Article(id=1210613543297225719, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149653034449285133, issueId=1210613541111984320, articleNumber=null, orderNo=null, doi=10.16790/j.cnki.1009-9239.im.2024.11.001, pmid=null, cstr=null, oa=null, hot=null, price=null, onlineType=0, articleFormat=0, articleType=null, articleTypeStr=research-article, receivedDate=1711641600000, receivedDateStr=2024-03-29, revisedDate=1717516800000, revisedDateStr=2024-06-05, acceptedDate=null, acceptedDateStr=null, onlineDate=1766562360834, onlineDateStr=2025-12-24, pubDate=1732032000000, pubDateStr=2024-11-20, doiRegisterDate=null, doiRegisterDateStr=null, onlineIssueDate=1766562360834, onlineIssueDateStr=2025-12-24, onlineJustAcceptDate=null, onlineJustAcceptDateStr=null, onlineFirstDate=null, onlineFirstDateStr=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, createTime=1766562360834, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1766562360834, updator=13701087609, issue=Issue{id=1210613541111984320, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149653034449285133, year='2024', volume='57', issue='11', pageStart='1', pageEnd='143', issueExtLink='null', onlineDate='null', pubDate='null', beforeIssueId=null, nextIssueId=null, price=null, status=1, issueComplete=1, articleOrder=1, issueType=-1, specialIssue=null, createTime=1766562360313, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1766564044072, updator=13701087609, preIssue=null, nextIssue=null, ext={EN=IssueExt(id=1210620603392987671, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149653034449285133, issueId=1210613541111984320, language=EN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=), CN=IssueExt(id=1210620603392987672, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149653034449285133, issueId=1210613541111984320, language=CN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=)}, issueFiles=null}, startPage=1, endPage=17, ext={EN=ArticleExt(id=1210613543582438393, articleId=1210613543297225719, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149653034449285133, language=EN, title=A review of insulation system testing technologies for new energy vehicle drive motor, columnId=1210613542542241998, journalTitle=Insulating Materials, columnName=Special Issue on Key Materials and Technology for New Energy Vehicles, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

The motor is the key drive component of new energy vehicles, and the insulation system is an important guarantee for motor reliability. Once the motor insulation fails, it will pose a threat to the safe operation of the vehicle. The severe electric heating stress is the main factor causing insulation failure, so it is of great significance to test the motor insulation level under complex pulse parameters and environmental conditions. This paper had reviewed the latest research results at home and abroad from several aspects of performance evaluation methods and influencing factors, voltage distribution calculation, and weak spot location of new energy vehicle drive motor insulation system. Combined with the development trend of voltage level improvement, power density improvement, breaking frequency improvement, and switching speed increase, the problems and challenges faced by insulation evaluation of variable frequency motor were pointed out, which provided reference for the future research in this field.

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电机是新能源汽车的关键驱动部件,绝缘系统是电机可靠性的重要保障,电机绝缘一旦失效,将对汽车的安全运行构成威胁。严酷的电热应力是导致绝缘失效的主要因素,在复杂脉冲参数和环境下对电机绝缘水平进行测试具有重要意义。本文从新能源汽车驱动电机绝缘系统的性能评估方法与影响因素、电压分布计算和薄弱点定位等方面综述国内外最新研究成果,并结合电压等级提升、功率密度提高、开断频率提高和开关速度增加的发展趋势,指出变频电机绝缘评估面临的问题和挑战,为未来该领域需重点关注的研究方向提供参考。

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王鹏(1982-),男(汉族),山东菏泽人,副教授,博士,主要从事新能源、电力电子装备中的绝缘系统性能评估的研究。
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朱光亚(1989-),女(汉族),四川阆中人,副教授,博士,主要从事固体电介质老化、电力设备绝缘状态监测与诊断的研究;

林沐泓(2000-),女(汉族),四川乐山人,硕士生,主要从事电气设备绝缘检测和故障诊断的研究。

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朱光亚(1989-),女(汉族),四川阆中人,副教授,博士,主要从事固体电介质老化、电力设备绝缘状态监测与诊断的研究;

