Article(id=1254112845810045797, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146031591421210625, issueId=1254112841712206109, articleNumber=null, orderNo=null, doi=10.3981/j.issn.1000-7857.2025.12.00112, pmid=null, cstr=null, oa=null, hot=null, price=null, onlineType=0, articleFormat=0, articleType=null, articleTypeStr=research-article, receivedDate=1766332800000, receivedDateStr=2025-12-22, revisedDate=1769270400000, revisedDateStr=2026-01-25, acceptedDate=null, acceptedDateStr=null, onlineDate=1776933402730, onlineDateStr=2026-04-23, pubDate=1776009600000, pubDateStr=2026-04-13, doiRegisterDate=null, doiRegisterDateStr=null, onlineIssueDate=1776933402730, onlineIssueDateStr=2026-04-23, onlineJustAcceptDate=null, onlineJustAcceptDateStr=null, onlineFirstDate=null, onlineFirstDateStr=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, createTime=1776933402730, creator=13041195026, updateTime=1776933402730, updator=13041195026, issue=Issue{id=1254112841712206109, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146031591421210625, year='2026', volume='44', issue='7', pageStart='1', pageEnd='128', issueExtLink='null', onlineDate='null', pubDate='1776009600000', pubDateStr='2026-04-13', beforeIssueId=null, nextIssueId=null, price=null, status=1, issueComplete=1, articleOrder=1, issueType=-1, specialIssue=null, createTime=1776933401732, creator='13041195026', updateTime=1776934002915, updator='13041195026', preIssue=null, nextIssue=null, articleTotal=null, ext={EN=IssueExt(id=1254115363315191985, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146031591421210625, issueId=1254112841712206109, language=EN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=), CN=IssueExt(id=1254115363315191986, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146031591421210625, issueId=1254112841712206109, language=CN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=)}, issueFiles=null, downloadFileDto=null}, startPage=91, endPage=102, ext={EN=ArticleExt(id=1254112847487767399, articleId=1254112845810045797, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146031591421210625, language=EN, title=Effect of dissimilar wire arc additive manufacturing processes on the microstructure and mechanical properties of maraging steel, columnId=1150494644690366681, journalTitle=Science & Technology Review, columnName=Papers, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

To investigate the formation mechanism for differences in microstructure and properties of components fabricated via different wire arc additive manufacturing (WAAM) processes, maraging steel components were fabricated using plasma arc additive manufacturing (PAAM) and cold metal transfer (CMT)−based additive manufacturing. Their microstructures and mechanical properties were then systematically characterized and compared. The continuous and intense impingement of the plasma arc on the molten pool produced significantly finer grains, with an average grain size of 3.51 μm, whereas the average grain size of CMT−fabricated components was 9.84 μm. Additionally, the higher heat input and lower cooling rate during the PAAM process facilitated precipitation of a greater number of reinforcing phases within the matrix. Under the synergistic effect grain refinement strengthening and second−phase strengthening, PAAM components demonstrated superior mechanical properties: specifically, the tensile strengths in the horizontal and vertical directions were 1367.7 MPa and 1360.3 MPa, accompanied by elongations of 15.2% and 14.4%, respectively. In contrast, the CMT−fabricated samples exhibited tensile strengths of 1149.1 MPa (horizontal) and 1063.4 MPa (vertical), with corresponding elongations of 20.1% and 17.8%. Notably, while CMT−fabricated components displayed significant mechanical anisotropy, PAAM components exhibited a tendency toward mechanical isotropy. This phenomenon is attributed to two key factors: first, the extremely high heat input of PAAM ensured more adequate interlayer fusion; second, the recovery and recrystallization processes induced by the prolonged high−temperature state mitigated the preferred orientation of the microstructure, consequently alleviating mechanical anisotropy.

, authors=null, authorsList=Guan WANG, Qi ZHOU, Shun GUO, Junqiang XU, Kehong WANG, Zhen WANG, Wei CHEN, authorCompany=null, correspAuthors=Qi ZHOU, Shun GUO, authorNote=null, correspAuthorsNote=null, copyrightStatement=All rights reserved. Unauthorized reproduction is prohibited., copyrightOwner=null, extLink=null, articleAbsUrl=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, pdfUrl=null, pdf=null, pdfFileSize=null, pdfExtLink=null, richHtmlUrl=null, mobilePdfUrl=null, reviewReport=null, pdfFirstPage=null, abstractGraph=null, abstractGraphContent=null, abstractVideo=null, citation=null, cebUrl=null, magXmlContent=null, mapNumber=null, fund=null), CN=ArticleExt(id=1254112864982209435, articleId=1254112845810045797, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146031591421210625, language=CN, title=不同电弧增材工艺对马氏体时效钢组织与力学性能的影响, columnId=1146540929516700224, journalTitle=科技导报, columnName=研究论文, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

为探究不同电弧增材工艺构件组织与性能差异的形成机理,采用等离子弧增材制造(plasma arc additive manufacturing,PAAM)和冷金属过渡(cold metal transfer,CMT)增材工艺对马氏体时效钢进行增材并表征分析了微观组织和力学性能。结果表明,PAAM热源对熔池持续强烈的冲击作用使其平均晶粒尺寸更小,为3.51 μm,而CMT构件平均晶粒尺寸为9.84 μm;同时,PAAM高热输入、低冷却速率使基体析出更多强化相。在细晶强化与第二相强化等强化机制共同作用下,PAAM构件具有更优异的力学性能,其水平和垂直方向的抗拉强度分别为1367.7、1360.3 MPa,伸长率为15.2%、14.4%,而CMT试样水平和垂直方向的抗拉强度分别为1149.1、1063.4 MPa,伸长率为20.1%、17.8%。相比于CMT构件力学性能表现出显著的各向异性,PAAM构件力学性能趋向于各向同性,这归因于PAAM极高的热输入使层间熔合更加充分,以及长时间的高温状态引发的回复和再结晶削弱了组织的择优取向,从而影响性能的各向异性。

