,d-e-f为液氢凝结区,g-h-i-j为水的蒸发区,j-k-l为水的凝结区。液氢和水的无量纲传质率整体变化趋势相似,都是先快速蒸发,随后蒸发速率逐渐降低,在空泡下游开始凝结,且在靠近出口处,凝结速率先快速增大后迅速减小。对比液氢和水的空化过程,蒸发都始于收缩段开始位置,并在相同位置处达到最大蒸发速率,随后无量纲传质率逐渐降低,但液氢的无量纲传质率降低速度比水快得多,导致两者空化的凝结起始位置不同,液氢在x/L0=0.61处开始凝结,而水则在x/L0=0.95处才开始凝结,液氢的凝结起始位置更靠前。此外,液氢蒸发速率和凝结速率比水大得多,这是由于两者物性差异导致的,由表2可知,液氢的液汽密度比值为57,而水的液汽密度比为43 272,所以为保证同样的空化强度,液氢需要更多的质量转换。
空化受输运系统进出口压比(P2/P1,P2为出口压力,P1为进口压力)影响较大,因此,对不同压比下的液氢空化特性进行模拟计算,并进一步与常温水进行对比,探究两者异同。模拟工况设置如表3所示,图10给出了不同压比下液氢和水空化区域的气体体积分数变化情况。可以看出,随着压比的增大,水和液氢的空化均受到抑制,这是由于随着出口压力增大,流场中背压增大,低于饱和蒸汽压的区域缩小,更难达到空化条件,因此,空化区域减小。当压比增大到一定值时,空化不再发生。由于液氢的饱和蒸汽压远远高于水的饱和蒸汽压(表2),因此,液氢不再发生空化的临界压比(0.6)低于水的临界压比(0.8)。而当压比一定时,对比水和液氢的空化区长度,可以看出,水比液氢更容易发生空化,且空化区尾部空泡更多,空化区更厚。
图11是水和液氢两种介质不同压比下管道轴线处的压力变化图。两者变化规律大致相同,即轴线处压力均呈现先减小再增大最后平稳的变化趋势。不同的是,对于水,水流进入收缩段后,轴线压力从同一位置x/L=0.23由入口压力2.07 MPa开始降低,且降低过程保持相同的变化梯度,不受压比影响,但最小轴线压力随压比的增大略有增加,且所在位置略向左移向收缩段入口靠近。随后轴线压力开始回升,当水流进入扩张段后,轴线压力基本保持不变;对于液氢,虽然轴线压力也从同一位置(x/L=0.23)开始降低,但降低过程受压比影响较大。压比较小时(0.3~0.5),表现出和水类似的变化规律,即轴线压力以相同的压力梯度降低,压力曲线重合,跟压比无关,但最小轴线压力随压比的增大略有升高,且所在位置略向左移;压比较大时(0.6~0.8),轴线压力开始降低后曲线不再重合,随着压比的增加,压力变化梯度逐渐减小,因此,压力降低幅度也逐渐减小,最小轴线压力快速跃升,显著高于低压比下的最小轴线压力,但其所在位置左移趋势不明显,几乎处于同一位置处。分析原因,模拟工况下,水始终发生空化,而液氢仅在低压比(0.3~0.5)下发生空化,当压比增大到0.6时,液氢空化消失(如图10所示),收缩段内是满管单相流动,因此轴线压力表现出和空化两相流区不同的变化规律。
一旦飞机输运管路发生空化,将严重影响发动机燃料供给,因此,进一步分析了压比对输运管路出口质量流量的影响,模拟结果如图12所示。可知,随着压比的增大,出口流量将逐渐减小。因此,实际工程应用中,应合理控制液氢输运系统的压比大小范围以确保发动机正常的燃料供给。
管路的几何结构对空化的发生、发展也有较大影响。为了探究管路几何尺寸对液氢空化的影响,模拟了8种不同管路长径比下液氢的空化特性,模拟工况如表4所示。
图13给出了不同长径比下液氢的空化云图。
可以看出,当长径比为1时,收缩段内未发生空化, 长径比大于1时均会发生空化,且随着长径比的增加,空化区长度逐渐增大,说明增加长径比会加剧空化的发展,原因是收缩段长度延长会导致速度无法降低,压力一直低于饱和蒸汽压以下,增加了空化发展的时间,延长了空化区。
为了进一步观察空泡厚度的变化规律,取4个不同位置(收缩段入口位置x/L0=0、近空泡起始位置x/L0=1/4、空泡中间位置x/L0=1/2、近空泡闭合位置x/L0=3/4)处的径向气体体积分数分布,如图14所示。4个位置处的径向气体体积分数变化趋势基本类似:沿径向,刚开始气体体积分数均为0(纯液相),越靠近壁面,气体体积分数越大,壁面处气体体积分数达到最大。不同位置处,径向气体体积分数开始增大的临界值分别为0.82[图14(a)]、0.61[图14(b)]、0.55[图14(c)]和0.50[图14(d)]。由此可以看出,沿着空化发展方向,空泡越来越厚,且前1/4处的空泡厚度梯度大于下游的厚度梯度,图13中的空化云图也显示了相同的变化趋势。
壁面最大气体体积分数方面,在收缩段入口处[图14(a)],由3.1节分析可知,由于空化刚开始发生,蒸发速率较低,因此,相较于下游其他3个位置[图14(b~图14d)],入口处壁面的最大气体体积分数最低(0.25~0.36)。越往下游,由于蒸发速度逐渐降低并开始凝结,壁面处的最大气体体积分数逐渐降低:x/L0=1/4处,壁面最大气体体积分数在0.76~0.84;x/L0=1/2处,壁面最大气体体积分数在0.66~0.81;x/L0=3/4处,壁面最大气体体积分数在0.57~0.74。此外,长径比对壁面最大气体体积分数影响较大。小长径比下(L0/R0=2),气泡在x/L0=1/4位置处就已经接近闭合,壁面处气泡较为分散。大长径比下,壁面处最大气体体积分数随长径比的增大而逐渐减小,如图14(b)~图14(d)所示。