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朱光亚(1989-),女(汉族),四川阆中人,副教授,博士,主要从事固体电介质老化、电力设备绝缘状态监测与诊断的研究;

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林沐泓(2000-),女(汉族),四川乐山人,硕士生,主要从事电气设备绝缘检测和故障诊断的研究。

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林沐泓(2000-),女(汉族),四川乐山人,硕士生,主要从事电气设备绝缘检测和故障诊断的研究。

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tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1218964287108858468, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149653034449285133, articleId=1210613543297225719, language=CN, label=图19, caption=不同油液滴加量下PDIV变化曲线, figureFileSmall=d19A8JFGBHBWgsi61i3qzw==, figureFileBig=VCH5CD7+eQ+SViYv5POdJQ==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1218964287205327463, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149653034449285133, articleId=1210613543297225719, language=EN, label=Fig.20, caption=Endurance distribution at different ambient temperatures, figureFileSmall=n2evPNHqUeer3GApUBsQKA==, figureFileBig=2KHzDHVL3fP8fWgcA6fZdw==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1218964287322767978, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149653034449285133, articleId=1210613543297225719, language=CN, label=图20, caption=不同环境温度中耐电晕寿命分布, figureFileSmall=n2evPNHqUeer3GApUBsQKA==, figureFileBig=2KHzDHVL3fP8fWgcA6fZdw==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1218964287406654060, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149653034449285133, articleId=1210613543297225719, language=EN, label=Fig.21, caption=The voltage waveforms of each part of the motor insulation, figureFileSmall=XUgkDIdJHbbd1ZwMeq4URQ==, figureFileBig=MMU/8JNjzoTjN1jR3P/JEw==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1218964287528288878, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149653034449285133, articleId=1210613543297225719, language=CN, label=图21, caption=电机各绝缘部位承受的电压波形, figureFileSmall=XUgkDIdJHbbd1ZwMeq4URQ==, figureFileBig=MMU/8JNjzoTjN1jR3P/JEw==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1218964287645729394, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149653034449285133, articleId=1210613543297225719, language=EN, label=Fig.22, caption=Relation between Eg-d curves and Paschen curve with different interturn voltage, figureFileSmall=W5k0Udw+x11L962hQKMIpQ==, figureFileBig=NBWI1L+hy0Mv7dNCxB88tQ==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1218964287742198389, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149653034449285133, articleId=1210613543297225719, language=CN, label=图22, 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新能源汽车驱动电机绝缘系统测试技术综述
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朱光亚 1 , 林沐泓 1 , 刘国栋 2 , 王鹏 1
绝缘材料 | 新能源汽车用关键材料与技术专题 2024,57(11): 1-17
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绝缘材料 | 新能源汽车用关键材料与技术专题 2024, 57(11): 1-17
新能源汽车驱动电机绝缘系统测试技术综述
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朱光亚1, 林沐泓1, 刘国栋2, 王鹏1
作者信息
  • 1四川大学 电气工程学院,四川 成都 610065
  • 2上海理想汽车科技有限公司,上海 201805
  • 朱光亚(1989-),女(汉族),四川阆中人,副教授,博士,主要从事固体电介质老化、电力设备绝缘状态监测与诊断的研究;

    林沐泓(2000-),女(汉族),四川乐山人,硕士生,主要从事电气设备绝缘检测和故障诊断的研究。

通讯作者:

王鹏(1982-),男(汉族),山东菏泽人,副教授,博士,主要从事新能源、电力电子装备中的绝缘系统性能评估的研究。
A review of insulation system testing technologies for new energy vehicle drive motor
Guangya ZHU1, Muhong LIN1, Guodong LIU2, Peng WANG1
Affiliations
  • 1College of Electrical Engineering, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610065, China
  • 2Shanghai Ideal Automotive Technology Co., Ltd., Shanghai 201805, China
出版时间: 2024-11-20 doi: 10.16790/j.cnki.1009-9239.im.2024.11.001
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电机是新能源汽车的关键驱动部件,绝缘系统是电机可靠性的重要保障,电机绝缘一旦失效,将对汽车的安全运行构成威胁。严酷的电热应力是导致绝缘失效的主要因素,在复杂脉冲参数和环境下对电机绝缘水平进行测试具有重要意义。本文从新能源汽车驱动电机绝缘系统的性能评估方法与影响因素、电压分布计算和薄弱点定位等方面综述国内外最新研究成果,并结合电压等级提升、功率密度提高、开断频率提高和开关速度增加的发展趋势,指出变频电机绝缘评估面临的问题和挑战,为未来该领域需重点关注的研究方向提供参考。

新能源汽车  /  绝缘系统  /  局部放电  /  耐电晕寿命  /  电压分布

The motor is the key drive component of new energy vehicles, and the insulation system is an important guarantee for motor reliability. Once the motor insulation fails, it will pose a threat to the safe operation of the vehicle. The severe electric heating stress is the main factor causing insulation failure, so it is of great significance to test the motor insulation level under complex pulse parameters and environmental conditions. This paper had reviewed the latest research results at home and abroad from several aspects of performance evaluation methods and influencing factors, voltage distribution calculation, and weak spot location of new energy vehicle drive motor insulation system. Combined with the development trend of voltage level improvement, power density improvement, breaking frequency improvement, and switching speed increase, the problems and challenges faced by insulation evaluation of variable frequency motor were pointed out, which provided reference for the future research in this field.