, authors=

王冠,硕士研究生,研究方向为电弧增材制造,电子信箱:

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周琦(通信作者),教授,研究方向为增材制造材料与高效高性能工艺,电子信箱:;
郭顺(共同通信作者),讲师,研究方向为高能电子束异种金属焊接及模拟仿真,电子信箱:
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(a)PAAM−H(b)PAAM−V(c)CMT−H(d)CMT−V

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材料CNiCrMoMnTiAlSiSPFe
丝材0.01514.083.413.131.390.540.180.0160.0060.008余量
基板0.0609.1118.180.760.6900.010余量
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丝材和基板元素质量分数 (%)

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材料CNiCrMoMnTiAlSiSPFe
丝材0.01514.083.413.131.390.540.180.0160.0060.008余量
基板0.0609.1118.180.760.6900.010余量
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工艺参数PAAMCMT
保护气纯Ar纯Ar
层间温度/℃110±10110±10
电流/A140166
电压/V20.120.3
送丝速度/(m·min−11.66.0
行走速度/(mm·s−11.34.6
保护气流量/(L·min−11818
离子气流量/(L·min−10.6
电弧焊接模式CMT+P
层宽/mm12.112.1
层厚/mm1.51.5
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增材成形工艺主要参数

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工艺参数PAAMCMT
保护气纯Ar纯Ar
层间温度/℃110±10110±10
电流/A140166
电压/V20.120.3
送丝速度/(m·min−11.66.0
行走速度/(mm·s−11.34.6
保护气流量/(L·min−11818
离子气流量/(L·min−10.6
电弧焊接模式CMT+P
层宽/mm12.112.1
层厚/mm1.51.5
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不同电弧增材工艺对马氏体时效钢组织与力学性能的影响
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王冠 1 , 周琦 1, * , 郭顺 1, * , 徐俊强 1 , 王克鸿 1 , 王振 2 , 陈伟 1
科技导报 | 研究论文 2026,44(7): 91-102
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科技导报 |研究论文 2026 , 44 (7) : 91 -102
不同电弧增材工艺对马氏体时效钢组织与力学性能的影响
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王冠,硕士研究生,研究方向为电弧增材制造,电子信箱:

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王冠1 , 周琦1, * , 郭顺1, * , 徐俊强1, 王克鸿1, 王振2, 陈伟1
作者信息
  • 1南京理工大学材料科学与工程学院,南京 210094
  • 2东南大学机械工程学院,南京 211189
通讯作者:
周琦(通信作者),教授,研究方向为增材制造材料与高效高性能工艺,电子信箱:;
郭顺(共同通信作者),讲师,研究方向为高能电子束异种金属焊接及模拟仿真,电子信箱:
Effect of dissimilar wire arc additive manufacturing processes on the microstructure and mechanical properties of maraging steel
Guan WANG1 , Qi ZHOU1, * , Shun GUO1, * , Junqiang XU1, Kehong WANG1, Zhen WANG2, Wei CHEN1
Affiliations
  • 1School of Materials Science and Engineering, Nanjing University of Science and Technology, Nanjing 210094, China
  • 2School of Mechanical Engineering, Southeast University, Nanjing 211189, China
出版时间: 2026-04-13 doi: 10.3981/j.issn.1000-7857.2025.12.00112
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为探究不同电弧增材工艺构件组织与性能差异的形成机理,采用等离子弧增材制造(plasma arc additive manufacturing,PAAM)和冷金属过渡(cold metal transfer,CMT)增材工艺对马氏体时效钢进行增材并表征分析了微观组织和力学性能。结果表明,PAAM热源对熔池持续强烈的冲击作用使其平均晶粒尺寸更小,为3.51 μm,而CMT构件平均晶粒尺寸为9.84 μm;同时,PAAM高热输入、低冷却速率使基体析出更多强化相。在细晶强化与第二相强化等强化机制共同作用下,PAAM构件具有更优异的力学性能,其水平和垂直方向的抗拉强度分别为1367.7、1360.3 MPa,伸长率为15.2%、14.4%,而CMT试样水平和垂直方向的抗拉强度分别为1149.1、1063.4 MPa,伸长率为20.1%、17.8%。相比于CMT构件力学性能表现出显著的各向异性,PAAM构件力学性能趋向于各向同性,这归因于PAAM极高的热输入使层间熔合更加充分,以及长时间的高温状态引发的回复和再结晶削弱了组织的择优取向,从而影响性能的各向异性。

