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In order to comprehensively analyze and evaluate the monitoring capabilities of the integrated multi-satellite retrievals for global precipitation measurement (GPM) final run (IMERG-F) satellite retrieval product for daily and sub-daily scale precipitation, as well as various intensity rainfalls, under complex mountainous conditions in southwest China, ground-based dense rain gauge data was used to investigate these aspects. The results show that within the daily and sub-daily scales, the critical success index (CSI) of IMERG for short-term accumulated precipitation primarily ranges from 0.2 to 0.6, with the correlation coefficient fluctuating between 0.25 and 0.5. The daily scale precipitation detection accuracy is the highest, with better performance in summer months compared to winter. For different intensity rainfall events, IMERG exhibits a high probability of detection (POD) for light rainfall, while the false alarm rate (FAR) is relatively low. However, there is an underestimation phenomenon for moderate to heavy rainfall. The elevation difference significantly impacts the stability of IMERG products, but there is no direct linear relationship with the elevation itself. Compared to areas with significant topographic variations, IMERG-F demonstrates higher reliability in detecting weak rainfall events in areas with less topographic variation. It is concluded that the application of IMERG products in southwest China should consider the limitations imposed by seasonal and topographic characteristics.

, correspAuthors=Ai-jun CHEN, authorNote=null, correspAuthorsNote=null, copyrightStatement=null, copyrightOwner=null, extLink=null, articleAbsUrl=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, pdfUrl=null, pdf=null, pdfFileSize=null, pdfExtLink=null, richHtmlUrl=null, mobilePdfUrl=null, reviewReport=null, pdfFirstPage=null, abstractGraph=null, abstractGraphContent=null, abstractVideo=null, citation=null, cebUrl=null, magXmlContent=null, mapNumber=null, authorCompany=null, fund=null, authors=null, authorsList=Ai-jun CHEN, Zi-chun TAO), CN=ArticleExt(id=1149768581824557401, articleId=1149768566787978198, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146123166801305609, language=CN, title=多样性地形条件下IMERG精度综合评估, columnId=1156262730077163858, journalTitle=科学技术与工程, columnName=论文·天文学、地球科学, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

以地面加密雨量计数据为基准,全面分析和评估全球降水测量(global precipitation measurement, GPM)卫星反演产品IMERG-F(integrated multi-satellite retrievals for GPM-final run)对中国西南地区复杂山地条件下的日及亚日尺度降水,以及多种雨强降水的监测能力。结果表明:在日及亚日尺度内,IMERG对于短时间内累计降水的临界成功率(critical success index, CSI)主要分布在0.2~0.6,相关系数则在0.25~0.5范围内波动,其中以日尺度降水探测精度最高,夏季月份表现优于冬季。对于不同强度降雨事件,IMERG在小雨量的探测上具有较高的命中率(probability of detection, POD),而虚警率(false alarm rate, FAR)相对较低。然而,在中到大雨量级时存在低估现象。海拔落差对IMERG产品的稳定性影响显著,但与海拔高度本身没有直接线性关系。相对于地形起伏较大的地区,IMERG-F在地形起伏较小地区探测弱降雨事件中的可靠性更高。IMERG产品用于中国西南地区时应考虑其季节性和地形特征的限制。

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陈爱军(1972—),男,汉族,湖北荆门人,博士,副教授。研究方向:气象卫星资料处理与应用。E-mail:

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陈爱军(1972—),男,汉族,湖北荆门人,博士,副教授。研究方向:气象卫星资料处理与应用。E-mail:

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陈爱军(1972—),男,汉族,湖北荆门人,博士,副教授。研究方向:气象卫星资料处理与应用。E-mail:

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articleId=1149768566787978198, language=CN, orderNo=3, keyword=精度评估), Keyword(id=1177981037981348370, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146123166801305609, articleId=1149768566787978198, language=CN, orderNo=4, keyword=中国西南山地)], refs=[Reference(id=1177981040376296012, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146123166801305609, articleId=1149768566787978198, doi=null, pmid=null, pmcid=null, year=2019, volume=45, issue=6, pageStart=811, pageEnd=819, url=null, language=null, rfNumber=[1], rfOrder=0, authorNames=周秋雪, 康岚, 蒋兴文, journalName=气象, refType=null, unstructuredReference=周秋雪, 康岚, 蒋兴文, 等. 四川盆地边缘山地强降水与海拔的关系[J]. 气象, 2019, 45(6): 811-819., articleTitle=四川盆地边缘山地强降水与海拔的关系, refAbstract=null), Reference(id=1177981040447599182, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146123166801305609, articleId=1149768566787978198, doi=null, pmid=null, pmcid=null, year=2019, volume=45, issue=6, pageStart=811, pageEnd=819, url=null, language=null, rfNumber=[1], rfOrder=1, authorNames=Zhou Qiuxue, 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WaterResources and Power, 2023, 41(1): 10-13., articleTitle=Application of IMERG precipitation satellite in error evaluation of precipitation forecast in the Sancha River Basin, Guizhou Province, refAbstract=null), Reference(id=1177981043312308887, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146123166801305609, articleId=1149768566787978198, doi=null, pmid=null, pmcid=null, year=2018, volume=null, issue=null, pageStart=null, pageEnd=null, url=null, language=null, rfNumber=[30], rfOrder=39, authorNames=Huffman G J, Bolvin D T, Nelkin E J, journalName=Washington, refType=null, unstructuredReference=Huffman G J, Bolvin D T, Nelkin E J. Intergrated multi-satellite retrievals for GPM (IMERG)[R]. Washington: NASA, 2018., articleTitle=Intergrated multi-satellite retrievals for GPM (IMERG), refAbstract=null), Reference(id=1177981043417166489, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146123166801305609, articleId=1149768566787978198, doi=null, pmid=null, pmcid=null, year=2019, volume=36, issue=12, pageStart=2471, pageEnd=2482, url=null, language=null, rfNumber=[31], rfOrder=40, authorNames=Tan J, Huffman G J, Bolvin D T, journalName=Journal of Atmospheric and Oceanic Technology, refType=null, unstructuredReference=Tan J, Huffman G J, Bolvin D T, et al. IMERG V06: changes to the morphing algorithm[J]. Journal of Atmospheric and Oceanic Technology, 2019, 36(12): 2471-2482., articleTitle=IMERG V06: changes to the morphing algorithm, refAbstract=null), Reference(id=1177981043526218395, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146123166801305609, articleId=1149768566787978198, doi=null, pmid=null, pmcid=null, year=2021, volume=41, issue=5, pageStart=678, pageEnd=686, url=null, language=null, rfNumber=[32], rfOrder=41, authorNames=陈爱军, 吴雪菲, 楚志刚, journalName=气象科学, refType=null, unstructuredReference=陈爱军, 吴雪菲, 楚志刚. 精细化评估GPM/IMERG产品对台风“妮坦”降水的观测精度[J]. 气象科学, 2021, 41(5): 678-686., articleTitle=精细化评估GPM/IMERG产品对台风“妮坦”降水的观测精度, refAbstract=null), Reference(id=1177981043584938653, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146123166801305609, articleId=1149768566787978198, doi=null, pmid=null, pmcid=null, year=2021, volume=41, issue=5, pageStart=678, pageEnd=686, url=null, language=null, rfNumber=[32], rfOrder=42, authorNames=Chen Aijun, Wu Xuefei, Chu Zhigang, journalName=Journal of the Meteorological Sciences, refType=null, unstructuredReference=Chen Aijun, Wu Xuefei, Chu Zhigang. Fine-scale evaluation of the observational accuracy of GPM/IMERG products for typhoon Nida precipitation[J]. 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基于审图号 GS (2020) 4619 号的标准地图制作,底图无修改

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基于审图号 GS (2020) 4619 号的标准地图制作,底图无修改

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色标颜色越偏蓝则表示结果越接近于该指标的优值,反之偏红

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Classification standards for precipitation types over different durations[32]

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
累计降
水时长/
h
小雨(light
rain, LR)/
mm
中雨(medium
rain, MR)/
mm
大雨(heavy
rain, HR)/
mm
暴雨(extra-
heavy, ExHR)/
mm
1 ≥0.1 ≥1.5 ≥7 ≥15
3 ≥0.1 ≥3.0 ≥10 ≥20
6 ≥0.1 ≥4.0 ≥13 ≥25
12 ≥0.1 ≥5.0 ≥15 ≥30
24 ≥0.1 ≥10.0 ≥25 ≥50
), ArticleFig(id=1177981039919116866, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146123166801305609, articleId=1149768566787978198, language=CN, label=表1, caption=

不同时长降水的划分标准[32]

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
累计降
水时长/
h
小雨(light
rain, LR)/
mm
中雨(medium
rain, MR)/
mm
大雨(heavy
rain, HR)/
mm
暴雨(extra-
heavy, ExHR)/
mm
1 ≥0.1 ≥1.5 ≥7 ≥15
3 ≥0.1 ≥3.0 ≥10 ≥20
6 ≥0.1 ≥4.0 ≥13 ≥25
12 ≥0.1 ≥5.0 ≥15 ≥30
24 ≥0.1 ≥10.0 ≥25 ≥50
), ArticleFig(id=1177981040003002948, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146123166801305609, articleId=1149768566787978198, language=EN, label=Table 2, caption=

Terrain classification based on altitude difference in the southwest region

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指标 分类
落差/m 0~30 30~200 200~500 500~1 000 >1 000
地形 平原(plain, PL) 丘陵(hill, HL) 小起伏山地(low rolling
mountain, LRM)
中起伏山地(mid rolling
mountain, MRM)
大起伏山地(high rolling
mountain, HRM)
占比/% 1 12 28 35 24
), ArticleFig(id=1177981040074306118, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146123166801305609, articleId=1149768566787978198, language=CN, label=表2, caption=