图15给出了不同长径比下收缩段管道壁面处最大蒸发速率位置、最大凝结速率位置、最大气体体积分数位置以及蒸发凝结转折点位置的分布。可以看出,长径比对最大蒸发速率位置和最大气体体积分数位置的分布几乎无影响,两者基本重合,均为紧邻收缩段入口位置。不同长径比下最大凝结速率位置的变化趋势则不同,随着长径比的增加,最大凝结速率位置逐渐向下游发展,表明空泡闭合位置逐渐右移,空泡区越长;而蒸发凝结转折位置先逐渐向下游移动,当长径比达到一定值时,蒸发冷凝转折位置不再随长径比的增大而改变,均处于x=15 mm附近。由图14可知,当长径比大于等于6时,收缩段内空化充分发展,占据管壁附近相当大区域,非空化区均位于收缩段尾部,由1.3节Zwart空化模型可知,充分发展下的空化区凝结开始位置只受到压力变化影响,而延长L0仅会延长高速区,并不能改变最大速度和低于饱和蒸汽压的位置,所以蒸发冷凝转折点均会发生在收缩段一定位置。
空化不仅受到收缩段管道长度的影响,半径也会影响空化发展趋势。因此,进一步地,固定L0=12.7 mm不变,改变R0的取值,对长径比为2、4、6、8共4种工况进行仿真模拟(如表5所示),结果如图16所示。由图可知,控制收缩段长度L0不变,随着长径比的增加,空化区长度越来越长,厚度越来越薄,最大气体体积分数逐渐减小,说明减小收缩段半径会加剧空化的发展,但是抑制了空泡的生长。
通过上述分析可知,无论减小L0还是增大R0,长径比均减小,均可抑制空化的发生和发展。为了进一步分析两种降低长径比的措施对飞机输运管路运行的影响,以管路出口流量作为评价指标,探讨不同长径比下出口质量流量的变化趋势,结果如图17所示。
可以看出,低长径比下,相较于减小L0,更建议增大收缩段的管径R0以获得更高的出口流量。
基于ANSYS Fluent平台对氢燃料航空器液氢输运管路中的空化特性进行了模拟仿真,分析了不同空化数、不同压比和不同长径比下的液氢空化发生和发展规律,得到了如下主要结论。
(1)随着空化数的增大,空化区域越来越小,空化受到抑制。空化数对蒸发过程几乎无影响,最大蒸发速率变化不大,主要影响凝结过程,最大凝结速率随着空化数的增大逐渐增大。通过对比液氢与水空化过程中的无量纲传质率,发现液氢与水的空化传质过程大致相同,但是液氢的凝结位置比水更靠前,且液氢蒸发速率和凝结速率比水大得多。
(2)压比一定时,水比液氢更容易发生空化,且空化区尾部空泡更多,空化区更厚。不同压比下,水和液氢管道轴线处的压力变化规律大致相同,均呈现先减小后增大最后平稳的变化趋势,但是水的压力降低过程不受压比影响,保持相同的变化梯度;液氢受压比影响较大,低压比下,压力降低曲线重合,高压比下,随着压比的增加,压力降低梯度逐渐减小,最小轴线压力快速跃升,显著高于低压比下的最小轴线压力。
(3)长径比对最大蒸发速率位置和最大气体体积分数位置的分布几乎无影响,均为紧邻收缩段入口位置,而最大凝结速率位置随长径比增加逐渐向下游发展。减小长径比可抑制空化的发生和发展,低长径比下,相较于减小L0,增大R0能获得更高的出口流量。
  • 天津市自然科学基金多元投入基金(21JCQNJC00750)
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2025年第25卷第21期
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doi: 10.12404/j.issn.1671-1815.2405944
  • 接收时间:2024-08-07
  • 首发时间:2026-01-13
  • 出版时间:2025-07-28
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  • 收稿日期:2024-08-07
  • 修回日期:2025-04-15
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天津市自然科学基金多元投入基金(21JCQNJC00750)
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    中国民航大学航空工程学院, 天津 300300

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* 陈媛媛(1989—),女,汉族,安徽桐城人,博士,讲师。研究方向:民航新能源安全应用。E-mail:
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2种不同金属材料的力学参数

Family
属数
Number of
genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of
total species (%)

Genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of total
species (%)
鹅膏菌科Amanitaceae 2 11 5.26 鹅膏菌属 Amanita 10 4.78
小菇科 Mycenaceae 2 12 5.74 丝盖伞属 Inocybe 5 2.39
多孔菌科 Polyporaceae 8 14 6.70 蜡蘑属 Laccaria 5 2.39
红菇科 Russulaceae 3 23 11.00 小皮伞属 Marasmius 6 2.87
小菇属 Mycena 11 5.26
光柄菇属 Pluteus 5 2.39
红菇属 Russula 17 8.13
栓菌属 Trametes 5 2.39
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