new energy vehicle  /  insulation system  /  partial discharge  /  endurance life  /  voltage distribution
朱光亚, 林沐泓, 刘国栋, 王鹏. 新能源汽车驱动电机绝缘系统测试技术综述. 绝缘材料, 2024 , 57 (11) : 1 -17 . DOI: 10.16790/j.cnki.1009-9239.im.2024.11.001
Guangya ZHU, Muhong LIN, Guodong LIU, Peng WANG. A review of insulation system testing technologies for new energy vehicle drive motor[J]. Insulating Materials, 2024 , 57 (11) : 1 -17 . DOI: 10.16790/j.cnki.1009-9239.im.2024.11.001
电机是新能源汽车的“心脏”,也是新能源汽车的三大关键技术点(电机、电控、电池)之一,其运行可靠性至关重要。绝缘系统是电机正常运行的安全屏障,电机电气系统大于60%的最终损坏体现为绝缘失效[1]。变频电机具有效率高、调速平滑、启动特性好等优势,广泛应用在新能源汽车中,但同时其绝缘系统承受高频率、高幅值、陡前沿的脉冲电压冲击,面临早期失效的风险[2]
交通电气化的发展要求电机驱动系统进一步提高功率密度,随着以碳化硅(SiC)和氮化镓(GaN)为代表的第三代宽禁带电力电子器件开始应用,电机驱动的效率得以提升,电力电子器件的开断频率、动作速度和工作电压在原有硅基器件的基础上将继续提高[3]。变频驱动下的电机绝缘系统承受高频、高dv/dt电压冲击,由频率和电压变换速度增加导致的端部过电压、绕组电压分布不均[4]、介质损耗发热更加严重,其可靠性面临严峻挑战[5]。近年来,人们对充电效率、汽车续航能力的进一步要求使得新能源汽车驱动电机工作电压呈现由400 V提升至800 V的趋势。随着脉宽调制参数复杂程度的增加和工作电压的提高,科学的绝缘设计和测试已成为提高新能源汽车可靠性的关键技术之一。
本文对国内外关于汽车电机驱动绝缘系统可靠性测试技术的发展现状及相关研究成果进行综述,主要包括绝缘系统测试方法、电热及环境应力对绝缘评估的影响以及薄弱点定位仿真计算和检测方法,并讨论和展望新能源汽车行业发展需求对传统变频电机绝缘评估测试带来的挑战以及未来在此领域应重点关注的研究方向。
根据IEC 60034-18-41-2014[6]及IEC 60034-18-42-2017[7]国际标准,电机可分为低压散绕型电机(I型,额定电压有效值不超过700 V)和高压成型电机(II型,额定电压有效值大于700 V)。
I型电机和II型电机的绝缘结构如图1所示,其中,1~3分别表示相间绝缘、相对地绝缘和匝间绝缘;a~e分别表示相绝缘/端部绝缘、主绝缘、匝绝缘、槽部防晕带和端部防晕带。从图1可以看出,两种类型的电机均含有匝间绝缘、相间绝缘和主绝缘。汽车驱动电机对应的I型电机绝缘通常由有机绝缘材料构成,一般不具有耐电晕性能;II型电机的匝间绝缘常采用耐电晕电磁线和玻璃丝带等组成,由有机绝缘和无机绝缘混合构成[8]
聚酰亚胺是一种广泛应用于牵引电机匝间绝缘的有机高分子聚合物,聚酰亚胺漆包线和聚酰亚胺薄膜绕包线具有良好的耐高低温、耐腐蚀性能。文献[9-11]为进一步提高聚酰亚胺的性能,对聚酰亚胺纳米复合材料进行了研制和性能研究。聚酰胺酰亚胺也是一种应用广泛的绝缘材料,具有良好的热稳定性、化学稳定性及机械强度[12]。环氧树脂和聚醚醚酮[13]广泛用于电机绝缘系统的加压固化、真空浸渍漆和整体真空浸漆处理,文献[14]研究发现,对漆包线进行绝缘树脂浸渍处理能够提高其绝缘性能。