西南地区依据海拔落差的地形分类

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
指标 分类
落差/m 0~30 30~200 200~500 500~1 000 >1 000
地形 平原(plain, PL) 丘陵(hill, HL) 小起伏山地(low rolling
mountain, LRM)
中起伏山地(mid rolling
mountain, MRM)
大起伏山地(high rolling
mountain, HRM)
占比/% 1 12 28 35 24
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多样性地形条件下IMERG精度综合评估
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陈爱军 1, 2, 3 , 陶子淳 1, 2, 3
科学技术与工程 | 论文·天文学、地球科学 2025,25(16): 6608-6618
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科学技术与工程 | 论文·天文学、地球科学 2025, 25(16): 6608-6618
多样性地形条件下IMERG精度综合评估
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陈爱军1, 2, 3 , 陶子淳1, 2, 3
作者信息
  • 1 南京信息工程大学气象灾害教育部重点实验室, 南京 210044
  • 2 南京信息工程大学中国气象局气溶胶与云降水重点开放实验室,南京 210044
  • 3 南京信息工程大学大气物理学院, 南京 210044
  • 陈爱军(1972—),男,汉族,湖北荆门人,博士,副教授。研究方向:气象卫星资料处理与应用。E-mail:

Comprehensive Assessment of IMERG Accuracy under Diverse Topographic Conditions
Ai-jun CHEN1, 2, 3 , Zi-chun TAO1, 2, 3
Affiliations
  • 1 Key Laboratory of Meteorological Disasters of the Ministry of Education (KLME), Nanjing University of Information Science and Technology, Nanjing 210044, China
  • 2 Key Laboratory for Aerosol-Cloud-Precipitation of China Meteorological Administration, Nanjing University of Information Science and Technology, Nanjing 210044, China
  • 3 School of Atmospheric Physics, Nanjing University of Information Science and Technology, Nanjing 210044, China
出版时间: 2025-06-08 doi: 10.12404/j.issn.1671-1815.2405897
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以地面加密雨量计数据为基准,全面分析和评估全球降水测量(global precipitation measurement, GPM)卫星反演产品IMERG-F(integrated multi-satellite retrievals for GPM-final run)对中国西南地区复杂山地条件下的日及亚日尺度降水,以及多种雨强降水的监测能力。结果表明:在日及亚日尺度内,IMERG对于短时间内累计降水的临界成功率(critical success index, CSI)主要分布在0.2~0.6,相关系数则在0.25~0.5范围内波动,其中以日尺度降水探测精度最高,夏季月份表现优于冬季。对于不同强度降雨事件,IMERG在小雨量的探测上具有较高的命中率(probability of detection, POD),而虚警率(false alarm rate, FAR)相对较低。然而,在中到大雨量级时存在低估现象。海拔落差对IMERG产品的稳定性影响显著,但与海拔高度本身没有直接线性关系。相对于地形起伏较大的地区,IMERG-F在地形起伏较小地区探测弱降雨事件中的可靠性更高。IMERG产品用于中国西南地区时应考虑其季节性和地形特征的限制。

IMERG  /  降水  /  精度评估  /  中国西南山地

In order to comprehensively analyze and evaluate the monitoring capabilities of the integrated multi-satellite retrievals for global precipitation measurement (GPM) final run (IMERG-F) satellite retrieval product for daily and sub-daily scale precipitation, as well as various intensity rainfalls, under complex mountainous conditions in southwest China, ground-based dense rain gauge data was used to investigate these aspects. The results show that within the daily and sub-daily scales, the critical success index (CSI) of IMERG for short-term accumulated precipitation primarily ranges from 0.2 to 0.6, with the correlation coefficient fluctuating between 0.25 and 0.5. The daily scale precipitation detection accuracy is the highest, with better performance in summer months compared to winter. For different intensity rainfall events, IMERG exhibits a high probability of detection (POD) for light rainfall, while the false alarm rate (FAR) is relatively low. However, there is an underestimation phenomenon for moderate to heavy rainfall. The elevation difference significantly impacts the stability of IMERG products, but there is no direct linear relationship with the elevation itself. Compared to areas with significant topographic variations, IMERG-F demonstrates higher reliability in detecting weak rainfall events in areas with less topographic variation. It is concluded that the application of IMERG products in southwest China should consider the limitations imposed by seasonal and topographic characteristics.

