Article(id=1212342499012645639, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146031591421210625, issueId=1212342494176604450, articleNumber=null, orderNo=21, doi=10.3981/j.issn.1000-7857.2025.09.00065, pmid=null, cstr=null, oa=null, hot=null, price=null, onlineType=0, articleFormat=0, articleType=null, articleTypeStr=research-article, receivedDate=1757088000000, receivedDateStr=2025-09-06, revisedDate=1760112000000, revisedDateStr=2025-10-11, acceptedDate=null, acceptedDateStr=null, onlineDate=1766974575999, onlineDateStr=2025-12-29, pubDate=1761580800000, pubDateStr=2025-10-28, doiRegisterDate=null, doiRegisterDateStr=null, onlineIssueDate=1764950400000, onlineIssueDateStr=2025-12-06, onlineJustAcceptDate=null, onlineJustAcceptDateStr=null, onlineFirstDate=null, onlineFirstDateStr=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, createTime=1766974575999, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1774080223673, updator=sys-migrate, issue=Issue{id=1212342494176604450, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146031591421210625, year='2025', volume='43', issue='20', pageStart='1', pageEnd='140', issueExtLink='null', onlineDate='null', pubDate='1761580800000', pubDateStr='2025-10-28', beforeIssueId=null, nextIssueId=null, price=null, status=1, issueComplete=1, articleOrder=1, issueType=-1, specialIssue=null, createTime=1766974574846, creator='13701087609', updateTime=1774330588720, updator='13041195026', preIssue=null, nextIssue=null, articleTotal=null, ext={EN=IssueExt(id=1243195852664189609, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146031591421210625, issueId=1212342494176604450, language=EN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=), CN=IssueExt(id=1243195852668383914, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146031591421210625, issueId=1212342494176604450, language=CN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=)}, issueFiles=null, downloadFileDto=null}, startPage=93, endPage=104, ext={EN=ArticleExt(id=1212342499343995672, articleId=1212342499012645639, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146031591421210625, language=EN, title=Progress in research on planning and control of humanoid robot locomotion in unstructured environments, columnId=1150494642224591153, journalTitle=Science & Technology Review, columnName=Exclusive, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

Humanoid robots, benefiting from their human−like morphology and locomotion capability, are regarded as promising platforms for future service, rescue, and industrial applications; however, achieving stable and reliable walking in unstructured environments remains highly challenging. This paper provides a comprehensive review of recent advances in humanoid locomotion planning and control, with a focus on gait planning, trajectory generation, whole−body control, and learning−driven approaches. We summarize the core concepts and implementation frameworks of representative methods, compare their applicable scenarios, strengths, and limitations, and present a hierarchical categorization of existing research. Moreover, this work discusses key technical bottlenecks that hinder environmental adaptability and dynamic stability. Finally, we outline future research directions, including multimodal perception integration, co−optimization of learning and control, whole−body motion skill learning, and safety assurance, and offer suggestions toward standardization and large−scale deployment.

, authors=null, authorsList=Yifeng CAO, Junpeng HE, Bingxian LI, Lili FAN, Yonglin TIAN, Weisong WEN, Dongpu CAO, authorCompany=null, correspAuthors=Dongpu CAO, authorNote=null, correspAuthorsNote=null, copyrightStatement=All rights reserved. Unauthorized reproduction is prohibited., copyrightOwner=null, extLink=null, articleAbsUrl=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, pdfUrl=null, pdf=null, pdfFileSize=null, pdfExtLink=null, richHtmlUrl=null, mobilePdfUrl=null, reviewReport=null, pdfFirstPage=null, abstractGraph=null, abstractGraphContent=null, abstractVideo=null, citation=null, cebUrl=null, magXmlContent=null, mapNumber=null, fund=null), CN=ArticleExt(id=1212342500392571736, articleId=1212342499012645639, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146031591421210625, language=CN, title=非结构化环境下人形机器人行走规划与控制, columnId=1150494642375586098, journalTitle=科技导报, columnName=特色专题, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

人形机器人因具有人体相似的形态与运动能力,被广泛认为是未来服务、救援与工业应用的潜在核心装备,但在非结构化环境中实现稳定可靠的行走仍具有显著挑战。综述了近年来在人形机器人行走规划与控制方面的研究进展,重点涵盖步态规划、轨迹生成、全身控制及学习驱动方法等方向。系统梳理了典型方法的核心思想与实现框架,对其适用场景、优势与局限进行比较分析,并根据规划与控制层级对现有研究进行分类总结。此外,讨论了提升环境适应性与动态稳定性的关键技术瓶颈,展望了未来在多模态感知融合、学习与控制协同优化、全身运动技能学习及安全性保障等方面的发展趋势,并对相关技术的标准化与大规模应用提出了建议。

, authors=

曹屹峰,博士研究生,研究方向为人形机器人、机器人控制、自动驾驶,电子信箱:

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曹东璞(通信作者),教授,研究方向为驾驶员认知、网联自动驾驶,电子信箱:
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曹屹峰,博士研究生,研究方向为人形机器人、机器人控制、自动驾驶,电子信箱:

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曹屹峰,博士研究生,研究方向为人形机器人、机器人控制、自动驾驶,电子信箱:

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非结构化环境下人形机器人行走规划与控制
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曹屹峰 1 , 何俊鹏 2 , 李炳贤 1 , 范丽丽 3 , 田永林 4 , 文伟松 1 , 曹东璞 5, *
科技导报 | 特色专题 2025,43(20): 93-104
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科技导报 |特色专题 2025 , 43 (20) : 93 -104
非结构化环境下人形机器人行走规划与控制
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曹屹峰1 , 何俊鹏2, 李炳贤1, 范丽丽3, 田永林4, 文伟松1, 曹东璞5, *
作者信息
  • 1香港理工大学航空及民航工程学系,香港 999077
  • 2滑铁卢大学电子与计算机学院,滑铁卢 N2L3G1
  • 3北京理工大学人工智能学院,北京 100081
  • 4中国科学院自动化研究所复杂系统管理与控制国家重点实验室,北京 100190
  • 5清华大学智能绿色车辆与交通全国重点实验室,北京 100084
通讯作者:
曹东璞(通信作者),教授,研究方向为驾驶员认知、网联自动驾驶,电子信箱:
Progress in research on planning and control of humanoid robot locomotion in unstructured environments
Yifeng CAO1 , Junpeng HE2, Bingxian LI1, Lili FAN3, Yonglin TIAN4, Weisong WEN1, Dongpu CAO5, *
Affiliations
  • 1Department of Aeronautical and Aviation Engineering, Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong 999077, China
  • 2Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Waterloo, Waterloo N2L3G1, Canada
  • 3School of Artificial Intelligence, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing 100081, China
  • 4State Key Laboratory for Management and Control of Complex Systems, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, China
  • 5State Key Laboratory of Intelligent Green Vehicle and Mobility, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
出版时间: 2025-10-28 doi: 10.3981/j.issn.1000-7857.2025.09.00065
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人形机器人因具有人体相似的形态与运动能力,被广泛认为是未来服务、救援与工业应用的潜在核心装备,但在非结构化环境中实现稳定可靠的行走仍具有显著挑战。综述了近年来在人形机器人行走规划与控制方面的研究进展,重点涵盖步态规划、轨迹生成、全身控制及学习驱动方法等方向。系统梳理了典型方法的核心思想与实现框架,对其适用场景、优势与局限进行比较分析,并根据规划与控制层级对现有研究进行分类总结。此外,讨论了提升环境适应性与动态稳定性的关键技术瓶颈,展望了未来在多模态感知融合、学习与控制协同优化、全身运动技能学习及安全性保障等方面的发展趋势,并对相关技术的标准化与大规模应用提出了建议。

人形机器人  /  步态规划  /  轨迹规划  /  行走控制

Humanoid robots, benefiting from their human−like morphology and locomotion capability, are regarded as promising platforms for future service, rescue, and industrial applications; however, achieving stable and reliable walking in unstructured environments remains highly challenging. This paper provides a comprehensive review of recent advances in humanoid locomotion planning and control, with a focus on gait planning, trajectory generation, whole−body control, and learning−driven approaches. We summarize the core concepts and implementation frameworks of representative methods, compare their applicable scenarios, strengths, and limitations, and present a hierarchical categorization of existing research. Moreover, this work discusses key technical bottlenecks that hinder environmental adaptability and dynamic stability. Finally, we outline future research directions, including multimodal perception integration, co−optimization of learning and control, whole−body motion skill learning, and safety assurance, and offer suggestions toward standardization and large−scale deployment.