电弧增材制造  /  马氏体时效钢  /  组织演变  /  力学性能  /  强化机理

To investigate the formation mechanism for differences in microstructure and properties of components fabricated via different wire arc additive manufacturing (WAAM) processes, maraging steel components were fabricated using plasma arc additive manufacturing (PAAM) and cold metal transfer (CMT)−based additive manufacturing. Their microstructures and mechanical properties were then systematically characterized and compared. The continuous and intense impingement of the plasma arc on the molten pool produced significantly finer grains, with an average grain size of 3.51 μm, whereas the average grain size of CMT−fabricated components was 9.84 μm. Additionally, the higher heat input and lower cooling rate during the PAAM process facilitated precipitation of a greater number of reinforcing phases within the matrix. Under the synergistic effect grain refinement strengthening and second−phase strengthening, PAAM components demonstrated superior mechanical properties: specifically, the tensile strengths in the horizontal and vertical directions were 1367.7 MPa and 1360.3 MPa, accompanied by elongations of 15.2% and 14.4%, respectively. In contrast, the CMT−fabricated samples exhibited tensile strengths of 1149.1 MPa (horizontal) and 1063.4 MPa (vertical), with corresponding elongations of 20.1% and 17.8%. Notably, while CMT−fabricated components displayed significant mechanical anisotropy, PAAM components exhibited a tendency toward mechanical isotropy. This phenomenon is attributed to two key factors: first, the extremely high heat input of PAAM ensured more adequate interlayer fusion; second, the recovery and recrystallization processes induced by the prolonged high−temperature state mitigated the preferred orientation of the microstructure, consequently alleviating mechanical anisotropy.