integrated multi-satellite retrievals for GPM (IMERG)  /  precipitation  /  accuracy evaluation  /  southwest mountainous region of China
陈爱军, 陶子淳. 多样性地形条件下IMERG精度综合评估. 科学技术与工程, 2025 , 25 (16) : 6608 -6618 . DOI: 10.12404/j.issn.1671-1815.2405897
Ai-jun CHEN, Zi-chun TAO. Comprehensive Assessment of IMERG Accuracy under Diverse Topographic Conditions[J]. Science Technology and Engineering, 2025 , 25 (16) : 6608 -6618 . DOI: 10.12404/j.issn.1671-1815.2405897
降水是地-气水循环的关键组成部分,而且时空分布差异及变化非常大。受地形和大气环流等多重因素的影响,山地降水具有区域性和局地性双重特征[1],降水的时空分布差异变化更大,准确监测山地降水监测格外具有挑战性[2]
除了地面雨量计和天气雷达定量估计降水,卫星定量估计降水也是降水监测的一条重要途径。卫星遥感不仅观测范围广,而且可以克服地面雨量计分布不均、天气雷达容易受地形阻挡影响的缺点[3]。不过,受观测原理、时空分辨率、反演算法等因素的影响,精度评估是卫星定量估计降水产品应用的关键环节,这也是它与地面雨量计和天气雷达定量估计降水的最大区别。全球降水测量(global precipitation measurement,GPM)是继TRMM(tropical rainfall measurement mission)之后的又一项全球降水观测任务,计划联合核心观测平台搭载的Ku/Ka波段双频降水雷达(dual-frequency precipitation radar,DPR)、GPM微波成像仪(GPM microwave imager,GMI),以及美国、日本、欧盟等国家约10颗GPM星座卫星搭载的多种被动微波和红外探测器,为全球提供±65°的高精度降水估计数据[4]。2014年3月,GPM多星集成降水反演产品IMERG(integrated multi-satellite retrievals for GPM)正式公开发布,2023年7月已更新至V07版(https://gpm.nasa.gov/IMERG)。
目前,已有大量研究应用多种降水产品或数据评估IMERG精度。如网格化产品[5-6]、降水融合再分析资料[7-9]、地基天气雷达降水估计数据[10-12]、微雨雷达(micro rain radar,MRR)观测数据[13]以及水文模型[14]等。在以上多种用于评估IMERG的对照检验数据当中,最基础、客观的是地面雨量计数据。地面雨量计可以直观地获取当地的实时降水量。研究发现,IMERG能不同程度地反映地区降水分布特征[15-19],且比其他降水产品准确性和代表性更具优势,相对其他被动单一源卫星降水产品(被动微波、红外反演降水产品)能表现出更高的降水估计精度[20]。但不同地区的精度也存在一定的差异[21-23],对极端暴雨事件的降水量估计偏低[24]
在山地地区,卫星估计极端降水的能力会受到地理位置和大尺度降水事件的影响[25],误差随降水幅度增大而增加[26]。赵平伟等[27]研究发现,IMERG在云南地区的降水精度易受海拔而非坡度的影响。黄晓龙等[28]研究表明,IMERG在四川盆地内的降水探测成功率高于川西高原。曾莉萍等[29]研究表明,IMERG对贵州部分溶岩地貌小流域降水强度探测精度上仍有提升空间。
综上可知,目前针对IMERG产品在山地的评估所用数据仍有待深入。在海拔变化波动较大的山地条件下,高时空分辨率的直接观测降水数据有助于精细化评估IEMRG产品的精度和误差表现。利用覆盖范围广、高分布密度、高时间分辨率的加密地面雨量计作为基准,可以有效评估IMERG在复杂地形下对日及亚日尺度降水的精度表现。中国西南地区(包括四川、云南、贵州和重庆)地形复杂多样,包括横断山脉、高原、丘陵和盆地等不同地貌。海拔落差大,局地因子影响显著,使得该地区成为典型的气候多变区;在这类复杂地形条件下,需要足够细致、可靠、覆盖范围广泛的降水数据作为基础,才能客观、详尽地检验卫星降水产品在此类地区实际捕捉降水的能力。
鉴于此,以2015—2017年的地面气象站加密观测雨量计小时降水数据为基准, 利用多个常用降水评估统计指标,从1、3、6、12、24 h多种时间尺度评估IMERG-F产品的降水精度;并根据降水强度和海拔落差不同,多地形、多雨强角度分析IMERG-F产品在中国西南地区的应用潜力。为多源融合卫星降水产品在山地条件下的误差校正及相关应用提供参考,并为极端降水次生灾害的前期监测提供线索。对精细化研究西南地区降水特征及其监测方法对理论和实践具有显著价值。
西南地区位于20°N~35°N、97°E~111°E经纬度范围,位于中国西南部,东临长江中下游平原,西接青藏高原,南濒东南亚诸国,北靠黄土高原。其行政区划包括四川、云南、贵州和重庆,如图1所示。西南地区地形复杂多样,总体上呈现出高原、山地、盆地和河谷交错分布的特点。由于地形的复杂性,西南地区的气候类型也极为丰富。青藏高原地区属于高寒气候,而四川盆地则属于亚热带湿润气候。此外,由于地形的屏障作用,西南地区的气候还呈现出显著的垂直地带性,即随着海拔高度的变化,气候类型也发生相应的变化。同时,该地区也是中国重要的生态屏障,对于维持区域乃至全球的生态平衡具有重要意义。鉴于西南地区独特的地理和气候条件,评估卫星产品在该区域的降水监测应用能力、了解降水特征,对于理解区域气候系统、预测气候变化以及制定相应的环境政策和防灾减灾措施具有重要的科学和实践价值。