humanoid robots  /  footstep planning  /  trajectory planning  /  locomotion control
曹屹峰, 何俊鹏, 李炳贤, 范丽丽, 田永林, 文伟松, 曹东璞. 非结构化环境下人形机器人行走规划与控制. 科技导报, 2025 , 43 (20) : 93 -104 . DOI: 10.3981/j.issn.1000-7857.2025.09.00065
Yifeng CAO, Junpeng HE, Bingxian LI, Lili FAN, Yonglin TIAN, Weisong WEN, Dongpu CAO. Progress in research on planning and control of humanoid robot locomotion in unstructured environments[J]. Science & Technology Review, 2025 , 43 (20) : 93 -104 . DOI: 10.3981/j.issn.1000-7857.2025.09.00065
人形机器人作为最接近人类形态与运动方式的自主系统,一直被认为是未来人工智能与机器人技术的重要方向[1]。与轮式或履带式机器人相比,人形机器人能够在以人为中心设计的环境中自然行走和操作,具备穿越狭窄通道、攀登楼梯、通过障碍、操作人类使用的工具,以及与人类共处的独特优势[2],这些特性使其在灾害救援、医疗护理、家庭服务和工业制造等场景中具有广阔的应用前景[3]
然而,要实现人形机器人在非结构化环境下的稳定行走依然面临重大挑战。非结构化环境通常具有以下特点:地形复杂多变,不平整的地面、随机障碍物、上下坡与台阶均会对机器人行走稳定性带来干扰;外部扰动频繁,如突发的推搡、载荷变化或环境中的动态因素;感知与控制的不确定性,传感器噪声、延迟及执行器精度限制,使规划与控制存在偏差。
针对上述挑战,人行机器人需要解决的问题具体可以分为:感知、定位、规划与控制4个子任务(图1)。环境感知得到机器人周围的环境信息,如地面信息、障碍物与目标信息等,建图与定位则提供了机器人与环境的相对位置信息,在环境感知及建图与定位的基础上,规划模块生成相应的目标轨迹,控制则会根据参考轨迹生成相应的控制输出。其中,规划与控制对于行走任务的关联性最为明显。规划与控制领域研究人员在过去10余年提出了大量方法,从高层的路径与落足点规划,到轨迹优化与扰动恢复机制,再到结合优化控制与强化学习控制的混合框架,逐步推动了人形机器人在复杂环境中从“能走”向“走得稳、走得快、走得聪明”发展。
总体而言,人形机器人行走的规划与控制领域的研究大致经历了3个阶段:(1) 早期阶段。以简化动力学为核心,关注基本的平衡保持与周期步态生成。(2) 发展阶段。引入优化与预测控制,逐步解决非平地行走、扰动恢复等问题。(3) 新兴阶段。借助深度学习与强化学习,推动感知、规划与控制的融合,实现端到端或混合式框架。
在国际上,如Atlas[4]、HRP[5]、iCub[6]系列等机器人推动了学术与工程进展;在国内,随着宇树[7]、悟空[8]、优必选[9]等平台的出现,人形机器人研究也逐渐形成体系,并在算法与应用上呈现快速增长的趋势。同时,机器人最大行走速度的纪录也被提升到11.7 km/h[7]
在行走能力方面,当前人形机器人的部署已经从实验室平地环境扩展至多地形、多扰动条件。典型成果包括:在碎石、草地、坡面等不规则地形上保持连续步态,在受外力干扰时通过捕获点调整实现平衡恢复,以及在载荷变化情况下保持步态稳定。这些能力的实现体现了规划与控制方法在感知融合、自适应调节和动力学一致性方面的显著进步。
本研究将围绕规划方法、控制方法以及将感知与规划或感知与控制等不同模块进行深度结合的混合式及感知规划与控制一体化的端到端算法3个方面,梳理近年来人形机器人在非结构化环境下行走的研究进展,并总结存在的瓶颈与未来的发展方向。
在人形机器人研究中,行走规划承担着连接高层任务需求与底层控制执行的桥梁作用。核心问题不仅是规划地图中从起始点到目标点的路径或轨迹,还包括考虑机器人的动力学以及稳定性约束。随着研究的深入,行走规划逐渐形成了自上而下的多层次框架:全局路径规划负责大范围的导航决策,落足点与步态序列规划确保与环境交互的可行性,而轨迹优化则决定了具体的动态表现,这些规划方法之间的关系如图2所示。步态规划生成离散的落脚点序列,而运动轨迹规划则生成特定控制目标,如质心或者腿部的参考运动轨迹。
在人形机器人面临的复杂环境中,首先需要确定一条从起点到目标点的可行路径。较为特殊的是,人形机器人需要将路径转化为具体且离散的落足点序列。落足点规划决定了机器人如何与环境发生接触,是确保运动稳定性与安全性的核心。
1) 基于几何求解的规划方法。
早期研究多借鉴移动机器人领域的经典方法,如基于栅格的A*算法,以及基于采样的快速随机树(RRT)与其改进型RRT*。早期研究采用几何规则来选择落足点,例如确保下一步落脚点位于支撑多边形内并满足一定的步幅约束。如Chestnutt等[10]提出了一种基于A*的步态规划算法,该算法可基于机器人当前落脚点及周围障碍物信息,来搜索计算在时间有限的规划范围内的最佳落脚点。作为这一类方法的拓展,Ayaz等[11]将搜索空间从二维拓展到三维,提出了一种基于三维搜索树的规划器,能够跨过障碍物并利用地形特征来扩大机器人的可及区域。这类方法简单高效,但往往对环境复杂性仍然考虑不足。同时,这些方法能够在二维或三维地图上高效搜索路径,适合用于静态环境中的全局导航。
2) 考虑动力学约束的规划方法。
单纯的几何路径并不能保证人形机器人在实际执行时的可行性。其原因在于:路径可能要求机器人采取过于极端的步态,超出动力学极限。近年来,部分研究尝试将动力学约束直接引入路径搜索过程,在A*或RRT的启发式函数中加入“步态可行性”或“能量消耗”来改进这类方法,Kim等[12]提出了一种基于A*的双层落足点规划器,在考虑动力学可行性的同时也引入了节能约束,并减小了计算延迟以做到在不平地面情况下的实时落足点生成。这类方法在路径生成阶段就考虑了机器人身体特性,从而减少了后续轨迹规划及后续控制可能会产生的冲突。这类方法通常将落足点位置、步长、步宽与步态时序作为优化变量,在约束条件中引入动力学稳定性、地形可达性及接触可行性。通过代价函数设计,可以平衡“稳定性”与“能效”等目标,显著提升了机器人在碎石或障碍环境中的适应性。这类方法进一步结合动力学约束与能耗评估,实现了更接近实际可执行的落足点序列。同时这类方法在路径生成阶段就考虑了机器人身体特性,从而减少了后续落足点规划的冲突。
3) 分层式步态规划。