wire arc additive manufacturing  /  maraging steel  /  microstructural evolution  /  mechanical properties  /  strengthening mechanism
王冠, 周琦, 郭顺, 徐俊强, 王克鸿, 王振, 陈伟. 不同电弧增材工艺对马氏体时效钢组织与力学性能的影响. 科技导报, 2026 , 44 (7) : 91 -102 . DOI: 10.3981/j.issn.1000-7857.2025.12.00112
Guan WANG, Qi ZHOU, Shun GUO, Junqiang XU, Kehong WANG, Zhen WANG, Wei CHEN. Effect of dissimilar wire arc additive manufacturing processes on the microstructure and mechanical properties of maraging steel[J]. Science & Technology Review, 2026 , 44 (7) : 91 -102 . DOI: 10.3981/j.issn.1000-7857.2025.12.00112
马氏体时效钢因其优异的力学性能和焊接性,被广泛应用于工程机械、建筑、海洋船舶、航空航天、坦克装甲等工业领域[14],但传统制造工艺无法实现马氏体时效钢的快速成形生产。电弧增材制造(wire arc additive manufacturing,WAAM)技术由于其在金属零件结构设计和成形制备方面的独特优势而受到了广泛关注[56],其优势集中表现在极高的材料净利用率[7]、对中型大型零部件巨大的加工潜力[8]和相比于其他成形技术更高的成形效率[9],目前对WAAM的相关研究表明,该技术已成为高效成形马氏体时效钢的关键解决方案之一。
目前,对于不同的电弧增材工艺成形马氏体时效钢的基础研究已有很多,张笑天等[10]研究了P−MIG增材工艺马氏体时效钢丝块状构件的微观组织和力学性能,指出热循环与散热条件的变化导致构件不同空间位置组织与性能的变化。段林烨等[11]采用高功率密度等离子弧增材制造(PAAM)技术制备了马氏体高强钢构件,研究发现构件基体组织主要由马氏体和铁素体组成,底部和中部观测到奥氏体相,各区域出现明显织构,力学性能呈现显著的各向异性,所有沉积样品均显示出较强的塑性变形特性。程晶晶等[12]对冷金属过渡(CMT)增材的无钴马氏体时效钢的准静态和动态力学性能进行了研究,分析了其强化机理和变形机理,并构建修正了WAAM−MS的J−C本构方程,发现位错强化和第二相强化对材料的强度贡献最大,WAAM−MS在动态压缩载荷下的响应主要包括位错滑移、动态再结晶和形变孪晶,低应变速率下变形机制以位错滑移为主,高应变速率下以形变孪晶为主,整个过程都伴随有动态再结晶的发生。常改革等[13]采用双丝双弧定向能量沉积(directed energy deposition,DED)方法,利用外加金属丝,成功制备了无钴马氏体时效钢直壁体,沉积速率高达8.5 kg/h,外丝降低了构件的峰值温度,提高了构件的冷却速度,提高了2个电弧之间区域的马氏体含量,同时降低了该区域的织构强度,从而提高了构件的强度和硬度。张建等[14]研究了WAAM工艺成形的18Ni300马氏体时效钢构件断裂韧性和抗疲劳裂纹扩展性能,发现水平试样的断裂韧性和抗疲劳裂纹扩展能力均大于垂直试样,指出这种差异主要归因于试样底部组织的独特性和层间结合力较弱。从前人研究可见,不同电弧增材工艺成形效率及工件组织性能有所差异,其中CMT与PAAM工艺具有突出的典型特征:CMT工艺成形效率较高,但工件性能并不突出,而PAAM工艺工件力学性能优异但成形效率相对较低。同时,研究人员对各种因素下的电弧增材马氏体高强钢工件的组织性能影响规律进行了探索,Kan等[15]利用Gleeble热模拟和试验相结合的方法,对WAAM制备马氏体时效钢过程中马氏体的演变规律和力学性能进行了深入分析,结果表明,WAAM热循环可诱导马氏体相逆转变为奥氏体,引起组织晶粒细化且使基体中析出具有强化作用的沉淀相,使材料的强度和塑性协同提高。刘晨雨等[16]研究了保护气体中CO2比例对CMT增材制造马氏体时效钢的组织和力学性能的影响规律,发现随着CO2含量的增加,电弧热输入增加,冷却速度降低,导致晶粒粗化和Ti−Al氧化物析出,最终导致材料的硬度和抗拉强度降低,而塑性得到提升。张笑天等[17]研究了WAAM无钴马氏体时效钢过程中热循环对组织演变和力学性能的影响,并在此基础上尝试建立了马氏体时效钢热循环次数与组织和力学性能之间的关系,结果显示,热循环影响工件冷却速率,诱使马氏体发生逆转变生成奥氏体从而细化晶粒,也导致力学性能在高度方向上的不均匀性。高鹏飞等[18]为建立自主研发的低成本无钴马氏体时效钢焊丝电弧定向能量沉积(DED−Arc)工艺标准,研究了不同层间温度对成形工件微观组织和力学性能的影响。随着层间温度的提高,试样的晶粒尺寸显著增加,奥氏体含量同样增加,整体强度降低,塑性和韧性提升显著。上述研究人员揭示了热输入、热循环、层间温度等因素对电弧增材马氏体时效钢组织性能的影响规律,但大多只局限于一种电弧增材工艺,很少注意到不同工艺间热源性质、热输入等均有一定差异性,未能将不同的电弧增材工艺联系起来,探讨不同工艺间组织性能的差异以及形成机理。
本文以一种新型的低成本无钴马氏体时效钢丝材为原材料,采用PAAM与CMT电弧增材制造技术2种具有典型特征的电弧增材工艺进行直壁体的成形,表征分析了二者微观组织与力学性能的差异,并揭示了其形成机理。
在本研究中,以400 mm×300 mm×20 mm的304不锈钢冷轧板为基板,采用自主研发的新型无钴马氏体时效钢丝(14Ni3Cr3MoMnTi)为原材料进行PAAM与CMT增材成形试验,丝材直径为1.2 mm,其中丝材和基板成分如表1所示。