近年来,随着防灾减灾工作的不断推进,气象要素的监测能力得到显著提高,中国气象部门已经建成观测范围涵盖极广的现代气象观测网络。截至目前,中国西南地区已经布设国家气象站超过420个,另有区域自动站超过13 000个,除四川西北部少数区域站点较少外,多数网格中站点数量为1或2个,东部地区大于等于5个(图2),形成了密集的地面加密雨量计自动观测数据网。选择研究区域内地面加密雨量计数据2015—2017年的小时雨量观测数据作为基准数据分析和评估IMERG监测中国西南地区极端降水的精度和能力。
IMERG是联合GPM的第三级卫星降水产品,该产品采用改进的多通道物理反演算法GPROF2014(godard profiling algorithm 2014)融合多星降水估计结果。计算来自不同与降水相关的被动微波传感器的数据。然后将数据网格化、相互校准至GPM结合Ku雷达辐射计算法(CORRA),并合并成30 min更新频率的0.1°×0.1°场域。然后,利用气候预测中心开发的卡尔曼滤波(Kalman filter, KF)拉格朗日时间插值方案和PERSIANN (precipitation estimation from remotely sensed Information using artificial neural networks)的红外-雨强算法(dynamic infrared-rain rate, PDIR)重新标定,进一步处理30 min插值得到的综合PMW估计值。并根据提供的前后几小时的数据模式相关性最大化来计算运动向量。最后,采用月平均的GPCC (global precipitation climatology centre)数据对融合后的降水估计结果进行偏差订正,提高降水产品的精度[30-31]。IMERG算法会在近实时状态下运行获得两个版本的产品:分别为观测4 h后发布的IMERG-Early run和观测后14 h内发布的IMERG-Late run。经过地面观测数据的最终校正后得到GPM卫星降水的三级产品的IMERG-F(IMERG-final run)。IMERG-F约在观测后4个月内完成,通常是科学研究的首选数据。IMERG各级产品的时间分辨率均为30 min,所有产品均可从美国国家航空航天局网站(https://disc.gsfc.nasa.gov/datasets/)免费获取。使用的卫星降水产品数据为GPM卫星降水的IMERG-FV06版本。
选择多个常用的卫星降水产品分类评估指标定性评估IMERG对真实降水事件的辨识能力,包括:降水命中率(probability of detection, POD)、误报率(false alarm ratio, FAR)以及临界成功指数(critical success index, CSI),其计算公式分别为
P O D = H H + M
F A R = F H + F
C S I = F H + F + M
式中:HMF分别为卫星命中的降水格点数、卫星漏报的降水格点数和卫星误判为有降水的格点数。
POD越高表示卫星降水数据对降水事件的漏测率越低,最优值为1;FAR越低表示降水事件被错误估计的概率越小,最优值为0;CSI指数综合反映了卫星降水数据探测实际降水事件的能力,最优值为1。评估时,以0.1 mm作为降水事件发生的阈值。
选取多个统计评价参数来分析IMERG在西南地区的降水强度估计精度,包括:皮尔逊相关系数(Pearson correlation coefficient,CC)、相对偏差(relative bias,RB)和均方根误差(root mean square error,RMSE),其计算公式分别为
C C = i = 1 n ( G i - G ~ ) ( S i - S ~ ) i = 1 n ( G i - G ~ ) 2 i = 1 n ( S i - S ~ ) 2
R B = i = 1 n ( S i - G i ) i = 1 n G i
R M S E = 1 n i = 1 n ( S i - G i ) 2
式中:i=1,2,…,N,其中N为样本总量;SiGi分别为对应格点的卫星降水格点和加密自动气象站雨量计数据; S ~为对应网格点上卫星(satellite)降水产品的平均降水量; G ~为对应地面站点(gauge)雨量计的平均降水量;CC为卫星降水数据与雨量计数据之间一致性的相关程度,CC取值范围为[-1,1],绝对值越接近1,则两者之间的相关性越好;RMSE为卫星降水数据与雨量计数据之间的偏差程度,数值越接近0则两者之间的偏差越小;RB为卫星降水数据和雨量计数据之间的相对偏差程度,范围在[-1,1],越接近0,则表示两者之间的偏差越小。
经过质量控制和格点化处理后,针对不同时间尺度(1、3、6、12、24 h)的降雨量和雨强(小雨、中雨、大雨、暴雨)进行累计和分类。通过对定性参数、定量参数以及极端降水相关指标的统计分析,评估IMERG-Final run降水产品在西南地区复杂地形条件下的误差分布情况。分析西南地区全年各月IMERG探测降水误差的时空分布特征,了解西南地区的极端降水类型特点。按照海拔和落差分类,分析不同地形对IMERG探测精度的影响,为卫星遥感降水产品在复杂山地的降水误差校正提供理论依据。为探究IMERG对不同强度量级的降水事件的探测能力,需要将不同历时(1、3、6、12、34 h)的累计降水量划分成具体的雨强,具体的雨强划分标准如表1[32]所示。