由于环境往往存在不确定性和动态变化,离线生成的路径无法长期有效。为解决这一问题,研究人员提出了分层路径规划的思路:全局层负责粗粒度的路径生成,而局部层在执行过程中进行实时修正。例如,局部规划器可以结合高度图或点云数据,动态评估局部地形的可行性并选择合适的行走方式。这种方式在保持全局目标一致性的同时,提升了对未知环境的适应性。Stumpf等[13]提出了一种3D步态生成器,可以根据激光雷达得到的当前地形信息对落足点进行实时调整。Shamsah等[14]提出了一种具有分层结构的规划器,上层规划器根据地形建模实时生成全局粗糙路径,下层规划器根据动力学约束以及交互对落足点进行调整。类似的结合全局规划与局部规划的分层式规划器也见于Muenprasitivej等[15]的工作中,其中,上层的全局规划器用于生成全局轨迹序列,以保证规划的实时性,下层的局部规划器用于根据机器人动力学约束及周围局部地形环境生成局部落足点序列,以保证规划的可行性。分层式结构保证了规划的实时性及当前规划的可行性。
4) 学习辅助的步态规划。
近年来,深度学习被引入落足点规划。作为这类方法的早期探索,Lin等[16]根据规划样本训练了一个可行性的评价函数,同时双层规划结构将规划问题变为初步规划和局部重规划2个模块,保证规划的实时性和可行性。类似地,Meduri等[17]提出了Deep Q Stepper,他们的规划器中包含一个借助深度强化学习得出的评价策略,用于评价生成的落足点的好坏,这个规划器能很好地适应地形参数以及机器人模型参数的不确定性,可以有效生成在不平路面上的落足点序列。这类方法的优势在于能够学习复杂地形特征,但也存在泛化能力和训练样本依赖的问题。
总体而言,落足点规划已从“基于几何的快速方案”发展到“优化与学习结合的高精度方案”。在保证稳定性的同时,更加强调环境适应性与实时性。
落足点序列确定后,机器人需要生成符合动力学约束的运动轨迹,为下层控制器提供参考轨迹,通常生成的参考轨迹为质心参考轨迹及足部轨迹。生成的轨迹需要满足实时性、动力学约束等条件。
1) 基于简化模型的轨迹优化。
早期的轨迹优化方法致力于使用简化动力学模型生成特定参数的参考轨迹,最常见的框架是基于零力矩点(zero moment point,ZMP)与线性倒立摆模型(linear inverted pendulum model,LIPM)的轨迹生成方法,如通过控制质心在支撑多边形内的运动轨迹,机器人能够保持稳定的周期步态。一些研究旨在选取更有效参数的轨迹,或使用更精确的简化模型。Guan等[18]在模型预测控制中引入了障碍物碰撞检测及ZMP稳定性判据等作为约束,用于生成可跨过障碍物的ZMP参考轨迹。
相比于通过障碍物,通过不平路面的轨迹生成也有相关研究,Zheng等[19]基于模型预测控制与倒立摆模型生成三维不平路面下的质心与ZMP轨迹。Hopkins等[20]使用运动分歧分量(divergent component of movement,DCM)的时变拓展来生成参考轨迹,该方法能考虑机器人的单支撑相和双支撑相交替,从而生成更精确的在不平路面行走的参考轨迹。方法计算高效、易实现,但在复杂环境中鲁棒性不足。
2) 轨迹修正与在线调整。
部分研究在轨迹执行过程中动态修正,例如实时调整摆动腿的轨迹,以避免与障碍物碰撞;或通过时间重参数化改变步态节奏,从而提升对突发扰动的容忍度。Romano等[21]引入阻抗模型对质心及摆腿轨迹进行动态优化,以提升在外力扰动以及光滑地面情况下的稳定性。类似地,Zhao等[22]设计了一个混合规划框架,使用新定义的Riemann度量来测量受干扰状态和规划轨迹流形之间的距离,从而提高运动轨迹对粗糙地形及外部扰动的鲁棒性。
作为在这类方法上的进一步研究,Griffin等[23]对可行的捕获区域(capture egion)进行建模,从而规划质心轨迹,并允许规划器在正常轨迹与修正轨迹之间进行切换。相比于对自身状态以及外部扰动进行建模,Nguyen等[24]使用状态库来应对外部不确定环境,采用具有快速检索和插值的周期性步态库,使规划者能够动态响应不可预测的步进表面。这类方法通过对轨迹的动态调整,提升了与环境的动态交互能力与行走稳定性。
3) 数据驱动的轨迹规划。
在复杂环境下,单纯的模型可能无法准确描述系统动力学。为此,研究者利用数据驱动方法进行补偿。例如,利用神经网络学习质心运动的残差模型,或使用强化学习预测最佳步态修正量。
众多研究者利用数据驱动的方法来实时修正外部扰动下的质心或摆腿轨迹。例如,在Yeganegi等[25]的质心轨迹规划器中,基于贝叶斯网络对代价函数权重进行自动动态调整,以提升行走中的稳定性。作为完全基于学习的方法,Liu等[26]利用强化学习构建了足部轨迹与躯干质心轨迹的实时调整策略,以应对外力带来的扰动。
除了应对外部干扰之外,也有研究者使用数据驱动的方法来应对轨迹规划时的地形不确定性。如Muenprasitivej等[15]在规划问题中考虑环境中地形的不确定性,在轨迹规划算法中利用高斯过程(Gaussian process,GP)对地形高度变化进行建模。作为这一领域较新的研究成果,Chen等[27]使用策略梯度(policy gradient,PG)对机器人多刚体动力学模型进行建模,优化复杂地形下的机器人的摆腿轨迹,同时,规划算法还允许机器人选择不同的姿态,以进一步提升机器人的行走稳定性。这些方法在复杂地形中的表现显著优于传统模型,体现了“模型+学习”的融合趋势。
轨迹优化不仅保证了运动的平稳与稳定,还为机器人提供了面对环境不确定性时的快速恢复能力。未来的研究可能会更多关注如何在保持实时性的前提下,结合高维感知信息生成更加智能的轨迹。
行走规划方法正从传统的几何搜索逐步发展为兼顾动力学约束与环境适应性的多层次框架。全局路径规划为机器人提供了整体方向,落足点序列保证了局部可行性,而轨迹优化则在执行层面实现了动态稳定性。随着深度学习和优化技术的结合,未来的人形机器人有望在未知、复杂甚至动态环境中实现更自然、更可靠的行走能力。
行走规划与行走控制一般为上下层的关系,根据行走规划提供的参考运动轨迹,控制方法决定了具体动作实施。在人形机器人研究中,控制的核心目标在于维持机器人与外部环境交互下的稳定性、实现轨迹跟踪并适应外部扰动。随着技术发展,控制方法经历了从基于简化模型的平衡控制,到优化驱动的全身控制(whole−body control,WBC),再到学习驱动的自适应与混合控制的演进(图3)。