PAAM与CMT增材设备如图1(a)和(b)所示,PAAM增材系统由日本安川(YASKAWA)机器人及控制柜、米加尼克等离子焊机、PWM 300等离子焊枪、冷却水机、送气送丝装置组成。CMT增材系统包括KUKA(6轴)焊接机、焊接电源(CMT advanced 5000)、送丝机(CMT VR 7000)、控制柜、保护气体装置、焊枪及工作台。在开始增材前,使用角磨机将304基板表面氧化层除去,并使用酒精冲洗基板表面,确保基板表面光滑无油污。增材路径如图1(c)所示,为避免直线阶梯效应,PAAM与CMT增材路径均采用循环往复式前进。增材成形工艺主要参数见表2,因热源有所不同,通过适当优化工艺参数,使二者成形时每层的宽与层高接近以获得更好的对比效果。最终增材成形效果如图1(d)和(e)所示,获得2个160 mm×60 mm×12 mm的单道多层直壁工件。
依照图1(f)所示取样并表征,以探究不同试样的微观组织和力学性能差异。采用线切割机切取组织表征样品,使用不同规格砂纸(粒径分别为58.0、25.0、13.0、10.0、6.5、5.0、4.0 μm)对样品表面进行打磨,然后使用粒径为1 μm的金刚石喷雾抛光剂进行机械抛光。使用X射线衍射仪(XRD,Bruker−AXS D8 Advance)对标准金相处理后样品的物相组成进行了鉴定,扫描角度范围为30°~90°,步长为0.02°,曝光时间为0.2 s。利用金相显微镜(Zeiss Axio Vert A1)和场发射扫描电子显微镜(SEM,TESCAN MIRA)对试样的微观形貌进行了观察,并利用配套的能量色散光谱仪(EDS,Bruker Nano GmbH 610M)对样品进行元素组成分析。在组织观察前,使用三氯化铁盐酸溶液(3 g FeCl3+10 mL HCl+10 mL H2O)对金相样品腐蚀8 s,凸显组织衬度差异。用FEI Nova NanoSEM 450型扫描电子显微镜和EDAX Hikari Plus EBSD型探针测试EBSD样品,扫描区域为280 μm×210 μm,步长为0.5 μm,采集速度为304.8 Hz,加速电压为20 kV,并使用AZtecCrystal软件对采集到的EBSD数据进行处理分析。在测试前,采用电化学抛光法(HClO4、CH3COOH、C2H5OH的体积比为1∶3∶6的混合溶液在30 V、1 A下电解抛光30 s)去除样品表面应力层获得EBSD样品。采用离子减薄法(Gatan 695离子减薄仪)上下同时减薄获得直径3 mm的圆片透射电子显微镜(transmission electron microscope,TEM)样品,使用FEI Talos F200X场发射TEM在200 kV的加速电压下观察微观结构。
采用显微维氏硬度计(HVS−1000X型)沿增材成形方向Z测量样品显微硬度,载荷为0.5 kN,保荷时间为10 s,测试点间隔为0.5 mm。通过不同方向的拉伸性能测试,探究增材试样性能的各向异性。沿着沉积方向和增材方向切取拉伸试样,分别定义为水平样品和垂直样品,拉伸试样尺寸如图1(f)所示,同一位置取3个拉伸试样。待切取完成后用砂纸将拉伸试样表面的氧化层及切割痕磨去,在室温条件下采用UTM2404电子万能试验机进行拉伸性能测试。拉伸速率为1 mm/min,3个样品取平均值。使用场发射扫描电镜(FEI Quanta 250F)对拉伸件断口的形貌进行观察拍摄,分析拉伸过程中的断裂。
2种增材工艺的XRD图谱如图2(a)所示,2个样品均可观测到马氏体(BCC)峰和奥氏体(FCC)峰,但PAAM样品中可观察到3个信号较强的马氏体峰以及1个较强、2个较弱的奥氏体峰,而CMT样品仅能观察到3个强马氏体峰和1个奥氏体峰,且奥氏体衍射峰强度很低。这说明相对于PAAM样品,CMT样品具有更低的奥氏体含量。图谱上没有显示出其他可能析出相的衍射峰,说明析出相不存在或非常少。图2(b)、(c)所示为不同增材工艺样品的相分布图,PAAM样品中奥氏体的体积分数为3.2%,CMT样品表现出更低的奥氏体体积分数,仅有1.4%。奥氏体相来源于2个方面[19]:一方面,由于非平衡凝固过程中的成分偏析,在Ni等奥氏体稳定元素的作用下,本应在工件快速冷却时发生马氏体相变的高温奥氏体并没有完全转变为马氏体,剩余小部分作为残余奥氏体保留下来;另一方面,增材制造是一个逐层成形的过程,已成形部分由于经历大量热循环,当热积累导致温度达到奥氏体转变温度附近时,少部分不稳定的马氏体会重新转变为奥氏体,称为逆转变奥氏体。
在逐层沉积的过程中,PAAM构件较高的热输入使其具有更高的热积累,使工件更容易达到马氏体逆转变开始温度(As点)并停留更长时间,从而生成更多的逆转变奥氏体,因此相对于CMT样品,PAAM样品的奥氏体含量显著增多。
图3所示为不同样品的显微组织图,2个样品主要由柱状晶组织构成,在PAAM样品中能够观察到部分较短且粗的柱状晶(图3(b))。样品中可见明显的熔合线,而不同工艺成形样品熔合线两侧组织有所不同:图3(a)所示PAAM样品熔合线两侧晶粒相比远离熔合线区域的柱状晶更短,且熔合线两侧晶粒尺寸无明显差异,而CMT样品(图3(c))熔合线两侧晶粒尺寸具有明显差异。增材过程中,丝材从热源获得热量熔化形成熔滴并在重力的作用下落入熔池,而后随着热量散失温度下降开始结晶。在直壁成形过程中,热量流失的方向主要从熔池逆着增材方向Z指向基板,其次从熔池表面与保护气体接触换热,晶体的生长形态与液固相变时的温度梯度具有紧密联系[20],形核之后晶粒沿着热量流失的方向生长,并排斥横向生长,形成沿着增材方向规则生长的柱状晶。热源移动后,熔池表面暴露在低温流动的保护气氛中,换热效率极高,促使熔池表面产生过冷,引发表面大量形核,由于晶粒生长时间短且界面能和表面张力大,抑制晶粒长大,在熔池表面形成一层细密的等轴晶区,而后随着熔池降温进一步向着熔池底部热量流失的方向生长形成柱状晶。CMT成形时在CMT+P模式下,脉冲阶段焊丝开始熔化形成熔滴,CMT阶段焊丝端头少量熔滴与熔池接触并回抽焊丝,熔滴落入熔池后,热源对熔池的热输入降低,CMT熔深较浅,仅少量熔化前一沉积层表面区域;而PAAM以持续稳定的高能等离子弧作为热源,焊丝被送入等离子弧区域时在高温等离子通道内快速熔化,并在等离子弧推力下脱离焊丝端部进入熔池,由于PAAM采用外置前送丝的送丝方式,在此过程中等离子弧持续加热熔池,熔深持续增加,在沉积当前层时将前一层表面形成的细密等轴晶区熔化为液态并随当前沉积层熔池冷却凝固,因此PAAM样品表现出较宽的熔合线,相对于CMT样品熔合线两侧晶粒尺寸差距较大,PAAM样品熔合线两侧晶粒取向有明显变化但晶粒尺寸相近。同时,PAAM热源产生的高温等离子射流能以高频率持续不断地冲击熔池表面,引发熔池内部液态金属产生强烈的对流运动,对熔池起到了搅拌作用,使正在生长的柱状晶粒破碎,于是形成了较短且粗的柱状晶组织[21]