西南地区的地形复杂,除海拔外,地形的起伏波动也是导致降水也是导致降水局地变化的重要影响因素,为进一步探究海拔落差对IMERG在西南地区的降水探测精度的影响,根据研究区域单位网格中海拔落差不同将西南地区具体分为:平原、丘陵、小起伏山地、中起伏山地、大起伏及以上山地,并以此分类进一步分析IMERG降水探测受地形影响的具体指标差异,结果如表2所示。
从日及亚日尺度对IMERG产品在西南地区的定性评估指标进行分析,可以从整体上把握IMERG产品在该区域的适用性和偏差特征。图3为西南地区IMERG对1、3、6、12、24 h累计降水事件的命中率POD的统计分布情况。
图3(a)可知,POD随累计降水时长的增加而呈现出明显的上升趋势,IMERG对24h的累计降水POD最高,而1h累计降水POD最低。即随着降雨累积时长的增长,IMERG的POD显著提升,表明IMERG对更长时段的累计降水事件有较高的探测准确度。IMERG探测日降水的成功率相对于亚日及小时降水更高。图3(b)显示了FAR随着累积降水时长的增加而降低,这表明IMERG对较长时段的累计降水事件更少产生误报。由图3(c)可知,CSI随累积时长的增加而增高,CSI也有类似POD的上升趋势,CSI综合体现了POD和FAR对降水探测影响,表现出累计降水时长与探测准确性之间的相关性。此外,定性指标的上下限值的变化幅度在各时段间的差异较小,反映出在各个累计时长区间内,IMERG探测降水成功率的空间一致性。
综上所述,对日尺度及亚日尺度的累计降水而言,IMERG的探测能力随着累计降水时长增加而明显增加,这一点符合对日常降水观测规律的认知,对于进一步改进降水预测模型尤为重要。
图4(a)可知,CC随降水时长的增加而提高,但是增长幅度随时长增加而放缓,3 h相对1 h累计降水CC中位数提升超0.2,而12 h和24 h累计降水之间则相差无几。IMERG对24h累积降水显示出最高的相关性。由图4(b)可知,无论累计降水的时间尺度多长,RB始终保持在±0.5,24 h内累计降水的相对偏差随时间变化趋于稳定,表明IMERG在大多数情况下对降水量的估计偏差相对较小。由图4(c)可知,RMSE随累积时长的增长而显著增加,同时RMSE的上下限也随时间尺度增长而扩大。说明单位时长增加,降水量也有所增加,卫星观测降水的绝对偏差受降水量本身的影响较大,符合既往认知,反映出IMERG在长时段降水量估算中的不确定性和偏差的增加。
综上可知,IMERG在长时间累积降水探测方面表现出较强的相关性及可靠性,但相对于日尺度降水,亚日及小时尺度的降水事件,IMERG探测成功率偏低;绝对偏差则随累计时长增加而增大,其统计分布也随着降水时长的增长而变得更加离散。在IMERG监测降水应用中应给予时间尺度选择以更多考量。
依据季节(北半球春季3—5月,夏季6—8月,秋季9—11月,冬季12月—次年2月)对2015至2017年的累积降水探测概率POD的月变化进行分析。
图5(a)可知,IMERG对各时间尺度降水的POD从春季到夏季均逐渐升高,7月份POD达全年峰值,之后在秋季迅速回落,冬季最低,各时间尺度降水POD均低于0.4。同一季节中POD基本呈现出随时间尺度增加而升高的趋势,IMERG捕捉24 h累计降水的POD明显高于其余时间尺度降水。由图5(b)可知,IMERG对不同的时间尺度的降水FAR表现出随着累积时长的增加而减少的趋势,小时降水FAR在各个季节都最高,而24 h降水FAR最低。10月以后除24 h以外的其余时间尺度降水FAR都有明显上升,其余月份FAR变化较为平稳,说明IMERG对于捕捉12 h及以下时间尺度降水在冬季有较高的误判,可能和卫星对固态降水的识别有关。IMERG对于捕捉西南地区夏季日降水具有较好的适用性。由图5(c)可知,CSI随累积降水时长增加而升高,CSI在夏季最高,24 h累计降水CSI达0.68,冬季CSI值最低。24 h尺度降水的CSI在进入冬季时降低,变化幅度较其他时间尺度更大。
从各项定性指标来看,IMERG探测降水在夏季(6—8月)效果较好,冬季(11月—次年2月)效果较差,所有时间尺度的累计降水探测CSI、POD都在的夏季表现较好,而在冬季效果较差。整体上以24 h累计降水探测能力定性指标为佳,较其他时间尺度累计降水而言季节性波动更小。
图6(a)显示了春季中1~24 h累积降水的CC变化趋势情况。CC在全年具有较为稳定的季节性波动特征,但各月波动情况并不显著。各时间尺度CC秋冬季节呈现先下降后上升,大体上CC随时间尺度增长而提升,以24 h尺度降水CC最高。在几个定量指标中,如RB和RMSE,IMERG显示出偏差和连续累积降水量之间的增长一致性。但在RB的相关分析中,IMERG对于夏季降水和较长时间的累计降水量监测缺乏精准度,在较短时段和长时段(24 h)累计降水量数据间,其表现有很大的波动。由图6(b)可知,IMERG显示出RB和连续累积降水量之间的增长一致性,IMERG探测24 h尺度降水的RB最高。由于夏季降水量远大于冬季,所以夏季降水RB也相较于其他季节更大,RB在7月达到峰值。冬季的情况较为复杂,不同时间尺度降水的RB没有一致的增长性,在1月份24 h尺度降水的RB反而相对其余亚日尺度降水更高,但RB整体在冬季达全年最低。由图6(c)可知,RMSE在夏季最高,冬季最低,且随时间尺度增加有明显的增加,二者表现出很强的相关性。说明IMERG估计降水量的绝对偏差和降水总量有关,在夏季降水较多的月份IMERG表现出较大的降水量绝对偏差。