最经典的行走控制方法选择将机器人的多刚体动力学模型简化为一个简化模型如线性倒立摆模型(linear inverted pendulum model,LIPM)对机器人进行控制。作为早期的工作,Kajita等[28]提出将机器人抽象为一个质心与支撑多边形模型,利用零力矩点(zero−moment point,ZMP)作为平衡判据,通过维持质心投影位于支撑多边形内,机器人即可保持稳定。为提升机器人对不平地形的适应能力,Erez等[29]提出一种用于使周期行为适应任务参数逐渐变化的算法,每个步态都针对任务的不同变体进行了优化,使机器人在不需要地形信息的情况下提升行走稳定性和地形适应性。这一方法计算简便,易于实时实现,成为早期人形机器人的核心控制框架。
然而,LIPM假设支撑脚与地面始终完全接触,忽略了踝关节与上身运动的影响。为此,研究人员引入了多种扩展。例如,基于Pratt等[30]提出的捕获点(capture point,CP)理论,对现有的基于简化模型的控制方法进行拓展。如Rebula等[31]基于LIPM学习机器人的捕获点规律,以对机器人的捕获点进行预测,从而实现在遇到外力扰动后的平衡恢复。
除去适应外力扰动,这一方法也被用于适应复杂地形,如Morisawa等[32]提出一种基于捕获点的行走控制方法,通过控制机器人行走周期中的质心加速度轨迹,来提升机器人面对复杂地形时的平衡能力。Ramos等[33]通过去除传统捕获点法的质心位置限制,实现了适应复杂地形的捕获点控制。这类方法提出利用一步或多步落足来恢复平衡,为扰动恢复提供了新的思路。
除去引入捕获点这一概念来增强行走控制的稳定性,还有一部分研究人员尝试对简化模型进行拓展,以提升其在非结构化环境下的适应能力。如Englsberger等[34]设计了一种使用拓展线性倒立摆模型的捕获点轨迹控制器,以考虑行走时的角动量影响及质心高度的变化,使简化模型更接近于真实的多刚体动力学模型,从而提升在非结构化环境下的行走稳定性。Liu等[35]提出可变高度的线性倒立摆模型,并引入实时捕获点(instantaneous capture point,ICP)对可变高度线性倒立摆模型进行控制,以提升机器人在非结构化环境如复杂地形与外部干扰下的稳定性。
作为这类方法的更进一步拓展,Elhasairi等[36]进一步将倒立摆模型从二维空间拓展到三维空间,提出球面倒立摆模型,并在此基础上设计行走控制器,提升了在多方向外力干扰下的稳定性。相比于对简化模型进行拓展,也有研究人员选择对简化模型进行参数优化,如Liu等[37]尝试通过质心轨迹误差对原有的线性倒立摆模型进行参数优化,使人形机器人面对未知外力干扰时能保持平衡。
与引入捕获点概念类似,也有研究者将质心动量纳入控制变量,以更真实地描述机器人整体动力学。早期的工作如Hofmann等[38]在控制器中研究了角动量最小化约束,以及角动量对机器人行走稳定性的影响。在Lee等[39]的研究工作中,引入了动量控制法,通过控制器优化支撑腿的接触力轨迹使得机器人得以在可变性地面上稳定行走。Yun等[40]通过约束动量与角动量轨迹控制机器人落脚点,让行走过程中的机器人在外力扰动下保持平衡,相比于传统的捕获点控制方法,他们的控制方法在不平坦地面仍然具有良好的稳定性。Herzog等[41]设计了一个基于线性二次调节器(linear quadratic regulator,LQR)的控制策略,并通过逆动力学计算各关节的参考扭矩,他们的控制器使机器人在真实环境的扰动下仍然能保持良好的稳定性,且面对模型的参数误差也有很好的鲁棒性。
简化模型方法在计算复杂度与控制稳定性之间取得了一定平衡,使人形机器人能够完成较为复杂的基本行走任务,并在早期研究中发挥了重要作用。然而,这类方法也存在显著局限:首先,它们通常依赖于低维近似模型,难以全面刻画高自由度人形机器人全身的动力学耦合关系;其次,当机器人处于强扰动或非结构化环境时,基于简化模型的假设往往失效,导致系统稳定性受限;最后,简化模型控制无法有效利用机器人冗余的关节自由度,从而难以实现行走与操作等多任务的协同执行。这些不足不仅限制了机器人在复杂场景下的应用能力,也为后续WBC方法的发展提供了明确的研究动因和技术背景。
全身控制的核心思想是在完整动力学模型的框架下,同时协调多个任务目标,例如维持质心平衡、实现步态跟踪以及完成上肢操作等。与依赖简化模型的方法不同,WBC强调通过引入机器人全身的动力学约束,以优化求解的方式在不同任务之间实时分配控制输入,从而在确保物理可行性的同时最大化任务完成度。其理论基础可追溯至Sapio等[42]提出的任务空间控制(operational space control,OSC)框架,该方法首次提出了在任务空间直接进行控制分配的思想,并在后续研究中被广泛推广应用于人形机器人这一典型的高自由度多刚体系统。
现代WBC通常将控制问题表述为一个约束优化问题,其中任务目标包括保持质心稳定、足部轨迹跟踪以及上肢姿态控制等;约束条件涵盖关节力矩范围、接触力摩擦锥以及完整的动力学方程;而在具体的数值求解方面,二次规划(quadratic programming,QP)成为最常见的工具。该方法通过在实时优化过程中平衡不同任务的优先级,使人形机器人能够在复杂环境下展现出多任务协同与动态稳定性的能力。
作为全身控制方法的早期探索,Chang等[43]将身体位姿控制引入WBC框架,使机器人在受到环境震动的情况下依然能够维持平衡并完成行走任务。随后,Radford等[44]提出了适用于Valkyrie机器人的WBC框架,该系统不仅能够实现复杂环境下的动态行走,还能够在保持稳定性的同时完成多种操作任务。与此同时,Kim等[45]进一步发展了全身操作空间控制器(whole−body operational space controller,WBOSC),该方法能够在统一框架下同时调节关节动作与驱动力,从而使机器人具备更强的地形适应性。如,该控制器使机器人能够跨越不连续路面,并在外力扰动下保持稳定行走。总体来看,这些代表性的研究为后续全身控制方法的完善与推广奠定基础,充分展示了WBC在实现多任务协调与鲁棒行走方面的潜力。
在全身控制中,任务间往往存在冲突。例如,保持平衡与完成操作任务可能无法同时满足。为此,研究者提出了分层全身控制(hierarchical WBC,HWBC),将不同控制目标进行分层式叠加,通过优先级机制保证关键任务优先执行。例如,Kashyap等[46]将机器人的平衡过程建模为脚踝关节驱动浮动基模型的过程,在全身控制的基础上引入退火控制法,在控制机器人行走的基础上优先保证踝关节驱动机器人回到稳定状态,从而使得机器人可以在外部推力下保持平衡。Ahn等[47]也通过优化脚踝关节驱动力轨迹来提升机器人全身控制器的行走稳定性,通过学习多刚体动力学模型数据构建了一个符合刚体模型,并在这个基础上得到优化的踝关节力矩,使机器人可以适应多种地形及摩擦系数的复杂路面。