图4所示为不同样品的SEM扫描结果,2种试样的微观组织主要由板条马氏体与少量的奥氏体组成,但仅从金相视图及SEM视图无法轻易区分。利用能谱仪对点1和点2进行扫描,结果如图5所示,从2个位置的点扫结果可见存在元素成分差异,点2的Ni元素含量明显高于点1,而作为奥氏体稳定元素,Ni的偏析有利于残余奥氏体的保留及逆转变奥氏体的形成,这验证了基体中奥氏体相的存在。不论PAAM样品还是CMT样品,在基体中都可以观察到大量深黑色块状沉淀相,利用能谱仪对PAAM样品特定区域面扫结果如图5所示,发现Ti元素与Al元素的成分偏析聚集成团状,且恰好与观察到的块状沉淀相位置重合,进一步点扫对其进行元素分析,相应的EDS结果见图5点3,根据结果推算沉淀相主要成分为Ti−Al金属间化合物,而对CMT样品表面点4进行分析得到的结果也与之类似。在大量的反复加热−冷却−加热−冷却过程中,Ti和Al原子获得足够能量逐渐迁移至界面处形成偏析,最终形成Ti3Al相[22]
为了更好地研究增材过程中形成的沉淀相,通过TEM对2种不同工艺成形的样品进行进一步观察,结果如图6所示,通过更高倍率的TEM可以观察到PAAM试样和CMT试样表面均存在少量纳米级沉淀相,如图6(a)、(b)所示沉淀相与基体呈现清晰、尖锐的明暗界限,说明沉淀相与基体非共格。图6(c)所示为对沉淀物聚集区域的元素分析结果,Ni和Ti元素都存在明显的成分偏析,并与沉淀相的位置重合,由此推断可能为Ni−Ti金属间化合物。为进一步了解析出相的成分与结构,对基体及纳米级沉淀相进行衍射花样的标定,对应的快速傅里叶变换结果如图6(d)所示,经过计算得出基体为马氏体相,具有体心立方结构,而沉淀物为具有密排六方结构Ni3Ti。纳米级析出相的存在在基体发生塑性变形时对位错的运动起到阻碍作用[23],当析出相的相对强度和尺寸满足一定条件时,位错无法切过析出相,于是消耗更多能量形成位错环,绕过析出相,称为绕过机制(Orowan机制),使基体获得明显的强化效果。
图7为PAAM试样与CMT试样的EBSD扫描结果,图中分别展示了样品的反极图(IPF图)、几何必要位错分布图(GND分布图)和晶粒尺寸。从IPF图中可以看出,CMT样品晶粒相较于PAAM样品具有更加明显的择优取向,熔池中心具有强烈的<111>取向,而熔池边缘具有强烈的<101>取向,PAAM样品中大角度晶界占比为47.3%,而CMT样品大角度晶界仅有20.7%。同时,PAAM样品具有更离散的几何必要位错密度分布且平均位错密度更高,达到4.36×1014/m2;CMT样品的几何必要位错密度分布更加集中,平均位错密度为3.86×1014/m2。PAAM样品具有更小的平均晶粒尺寸3.51 μm,相比之下CMT样品平均晶粒尺寸更大,达到9.84 μm。
由于热源性质不同及较大的行走速度差异,PAAM相对于CMT的热输入较高,这就需要更长的冷却时间来确保二者增材过程层间温度一致,因此PAAM工件更长时间保持在高温环境,增材制造时剧烈的冷热循环使得工件保有大量残余应力。在高温环境和大量残余应力的共同作用下,PAAM工件发生了再结晶,一方面使工件的组织晶粒得到细化,另一方面弱化了晶粒的择优取向程度,使PAAM样品相对于CMT样品整体晶粒生长取向更加均匀,具有更多的大角度晶界。在熔池凝固阶段,由于等离子热源对熔池的高频剧烈冲击,对熔池起到了搅拌作用,使正在生长的晶粒破碎,导致更多的晶核产生,最终获得更细小的晶粒尺寸[21]
为进一步量化研究样品的择优取向及织构强度,图8为PAAM与CMT样品马氏体相(BCC)和奥氏体相(FCC)的极图。样品中马氏体相具有明显的高斯织构(Goss texture)和立方织构(Cube texture),奥氏体相具有明显的立方织构,PAAM样品中马氏体相和奥氏体相的最大织构密度分别为4.41和17.93,CMT样品中马氏体相和奥氏体相的最大织构密度分别为11.27和48.32。织构强度反映样品中晶粒的择优取向程度,其数值越大,择优取向越强。由于成形过程中更多逆转变奥氏体的生成以及由于更长时间处于高温状态,PAAM样品更容易发生回复和再结晶[11],导致其相较于CMT样品择优取向更不明显,织构强度更弱。
不同样品的应力–应变曲线如图9(a)所示。PAAM工件的水平(Horizontal,H)和垂直(Vertical,V)方向的抗拉强度分别为1367.7、1360.3 MPa,断后伸长率分别为15.2%、14.4%;CMT工件的水平和垂直方向的抗拉强度分别为1149.1、1063.4 MPa,断后伸长率分别为20.1%、17.8%。
经过对比发现,PAAM样品整体强度高出CMT样品18.9%,但塑性低于CMT样品,这归因于PAAM样品拥有更细小的晶粒尺寸、更高的位错密度,以及在不断热循环过程中析出更多、更密集的纳米级沉淀强化相,即细晶强化、位错强化、第二相强化的共同作用下增强了材料抵抗变形的能力,使得PAAM样品拥有了更高的强度,但同时也会阻碍位错的自由滑移运动,牺牲了一部分塑性。通过图9(b)观察到,垂直样品的强度、塑性明显低于水平样品,表现出各向异性,增材制造直接沉积的工件中层带的存在使层间结合力减弱[11,24],这不利于拉伸性能,垂直方向工件受层带影响更多,此外晶粒的择优取向及织构强度也会对材料的各向异性产生非常显著的影响,因此各试样表现出明显的各向异性。同时,PAAM样品相比于CMT样品熔合线两侧组织差异较小,且PAAM样品的择优取向和织构强度也远低于CMT样品,因此PAAM样品表现出较弱的各向异性。