综上所述,IMERG降水检测的准确性与其探测时长和季节特征具有明显依赖关系。IMERG更容易捕捉到时间尺度较长的降水事件,但量级上误差也随降水量增加而增大,对冬季固态降水和弱降水事件的捕捉能力仍有待提高。
在对IMERG在不同时间尺度下的的监测能力进行评估时,发现它在24 h累计降水的探测方面精度更高,表现也更为稳定。因此,将重点分析IMERG对捕捉日降水的空间精度特征。图7展示了IMERG产品针对日累计降水事件的监测能力的具体空间分布情况。
日尺度上,IMERG对山区降水的准确性表现较为理想。尽管如此,环成都盆地西部的两省交界处的探测成功率相对较低。图7(a)通过展示24 h累计降水POD空间分布,进一步揭示了这一趋势。
图7(b)可知,IMERG日累积降水的FAR总体较低。然而,在四川西部、四川盆地以及云南全域和贵州西北部部分区域显示出较高的FAR,超过0.5。特定区域如四川中部西部、云南南部以及邻近省界的云贵北部零星地区,FAR超过0.8。这些数据显示,尽管大多数空间分布上FAR较低,但特定地区仍存在较显著的误报问题。图7(c)为日降水CSI的空间分布,受POD和FAR的共同作用,在捕捉降水事件的评价上反映了IMERG的综合能力。随着累计降水时长的增加,IMERG的CSI水平上升,在24 h累计降水探测时,捕捉西南地区降水事件的效果更佳,在四川东部和云南南部CSI的空间过渡表现得较为均匀平滑,云南大多数地区的CSI可以达到0.7,而四川山区存在零星CSI低于0.5的格点。说明IMERG捕捉平原和海拔较低的丘陵地区降水的CSI比起多山复杂地形区有较大优势,表现出明显的空间异质性。
图8(a)可知,IMERG对于西南地区日降水的CC普遍高于0.5,有些地方的CC可超过0.9。仅在四川西部山区和周边极少区域格点的CC低于0.4。说明IMERG在绝大多数情况下可以反映出降水的空间分布特征。由图8(b)可知,关于RB,大多数地区RB保持在0~1。在四川盆地内呈现连续的轻微高估降水,零星格点有轻微的低估降水。在研究区域内零星分布的RB超过5以上的极端高估误差主要出现在四川西部和云南、贵州边界零星格点。说明IMERG对于日降水的量级精度相对偏差大部分情况下不会超过100%,但偶尔会出现严重的畸高,这种情况在山区发生的频率会更高。由图8(c)可知,研究区域内IMERG估计24 h累计降水的RMSE大多在5~10 mm,云贵南部边缘以及环四川盆地地区RMSE较高,超过10 mm,个别高达20 mm;但在四川西部RMSE并没有展现出更高的倾向,RMSE低于7 mm,间杂少数区域RMSE为7~10 mm的站点。空间一致性相对RB和CC更好。说明发生在山区的降水事件通常量级并不很大,而IMERG难以准确捕捉到这些地区的降水发生情况。IMERG对估计累计降水量较大区域的精度可能存在的更大的绝对误差。
图9(a)可知,IMERG在小雨的探测中显示出较高的POD。POD中位数为0.51,而中雨和大雨的POD相对较低。随着雨强的增加,POD呈现出一定的波动趋势,略有降低,统计分布上更离散,以暴雨探测为最。表明POD的区域异质性很强,IMERG对不同地区的强降水捕捉能力空间差异很大。由图9(a)图9(b)可知,IMERG在小雨的监测中不仅POD高,而且FAR也最低,FAR中位数为0.43,这表明其在小雨条件下的监测精度较高。IMERG对于中雨和大雨的监测中FAR有所上升,FAR中位数集中在0.6~0.8,同时POD也较小雨更低,显示出在这些条件下IMERG存在较多的误报。由图9(c)可知,在暴雨情况下,尽管POD有所提高,但CSI值的波动较大,CSI上下限差距达0.45,这可能意味着在极端条件下,IMERG的监测效果存在一定的不确定性。IMERG在小雨的探测中表现最佳,其CSI值明显高于其他雨强类别,显示出其在小雨监测中的高准确性和可靠性。
通过上述分析可以看出,IMERG在监测小雨方面表现最为出色,而在中到大雨的监测中,IMERG的准确性有所下降,对于暴雨的探测则存在较大的不确定性,可能和暴雨发生的区域差异,以及暴雨样本量相对其他量级的降水偏少有关。
图10为IMERG对不同强度降水的探测精度的定量分析。由图10(a)可知,在小雨情况下,CC的值相对集中,随着降水强度增加,IMERG的CC分布更分散,中位数降低,尤其在大雨和暴雨时出现较大偏差。由图10(b)可知,RB整体呈现随降水强度增加而降低的趋势。RB随降水强度增加而降低,IMERG在小雨时高估,中雨及以上时低估降水量。由图10(c)可知,RMSE随着降水强度的增加而增大,RMSE随降水强度增加而增大,表明IMERG误差水平上升,特别是在极端降水情况下。
IMERG在小雨条件下表现较好,但随着降水强度增加,其准确性和可靠性下降。IMERG对降水量的估计趋向低估,尤其是在中到大雨时。
西南地区的地形复杂,为进一步探究地形落差对IMERG在西南地区的降水探测精度的影响,根据海拔落差不同将西南地区具体分为:平原、丘陵、小起伏山地、中起伏山地、大起伏及以上山地。并以此分类进一步分析IMERG降水探测受地形影响的具体指标差异(表2)。因前文中IMERG各项降水探测指标以24 h累计降水的情况为佳,为突出地形对IMERG降水探测带来的影响,减少其他要素干扰,故以较为稳定的24 h累计降水为例,对IMERG在不同地形下的误差进行分析。
图11(a)可知,在平原地区,IMERG的降水POD中位数较高,显示出较好的探测性能。随着地形起伏的增加,POD的分布变得更加离散,但即使在小起伏山地,POD仍然保持在可接受的水平。由图11(b)可知,平原地区的FAR中位值最高,表明在平坦地形中IMERG的误报率较低。随着地形起伏的增加,FAR的中位数逐渐上升,且分布变得更加分散,这可能与地形复杂性增加导致的探测误差有关。由图11(c)可知,CSI的中位数在不同地形条件下主要集中在0.5~0.6。在小起伏山地,CSI中位数最低,表明在这些条件下IMERG的探测性能有所下降。随着海拔落差的进一步增加,CSI的分布变得更加离散。