由于绝缘材料长期承受高压脉冲电压,绝缘过早失效的情况时有发生,国内外学者对绝缘材料的劣化机理进行了大量研究。文献[15]探究了高压脉冲电压下聚酰亚胺的电老化机理,认为频率的增加将加速对大分子链的破坏。文献[16]探讨了环氧树脂在交流电压与脉冲电压前后叠加作用下的表面电荷动态特性,发现交流电压幅值、脉冲电压幅值、脉冲极性以及脉冲个数均对测试结果产生影响。为模拟电机相地绝缘,文献[17]在脉冲电压下对低压电机绝缘中常使用的聚对苯二甲酸乙二醇酯材料进行了耐电晕寿命测试,发现快速上升的脉冲电压更利于空间表面电荷积累。间位芳纶是应用于新能源汽车变频电机主绝缘的材料,文献[18]在相同频率正弦和重复方波电压下对其局部放电起始电压(PDIV)进行对比实验研究,发现在测试中引发流注放电的初始电子主要来源于气隙而非金属电极,不同厚度的间位芳纶还将改变气隙空间电场分布,进一步改变空间电离系数,从而影响放电过程。
上述研究主要聚焦于单一绝缘材料的老化因素,由于绝缘系统包含多种材料,工艺较为复杂,并且承受高过电压、高频、陡前沿脉冲电应力,因此需要建立脉冲电压下切实可行的变频电机绝缘系统性能的评估方法,以保证电机在服役期限中不出现绝缘提前损坏的情况。
对于新能源汽车电机,常用的绝缘强度评估方法主要包含绝缘电阻检测、介质损耗因数检测、工频耐压测试以及局部放电测试等[19]。功率半导体器件的应用使得电机绝缘承受着陡前沿脉冲应力,高dv/dt的非正弦脉冲电压包含大量高频谐波,会导致绝缘介质损耗明显增加,而高频、高dv/dt下局部电场的畸变会引发绝缘局部放电与损伤。
绝缘电阻综合性地体现了绝缘结构的状态,介质损耗因数在一定程度上能反映绝缘缺陷,而耐压强度是对绝缘设备电气性能的直接检验,通过测试以上指标,能对绝缘的整体缺陷进行表征。文献[20]围绕dv/dt对高频变压器绝缘介质损耗与冲击能量积聚特性的影响进行研究,提出绝缘介质损耗增加导致明显的绝缘热效应,在方波电压极性反转处累积电-热冲击应力造成绝缘损伤。文献[21]通过分析油纸绝缘的介电响应特性,提出了一种快速评估绝缘纸板受潮状态的方法。文献[22]结合改性材料和光刻工艺,研制了用于绝缘状态评估的空间电荷测量传感器。
绝缘中的局部放电是引起电介质老化的重要原因之一,主要体现在带电粒子撞击破坏绝缘材料分子链,高能辐射分解绝缘材料结构,产生局部高温以及化学反应生成氧化剂、腐蚀剂,导致绝缘材料形状、性能遭到破坏。测定PDIV能够检测出绝缘中的局部缺陷,其可以作为绝缘状态的一项判断依据。此外,由于绝缘结构的不同,根据在电机运行过程中是否允许发生局部放电来区分I型电机和II型电机,局部放电存在与否也是绝缘承受电热联合老化和单纯热老化的判断标准。对于新能源汽车用电机,IEC 60034-18-41和IEC 60034-18-42两个标准指出对由变频器驱动的I型电机和II型电机的绝缘系统,应采用脉冲电压分别进行局部放电起始电压(PDIV)或重复局部放电起始电压(RPDIV)和耐电晕寿命测试。针对I型电机,应确保在电机服役过程中不出现局部放电;针对II型电机,绝缘系统的耐电晕寿命应满足相关要求。
为模拟电机在脉宽调制(PWM)脉冲电压下的工作环境,部分学者采用工业变频器或与之输出相似的逆变器电源对变频电机的绝缘系统进行测试和评估。文献[23]将逆变器输出电压作为激励,对电机样品的电晕起始电压进行测量。文献[24]研究了逆变器输出特性对双绞线试样的局部放电特性和绝缘寿命的影响,认为在更多电平数和更长的脉冲上升时间下,双绞线的绝缘寿命明显更长。文献[25]利用波形发生器和最大输出电压为6 kV的高压射频功率放大器产生可控的PWM脉冲电压。文献[26]将多级推挽开关串并联,产生了多电平的PWM脉冲电压。
在文献[27]中,研究者设计了一种基于现场可编程门阵列(FPGA)的直接输出式PWM脉冲电压发生器,可输出用于模拟变频电机运行环境的正弦脉宽电压和空间矢量脉宽调制电压,其工作原理如图2所示。
PWM脉冲电压发生器能够做到输出载波频率和调制波频率可调,产生的电压激励比较贴近变频电机实际运行情况。但是,逆变器输出电压波形上升时间较长,且波形规整度不高,难以用于研究脉冲电压波形单个参数对绝缘测试的影响。
由于电机端的PWM驱动波形会受到变频器性能、电机绕组和连接导线阻抗失配的影响,GB/T 23642—2017[28]建议采用简单的测试试样和电压波形(如矩形波、三角波等波形)用于局部放电测试和评估绝缘系统寿命。
脉冲方波电源能够输出参数可调的脉冲波形,在模拟不同应力条件的绝缘测试中发挥着重要作用,包括变压式脉冲电源和直接输出式脉冲电源两种常见类型。变压式脉冲电源通过整流、滤波、高频逆变和高频升压等过程来产生所需的脉冲波形;而直接输出式脉冲电源则具有更快的响应速度和更高的效率。随着高压半导体技术的发展,变压式脉冲电源逐渐被直接输出式脉冲电源所替代。