利用扫描电子显微镜对拉伸试样断口进行观察并分析断裂机制,结果如图10所示。所有样品均可观测到韧窝存在,CMT试样几乎只表现出微孔聚集型断裂特征,只存在大量尺寸均匀的韧窝,说明其具有良好的塑性,同时又存在一定数量的孔洞,属于材料本身存在的气孔,这些气孔会导致局部应力集中,加速裂纹的萌生和拓展,一定程度上降低材料的强度。CMT样品中气孔形成原因有2种可能:一是保护气流量瞬间的不稳定导致熔池扰动,吸入空气;二是CMT热输入较低,熔池存在时间短,材料中可能存在的气体来不及逸出,被迫留在沉积层中。PAAM试样依旧也呈现出韧性断裂特征,但相较于CMT试样,韧窝尺寸呈现出不均匀性,存在很多小而密集的韧窝,这也侧面证实了其塑性低于CMT样品。
不同样品的显微硬度如图11所示,样品沿沉积方向取样长度共10 mm,为避免测量边缘时样品翘起使测量结果发生偏差,只在1.5~8.5 mm处间隔0.5 mm取1个点,共计17个点。PAAM样品平均显微硬度为444.2HV,CMT样品平均显微硬度为376.5HV。与一般马氏体相比,奥氏体相表现出更高的硬度,而PAAM样品奥氏体含量比CMT样品奥氏体含量更多,所以PAAM样品17个测量点的硬度数值波动更大。在细晶强化、位错强化、第二相强化这些强化机制的共同作用下,PAAM样品具有更高的平均硬度。
PAAM和CMT 2种不同的电弧增材工艺成形的工件组织具有一定的相似性,但在细微之处又有所差异,正是这些差异造就了二者性能上的不同。这些差异主要来源于PAAM和CMT热源性质和热输入。
由于PAAM采用外置前送丝的送丝方式,焊丝在未达到等离子弧中心前已经被熔化形成熔滴,熔池位置也略微提前于热源,此时等离子弧依然在对熔池进行加热。在熔池冷却凝固阶段,等离子弧保持着对熔池的高频剧烈冲击,高频冲击形成的搅拌作用破碎了正在长大的晶粒,打断了晶粒的外延生长方式,提供了更多的晶核,因此PAAM样品具有更细小的晶粒尺寸,如图7所示。
PAAM的热量来源于电弧在钨针与喷嘴之间形成的高温等离子射流,通过压缩效应获得的高度集中的等离子弧具有极高的能量密度,直接快速熔化外部送来的丝材,熔滴在重力和等离子电弧力的作用下脱离焊丝末端,以极高的速度形成射流落入熔池;CMT的热量来源于电流通过丝材时产生的电阻热以及电弧阶段电弧集中加热焊丝末端形成熔滴,而在短路阶段,电源输出降低,几乎切断电弧能量,焊丝快速回抽,熔滴在几乎没有电流的情况下脱离焊丝末端填入熔池,实现“冷”过渡,热量输入是间歇性的,在WAAM中热输入Q可以由公式(1)推导出:
$ Q={\eta UI}/{v} $
式中,η为电弧热效率系数,U为增材电压,I为增材电流,v为行走速度。
PAAM热效率通常为85%左右,CMT热效率通常为80%,结合表2给出的参数计算得到本研究中PAAM的热输入QPAAM=1922.3 J/mm,CMT的热输入QCMT=586.1 J/mm。PAAM和CMT的热输入差异较大,导致二者散热速度不同,本研究控制了二者相同的层间温度,也因此高热输入的PAAM成形时需要更长的层间等待时间,这意味着在不断的热循环中,工件会在更长时间中处于高温状态。首先,长时间的高温环境使晶粒可以自由生长,此时工件降温速度较慢,温度梯度相对较小,因此晶粒的择优取向生长趋势被一定程度削弱。其次,高温环境诱发了回复和再结晶过程,新生的晶粒择优生长较弱,以及在高温环境下产生的逆转变奥氏体晶粒的生成,使PAAM工件的择优取向和织构强度明显降低,如图7图8所示。而且较高的熔深以及长时间的高温状态引发的原子扩散和组织变化改善了层间结合状态,降低了层带的存在对材料各向异性的影响,因此PAAM样品相对于CMT样品表现出更弱的择优取向(图7)、更低的织构强度(图8)以及更弱的各向异性(图9)。样品更长时间处于高温状态,也直接导致了更多数量的沉淀相在界面处的析出。
冷却凝固时熔池表面暴露在低温且流动的保护气氛中,优先产生更高的过冷度,熔池表面大量形核,时间短暂且界面能和表面张力大,晶粒的生长被抑制,在熔池表面形成一层细密的等轴晶区,随后随着熔池的进一步降温,部分晶粒沿着从熔池指向基板的温度梯度生长形成柱状晶。等离子弧具有较高的挺度和穿透性,在形成熔池时相比于CMT具有更深的熔深,新的熔池形成时上一层沉积层表面细密的等轴晶区一起被熔化,因此在图3(a)中可见较宽的熔合线且熔合线两侧晶粒尺寸、形态差异较小,而CMT熔深较浅,因此在3(b)中可见较窄的熔合线,且保留了部分表面细晶区,表现为熔合线两侧晶粒尺寸差异较大,因此PAAM工件相对于CMT工件层间结合更加充分。
PAMM与CMT样品力学性能具有明显差异,为探究差异形成的具体机理,对二者强化机制对性能的贡献进行讨论。马氏体时效钢的强度主要来源于固溶强化、位错强化、晶界强化以及第二相强化机制,因本研究2种成形工艺使用的是同一成分同一批次的丝材,固溶强化机制不做讨论。
大量位错塞积会阻碍宏观塑性变形的发生,提高材料强度,其强化效果由公式(2)阐述[25]
$ {\sigma }_{\mathrm{D}}=M\alpha Gb\sqrt{\rho } $
式中,σ为位错强化贡献值;M为泰勒因子,M=3;α为比例系数,α=0.28;G为剪切模量,G=78 GPa;b为伯氏矢量,b=0.249 nm;ρ为位错密度,通过EBSD数据处理得到(图7),PAAM样品和CMT样品位错密度分别为4.36×1014、3.86×1014 m−2
经过计算,PAAM和CMT样品位错强化贡献值分别为340.4、320.3 MPa,二者差值为20.1 MPa。晶界处杂乱的原子排列阻碍了位错运动,其提供的强化与平均晶粒尺寸相关,细晶强化的贡献σG可以用Hall−Petch公式进行计算[12,25]
$ {\sigma }_{\mathrm{G}}={K}_{\mathrm{h}}{D}^{-\frac{1}{2}} $
式中,Kh为Hall−Petch系数,Kh=300 MPa/μm2D为平均晶粒尺寸,PAAM样品和CMT样品平均晶粒尺寸分别为3.51、9.84 μm。
经计算,PAAM样品和CMT样品细晶强化的贡献值分别为160.1、95.6 MPa,二者差值为64.5 MPa。在马氏体相中分布着不同尺寸的沉淀析出相。这些析出的第二相颗粒在塑性变形时触发绕过机制,显著提高材料性能。第二相强化机制的贡献σP可以用Orowan公式表述[12]