除了优化踝关节驱动扭矩,也有研究尝试优化接触力轨迹或质心轨迹。例如,在Luo等[48]提出的控制器采用了分层式的结构,下层的全身控制器的上层接入了震荡控制器与平滑控制器,用于优化机器人在非结构化环境下行走过程中的质心轨迹与接触力轨迹。Kim等[49]则致力于研究机器人行走过程中支撑腿交换的过程,通过优化支撑腿交换过程中接触力的震荡,提升了机器人在未知地形与外部干扰等不确定条件下的行走稳定性。Xiao等[50]将全身控制与模型预测控制(model predictive control,MPC)结合,在全身控制器上层接入了一个基于简化模型的模型预测控制器来生成参考接触力轨迹,以实现机器人在不平地形下的稳定行走。这种方法能够在保证稳定性的前提下最大化利用冗余自由度。
尽管WBC在实现多任务协调和动力学一致性方面展现出显著优势,但在实际应用中仍面临诸多挑战。首先,由于人形机器人本身具有高自由度和非线性动力学特征,WBC需要在实时条件下求解高维的优化问题,这对计算资源提出了极高的要求,限制了其在嵌入式平台上的部署。其次,控制框架通常依赖精确的动力学模型,而在真实机器人中,不可避免地存在模型与实际执行器之间的偏差,例如摩擦、柔性关节或传感器噪声等因素,这会导致控制性能下降。最后,在高度动态的非结构化环境中,如何在保持稳定性的同时兼顾复杂任务执行,仍是一个难以完全解决的问题。上述局限性表明,单纯依赖模型驱动的全身控制难以满足复杂场景下的鲁棒性需求,这也直接推动了研究者尝试将数据驱动与学习方法引入控制框架,以期实现更强的适应性与泛化能力。
近年来,深度强化学习(deep reinforcement learning,DRL)在机器人控制领域展现出巨大的发展潜力。与依赖精确动力学建模的传统模型驱动方法不同,DRL借助深度神经网络的强大表示能力,通过与环境的反复交互直接学习状态与动作的映射关系,从而获得控制策略。这一特点使其在缺乏精确模型或模型难以建立的情况下,依然能够实现较为稳定的控制性能。更为重要的是,DRL在面对复杂、非线性和高度不确定的动力学系统时表现出较强的适应性与鲁棒性。例如,在地形随机变化、外部扰动频繁或感知信息存在噪声的场景下,基于DRL的控制策略能够通过训练过程逐步学会合适的应对机制,而无需显式依赖简化模型的假设。因此,DRL的引入不仅为人形机器人突破传统控制框架的局限提供了新的思路,也为其在非结构化环境中的稳定行走与任务执行开辟了新的研究方向。
为解决简化模型的参数误差带来的控制不稳定的问题,Li等[51]提出了一种无模型的学习框架,通过域随机化(domain randomization)使框架可以学习动态的行走策略,并且可以轻松从仿真环境部署到真实机器人平台上,实现在现实环境中的稳定行走。Ferigo等[52]的研究证明,不需要对机器人的行走稳定性进行精确定义,而仅通过设计奖励函数,强化学习框架可以学习鲁棒的行走策略,在面对外力干扰和未知地形时都能保持良好的稳定性。为了增强机器人行走算法面对外部环境的反馈能力,Xie等[53]将机器人电机的电流反馈引入强化学习框架,使行走算法能获得更好的地形适应能力。
除去利用强化学习学习简单的行走控制策略,也有研究者尝试利用强化学习学习特殊或者多样化的行走技能。例如,为了适应多种地形环境,Peng等[54]提出了多演员−评论家结构(mixture of actor−critic experts,MACE),相比于深度强化学习方法常见的单一演员−评论家结构,他们的结构可以针对不同地形学习到相应不同的步态策略。相比于一般的强化学习算法致力于跟踪质心速度指令,Lee等设计的强化学习控制器可以与上游规划器相配合,精确跟踪上游规划器提供的落脚点序列,使机器人可以精确地跨过各种复杂的环境[39]
除了使用纯粹的深度强化学习构建控制策略,也有研究者探索尝试使用学习的方法增强优化控制算法,即将使用不同方法的模块进行结合的混合式框架。Bang等[55]设计的控制框架融合了强化学习与模型预测控制,使用强化学习策略结合机器人状态对上层规划器的落脚点进行实时调整,并使用模型预测控制方法来跟踪优化后的落脚点。这种方法以优化控制作为基础框架,并用强化学习提供修正信号,强化学习提供了对地形等参数不确定性的适应能力,而模型驱动的方法则提供了安全约束,防止失稳或动作异常。
基于学习的控制框架为人形机器人提供了突破传统模型局限的全新思路,其在复杂环境下展现出的高度自适应能力充分证明了数据驱动方法的潜力。然而,这类方法也面临诸多限制:其一,训练往往需要大量样本,尤其在真实机器人上收集数据成本极高;其二,仿真与现实之间存在不可忽视的差距,导致策略在实际部署时泛化能力不足;其三,学习策略普遍缺乏可解释性和严格的安全保证,难以直接应用于高风险任务场景。总体来看,学习驱动的控制虽具有重要发展前景,未来亟需在样本效率、跨域迁移以及安全验证等方面进一步研究和突破。
总体而言,人形机器人控制方法的发展大致经历了3个重要阶段。首先,基于简化模型的方法,如线性倒立摆模型与零力矩点控制,为实现基本的动态平衡和周期步态生成奠定了理论与技术基础。这类方法在早期推动了人形机器人从静态行走向动态行走的跨越,但其在处理全身动力学耦合和复杂任务执行方面存在明显局限。其次,随着优化技术与计算能力的提升,全身控制逐渐成为主流。通过将控制问题形式化为约束优化,全身控制能够在满足机器人完整动力学约束的同时,实现质心平衡、步态跟踪与上肢操作等多任务的协调执行,使机器人逐步具备在真实复杂环境中开展应用的能力。然而,全身控制的实时性要求与对模型精度的依赖仍然限制了其在非结构化环境中的鲁棒性。近年来,学习驱动与混合控制方法开始兴起,深度强化学习凭借其强大的自适应能力,为机器人在未知环境中的稳健运动提供了新的可能。与此同时,模型驱动与学习驱动的结合成为新的研究方向,既能利用模型方法的可解释性与安全性,又能发挥学习方法在复杂场景下的灵活性与泛化能力。总体来看,未来的人形机器人控制方法有望走向深度融合,在统一的优化与学习框架下实现稳定性、灵活性与任务执行能力的平衡,从而进一步推动人形机器人在非结构化环境中的实用化发展。
人形机器人要在非结构化环境中实现稳定而灵活的行走,仅依靠单一的规划或控制方法往往难以满足需求。近年来,相比于单独设计,调整规划或控制等模块,有研究者开始尝试设计整体式框架,通过将不同模块紧密融合实现整体优化。趋势主要体现在3方面:其一,将感知、规划与控制整合到统一的框架中;其二,引入强化学习控制甚至感知规划或感知规划控制一体化的端到端策略,突破传统模块化架构的局限;其三,强调硬件平台与算法的协同设计。
传统的人形机器人行走系统大多采用分层架构:感知模块生成环境模型,规划模块输出路径与步态,控制模块再跟踪执行。然而这种分离式架构存在信息传递延迟、误差累积以及模块间不一致的问题。