地形起伏对IMERG的降水探测精度有显著影响,其中平原地区的表现最佳,而随着地形起伏的增加,探测精度有所下降。尽管地形复杂性增加,IMERG在小起伏山地的降水探测仍保持了较高的POD,但FAR和CSI的分布变得更加分散,反映出探测误差的增加。整体而言,IMERG在不同地形条件下的降水探测性能呈现出一定的波动,这为进一步优化IMERG在复杂地形区域的监测能力提供了重要参考。
图12展示了IMERG对研究区域内不同地形条件下降水探测性能的影响。分析结果表明,地形特征对IMERG的降水探测精度有显著影响。由图12(a)可知,在所有地形条件下,IMERG的CC均高于0.4,表明其具有较高的降水探测一致性。CC主要集中在0.4~0.6,其中小起伏山地的CC中位数最高,显示出在这类地形中IMERG的降水探测性能最佳。随着地形落差的增加,CC略有下降,且分布变得更加离散。由图12(b)可知,平原地区的RB最高,表明IMERG在平坦地形中倾向于高估降水量。随着地形落差的增加,RB的中位数逐渐减小,且分布变得更加分散,这表明IMERG在复杂地形条件下的降水量估计存在较大的随机性。由图12(c)可知,从平原到中起伏山地,IMERG的RMSE下四分位值均在6 mm以上,表明在这些地形条件下IMERG的降水探测精度相对稳定。随着地形落差的增大,RMSE的上下限区间也相应增大,但在大起伏地形中,IMERG的RMSE整体较平原地区偏低。
地形落差对IMERG的降水探测精度有直接影响,其中在小起伏山地IMERG的探测性能最佳,而随着地形复杂性的增加,各项评估指标表现出较大的离散性。RMSE的分析结果表明,IMERG在大起伏地形中的降水探测精度可能受到地形特征的正面影响,表现为较低的误差水平。
以地面加密雨量计数据为基准,评估短时间尺度累计降水GPM的降水反演产品IMERG在中国西南地区的误差情况,从多角度分析IMERG在复杂的山地地形条件对IMERG降水探测效果的影响,并进一步研究了IMERG对西南地区极端降水的时空分布偏差情况,得到如下结论。
(1)IMERG的24 h累计降水探测精度最高,CSI和CC指标在0.2~0.6和0.25~0.5范围内,且随降水时长增加而提升。季节性分析显示,夏季(尤其是7月)的探测效果最佳,而冬季效果相对较低。空间分布上,四川盆地西部和云贵川渝交界处POD偏低,四川中西部山区和滇南地区的FAR偏高,IMERG的综合探测能力在这些区域偏低。在日尺度上,IMERG显示出较好的降水事件捕捉能力。
(2)对于不同强度的降水,IMERG对小雨的探测POD相对更强降水较高,且FAR较低,IMERG探测小雨的CSI在0.3~0.4,RB和RMSE受降水量影响,雨强越大RB小,而RMSE越大,IMERG倾向于高估小雨降水量,而低估中雨及更大雨强的降水量,且整体上偏差分布随雨强增大而更为离散,雨强增大的同时IMERG探测降水的相关性和稳定性有所下降。
(3)随着海拔落差增大,各项参数统计分布和海拔落差之间没有明显的趋势的一致性,但IMERG的各项探测指标偏差分布相对离散,海拔落差对IMERG探测精度的影响主要体现在IMERG探测降水的稳定性上,不能以简单的海拔和落差关系线性校正GPM IMERG降水产品。IMERG的弱降水探测可靠性在地形平缓地区较复杂山地更高。
  • 国家重点研发计划(2017YFC1501401)
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2025年第25卷第16期
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doi: 10.12404/j.issn.1671-1815.2405897
  • 接收时间:2024-08-06
  • 首发时间:2025-07-09
  • 出版时间:2025-06-08
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  • 收稿日期:2024-08-06
  • 修回日期:2025-03-15
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国家重点研发计划(2017YFC1501401)
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    1 南京信息工程大学气象灾害教育部重点实验室, 南京 210044
    2 南京信息工程大学中国气象局气溶胶与云降水重点开放实验室,南京 210044
    3 南京信息工程大学大气物理学院, 南京 210044
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鹅膏菌科Amanitaceae 2 11 5.26 鹅膏菌属 Amanita 10 4.78
小菇科 Mycenaceae 2 12 5.74 丝盖伞属 Inocybe 5 2.39
多孔菌科 Polyporaceae 8 14 6.70 蜡蘑属 Laccaria 5 2.39
红菇科 Russulaceae 3 23 11.00 小皮伞属 Marasmius 6 2.87
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