$ \sigma_{\mathrm{P}}=M\frac{0.4}{\text{π}\sqrt{1-v}}\frac{Gb}{L}\mathrm{ln}\frac{d}{b} $
式中,M=3;ν为泊松比,ν=0.3;G=78 GPa;b=0.249;d为第二相平均直径,L为第二相平均间距,dL通过TEM拍摄图像并通过ImageJ软件测量统计得出。
PAAM样品和CMT样品纳米析出相的平均晶粒尺寸分别为8.88、8.39 nm,析出相平均间距为119.4、206.1 nm。PAAM样品和CMT样品的第二相强化贡献值的计算结果为266.3和151.4 MPa,二者相差114.9 MPa。
最终得到2种不同电弧增材工艺性能的差异以细晶强化与第二相强化为主导,位错强化为辅助。将几种强化机制贡献差值求和得到理论强度差值为199.5 MPa,与试验所得实际强度差值214.5 MPa相差10%以内,基本吻合。
1) 热源对熔池的强烈冲击作用和热输入与冷却速率的良好匹配有利于组织的优化和力学性能的提升。相比于CMT工艺,PAAM工艺热源对熔池的高频剧烈冲击起了搅拌熔池的作用,使组织晶粒细化。同时,极高的热输入、更慢的冷却速率使工件长时间处于高温状态,经历大量循环热处理,使构件经历再结晶过程,明显细化晶粒;同时基体析出更多纳米强化相,导致PAAM构件力学性能明显优于CMT构件。
2) 更优秀的组织引起的细晶强化、第二相强化和位错强化等强化机制贡献了PAAM更优异的力学性能,表现为:PAAM和CMT构件平均晶粒尺寸分别为3.51、9.84 μm,细晶强化贡献值为160.1、95.6 MPa;纳米析出相Ni3Ti平均尺寸分别为8.88、8.39 nm,平均间距分别为119.4、206.1 nm,第二相强化贡献值为266.3、151.4 MPa;位错密度分别为4.36×1014、3.86×1014 m−2,位错强化贡献值为340.4、320.3 MPa。2种工艺理论强度差值为199.5 MPa,实际试验强度差值为214.5 MPa。
3) 力学性能的各向异性差异主要归因于更好的层间熔合状态和择优取向。PAAM与CMT相比更高的热输入和熔深使其层间熔合更加充分,同时冷却时间的延长使PAAM构件经历了再结晶过程,导致择优取向变弱。PAAM构件水平和垂直强度分别为1367.7、1360.3 MPa,伸长率分别为15.2%、14.4%,织构强度为4.41,力学性能趋向各向同性;CMT构件水平和垂直方向强度分别为1149.1、1063.4 MPa,伸长率分别为20.1%、17.8%,织构强度为9.34,力学性能表现为显著的各向异性。
4) 本研究主要聚焦于2种电弧增材工艺对马氏体时效钢室温静态力学性能的影响,尚未涉及疲劳性能、断裂韧性、冲击韧性等关键服役性能指标,这些性能对于材料在航空航天、海洋工程等高可靠性领域的应用至关重要。此外,工艺参数与组织演化之间的定量关系尚需进一步建模验证,析出相的演化机制及其对高温力学行为的影响亦有待深入探讨。后续研究将结合多尺度表征与多性能综合评价,完善电弧增材马氏体时效钢的性能体系,为其工程化应用提供更全面的理论支撑。
  • 国家自然科学基金项目(52105367)
  • 中央高校基本科研业务费专项资金项目(30924010203)
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2026年第44卷第7期
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doi: 10.3981/j.issn.1000-7857.2025.12.00112
  • 接收时间:2025-12-22
  • 首发时间:2026-04-23
  • 出版时间:2026-04-13
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  • 收稿日期:2025-12-22
  • 修回日期:2026-01-25
基金
国家自然科学基金项目(52105367)
中央高校基本科研业务费专项资金项目(30924010203)
作者信息
    1南京理工大学材料科学与工程学院,南京 210094
    2东南大学机械工程学院,南京 211189

通讯作者:

周琦(通信作者),教授,研究方向为增材制造材料与高效高性能工艺,电子信箱:;
郭顺(共同通信作者),讲师,研究方向为高能电子束异种金属焊接及模拟仿真,电子信箱:
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https://castjournals.cast.org.cn/joweb/kjdb/CN/10.3981/j.issn.1000-7857.2025.12.00112
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2种不同金属材料的力学参数

Family
属数
Number of
genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of
total species (%)

Genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of total
species (%)
鹅膏菌科Amanitaceae 2 11 5.26 鹅膏菌属 Amanita 10 4.78
小菇科 Mycenaceae 2 12 5.74 丝盖伞属 Inocybe 5 2.39
多孔菌科 Polyporaceae 8 14 6.70 蜡蘑属 Laccaria 5 2.39
红菇科 Russulaceae 3 23 11.00 小皮伞属 Marasmius 6 2.87
小菇属 Mycena 11 5.26
光柄菇属 Pluteus 5 2.39
红菇属 Russula 17 8.13
栓菌属 Trametes 5 2.39
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