为解决这一瓶颈,研究者提出一体化框架,将感知、规划与控制等模块之间进行一定有机结合。例如,一部分研究者尝试将感知与控制进行结合,作为这类方法的早期工作,Siravuru等[56]利用卷积神经网络对摄像头得到的2D地形信息进行深度估计,生成高度地图并与下层控制器进行结合,使机器人行走控制器对地形有更好的交互与适应能力。Duan等[57]也提出了类似的结构,除去机器人对自身状态的感知,他们的控制框架将感知与控制结合,额外增加了摄像头提取的地形高度信息,使得机器人行走控制器在接受上游手柄控制指令外,也可根据当前所处的环境,选择相应的步态以顺利跨越当前的地形。
除了将部分模块进行紧密结合,近年也有研究者尝试将感知、规划与控制结合作为一体式的控制框架,使仅通过单一模块,让机器人可以在环境中自主到达指定的目标地点,形成真正的“端到端”架构。如Zhuang等[58]提出了一个端到端架构,使机器人可以通过视觉信息,自动生成对应的轨迹序列,以穿过复杂环境,到达指定的目标地点。这种融合的优势在于能够减少感知与执行之间的“链路长度”,提升系统的实时性和鲁棒性。但其挑战在于计算开销大以及多模态信息融合带来的不确定性。
端到端方法在机器人行走中的应用仍处于不断演进阶段,其发展趋势主要体现在3个方面。首先,模型与学习的深度融合将成为主流方向:研究者尝试在端到端框架中引入可微分物理约束或优化层,使得控制器既具备端到端学习的灵活性,又保持物理一致性与稳定性。其次,多模态感知的整合将进一步提升端到端架构的适应性,视觉、力觉和惯性传感等信息的融合有助于机器人在更加复杂和动态的环境中实现鲁棒控制。最后,仿真到现实的迁移仍是亟需解决的关键问题,通过域自适应、对抗训练和真实机器人上的小样本微调,有望缩小仿真与现实之间的差距。总体而言,随着计算能力的提升与学习算法的进步,端到端方法有望在未来成为推动人形机器人实现真正自主行走的重要方向。
近年来,人形机器人在规划与控制方面的研究已取得显著进展,并逐步迈向实际应用。然而,在复杂非结构化环境中实现真正的稳定性、泛化性和可扩展性依然面临巨大挑战。未来的发展趋势将不再局限于单一算法的改进,而是更加强调跨学科的深度融合,尤其是与人工智能、硬件平台和标准体系的结合,以下4个方向可能成为未来研究的重点。
随着大语言模型(large language models,LLM)和视觉语言模型(vision−language models,VLM)的快速演进,人形机器人在任务理解与语义感知方面将迎来新突破。传统的规划与控制方法主要依赖数值优化与物理建模,其对任务的理解和环境的表征大多停留在几何或动力学层面。而LLM与VLM的引入则有望让机器人具备更接近人类的语义推理与环境理解能力。例如,机器人能够通过语言指令生成高层次任务规划,并结合视觉语义分割结果来识别障碍物、台阶或目标物体的位置,从而将“任务理解—路径规划—动作控制”形成自然衔接。这种能力不仅能够提升机器人在复杂任务场景中的适应性,还能够显著改善人机交互体验,使非专业用户也能通过自然语言与机器人进行高效沟通。未来,如何将基于语义理解的规划和控制与传统动力学约束有机结合,将成为实现智能化行走控制的重要研究方向。
人形机器人在实际应用中往往受到算力、能耗和执行器性能的制约,因此,未来的研究必须更加注重硬件与算法的协同优化。一方面,执行器与传感器技术的进步将为复杂算法的部署提供坚实硬件基础。例如,高带宽低延迟的电机驱动与高精度力/力矩传感器能够显著提升控制器在快速扰动下的反应能力,使得基于优化与学习的控制策略能够实时运行。另一方面,算法设计也需要更加贴合硬件特性,如发展低能耗的控制优化方法、面向嵌入式硬件的高效学习算法等,从而延长机器人的续航并提升整体能效。此外,硬件与算法的协同发展不仅体现在计算和能耗的平衡,还包括机器人结构布局与控制策略的共同优化。例如,有研究已探索通过关节冗余配置来减轻控制难度,而算法则反过来利用冗余关节提升任务灵活性。这种双向促进的模式有望成为未来人形机器人设计与控制的核心理念。
除了算法与硬件协同,机器人本体结构与传感系统的革新同样是提升行走能力的关键。当前人形机器人在高动态环境下仍面临能耗大、响应慢和环境适应性不足等问题,这在很大程度上与机器人本体设计相关。未来,轻量化与高强度材料的应用将显著降低机器人能耗并提升耐久性,而柔性关节与顺应性机构的引入则有助于机器人在非结构化地形中更好地吸收冲击、维持稳定。在传感器方面,新一代分布式触觉传感器能够为机器人提供全身接触信息,使其能够像人类一样利用触觉进行环境交互;视觉惯性融合传感器则可以提升姿态估计与环境建模的精度。此外,多模态传感信息的融合将为控制算法提供更为丰富的输入,使机器人在感知与决策层面获得更强的鲁棒性。这些机构与传感器的持续演进将不仅提升机器人在单一任务中的表现,还将拓宽其在多任务与复杂环境下的适用性。
当前人形机器人研究的一个突出问题在于,各人形机器人平台间有较大差异,缺乏统一的数据集与评价体系,导致不同研究成果之间的对比具有较大局限性。各研究团队通常在不同的仿真平台或实验环境下测试算法,难以形成可直接比较的性能基准。未来,建立开放且标准化的数据集与评价体系显得尤为重要。这类数据集应覆盖多样化的行走场景,包括不规则地形、外部扰动、障碍物分布以及多任务操作需求;而评价体系则应在稳定性、能效、任务完成率和安全性等多维度上进行全面考量。统一的数据与评测标准不仅能够促进学术界在算法迭代中的公平比较,也有助于推动工业界快速采纳先进方法,实现从实验室到应用的平滑过渡。可以预见,类似计算机视觉和自然语言处理领域的评价体系将在人形机器人研究中逐步建立,使人形机器人相关算法可进行量化评价与比较,并成为推动该领域持续进步的驱动力。
人形机器人行走研究在过去几十年取得了显著进展,从早期的简化模型控制到近年的全身优化与学习驱动方法,技术体系逐渐形成了较为完整的框架。以“非结构化环境下的人形机器人行走规划与控制”为核心视角,综述了规划方法、控制方法以及2者的融合与发展趋势,并在此基础上进行总结与展望。
在技术层面,行走规划与控制方法不断演进:在规划方面,研究已使机器人能够不仅在静态环境中生成稳定步态,还能在动态与未知场景下展现出更高的鲁棒性与实时性。在控制方面,当前的研究推动了机器人从“能走”、到“能多任务稳定行走”、再到“能在复杂环境中自适应行走”的发展。在协同式方法方面,越来越多的研究强调感知—规划—控制的一体化,强化学习与端到端方法不断突破模块化架构的限制。综上所述,当前人形机器人行走研究已经形成了从规划、控制到融合的完整方法体系,并正沿着高鲁棒性、自适应与实用化的方向快速发展。
展望未来,人形机器人研究将不仅聚焦于单一的算法或硬件突破,而是朝着跨领域、跨层次的综合发展方向迈进。通过与大模型的结合、硬件—算法协同优化、机构与传感器的演进,以及统一标准体系的建立,人形机器人有望在非结构化环境中实现更高水平的自主性与智能化,真正走向实用化与大规模应用。

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2025年第43卷第20期
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doi: 10.3981/j.issn.1000-7857.2025.09.00065
  • 接收时间:2025-09-06
  • 首发时间:2025-12-29
  • 出版时间:2025-10-28
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  • 收稿日期:2025-09-06
  • 修回日期:2025-10-11
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    1香港理工大学航空及民航工程学系,香港 999077
    2滑铁卢大学电子与计算机学院,滑铁卢 N2L3G1
    3北京理工大学人工智能学院,北京 100081
    4中国科学院自动化研究所复杂系统管理与控制国家重点实验室,北京 100190
    5清华大学智能绿色车辆与交通全国重点实验室,北京 100084

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曹东璞(通信作者),教授,研究方向为驾驶员认知、网联自动驾驶,电子信箱:
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2种不同金属材料的力学参数

Family
属数
Number of
genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of
total species (%)

Genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of total
species (%)
鹅膏菌科Amanitaceae 2 11 5.26 鹅膏菌属 Amanita 10 4.78
小菇科 Mycenaceae 2 12 5.74 丝盖伞属 Inocybe 5 2.39
多孔菌科 Polyporaceae 8 14 6.70 蜡蘑属 Laccaria 5 2.39
红菇科 Russulaceae 3 23 11.00 小皮伞属 Marasmius 6 2.87
小菇属 Mycena 11 5.26
光柄菇属 Pluteus 5 2.39
红菇属 Russula 17 8.13
栓菌属 Trametes 5 2.39
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