文献[29-30]使用串联的功率半导体器件构建调制模块,通过在正高压与负高压之间的灵活切换来输出所需的脉冲电压。文献[31]采取类似思路,利用高压晶体管开关装置,在地电位与正高压直流电位间进行切换,进而产生脉冲方波电压。文献[32]以高速MOSFET为主要开关元件,通过控制固态开关的通断实现脉宽参数可调,由储能电容放电在负载上形成所需的方波电压。文献[33]研制了一种用于变频电机电磁线绝缘耐脉冲强度测试设备,可同时检测5个绞线对试样,满载时上升时间可达到25 ns。
文献[34]基于直流斩波和固态开关的原理,结合实时、高速逻辑控制算法,采用循环电介质冷却技术,研制了一种波形参数(电压、上升时间、频率、占空比和电平)可调的高频高压脉冲电源,其物理结构如图3所示,该电源最大重复电压峰峰值、最短上升时间和最大重复频率可分别达到20 kV、40 ns和100 kHz,占空比从1%到99%可调,可用于模拟变频器馈电电机实际承受的电应力环境。
凭借电力电子开关技术,直接式脉冲电源能够通过对半导体开关元件的精确控制直接产生高压脉冲电压,其技术原理直观易懂、参数调整灵活,波形特性可定制化,仅需选用适宜的开关器件,即可直接生成符合绝缘评估需求的脉冲电压。
绝缘介质中发生局部放电时,会伴随电脉冲、电磁波、超声波、光、热、噪声、气压变化、化学变化以及介质损耗增加等现象,通过对上述现象的测量能够了解绝缘介质中的局部放电状态。因此,局部放电检测法可分为电气检测法和非电检测法两类。其中,非电检测法主要包括光测法、超声检测法、红外检测法;电气检测法主要包括脉冲电流法、高频电流传感器检测法、特高频(UHF)天线检测法。相较于传统的工频和直流条件下的局部放电测试,陡上升沿的脉冲电压在局部放电传感器上会产生显著的噪声干扰,导致局部放电脉冲信号易被电源产生的噪声干扰所淹没。
重复方波脉冲下的局部放电检测所面临的挑战包括以下两个方面[35]
(1)由于噪声干扰与局部放电信号互相交织,局部放电信号的识别和提取面临较大困难;
(2)当多个局部放电信号同时发生时,它们之间的叠加使单个放电信号的辨识变得困难;
为了应对新能源汽车电机驱动绝缘系统在陡前沿脉冲方波电压下的局部放电测试需求,国内外学者开展了多方面研究。
文献[31]和文献[36]对IEC 60270-2000中的直测法电路进行优化,后端配合数据采集卡以提取局部放电信号;通过对实验过程中出现的第1个局部放电脉冲进行分析,发现实验电压的上升率越高,局部放电信号的检测越困难。文献[37]采用高频电流传感器实现信号的捕获,并通过平衡电路等一系列措施对潜在的干扰进行有效抑制,为了精准提取局部放电信号,后端还结合了滤波技术和时频分析方法进行处理。文献[38-39]采用光测法提取局部放电信号。
局部放电发生时,一定数量的电荷通过电介质在回路中产生一个极陡的电流脉冲,在介质表面引起电压变化,整个放电过程持续时间为ns量级,依据麦克斯韦电磁场论,这一电流脉冲会触发高频电磁辐射并向周围空间传播。特高频检测法通过接收并耦合电气设备内部局部放电所产生的特高频电磁波,来实现对局部放电的检测和定位。该方法的工作频带为300~3 000 MHz,因其卓越的灵敏度、宽广的检测频带以及高信噪比等特点,已成为国内外学术界研究和探讨的热点技术[40-41]。脉冲电压下变频电机绝缘中局部放电激发的电磁波能量频谱范围较宽,能够延伸到1.8 GHz,而电晕、开关操作等电气干扰能量集中在500 MHz以下[42],特高频检测法配合适宜工作频带的特高频传感器能够有效屏蔽干扰并保留局部放电信号(如图4所示),是脉冲电压下局部放电检测的合理选择。
文献[44]为了改善天线的阻抗匹配性能,对传统的阿基米德平面螺旋天线进行优化设计(如图5所示),引入了微带巴伦结构;此外,为了进一步提升天线在0.5~1.5 GHz频段的增益性能,将高介电常数介质覆盖在天线的辐射面上,增加了重复脉冲下放电检测高频信噪比;文献[45]针对局部放电测试条件下传统UHF传感器体积较大、刚性较强、测试位置受限等问题,提出了一种新型柔性窄带天线设计(如图6图7所示),该天线能够贴附在电机定子上,通过灵活地调整测试位置,实现了电机定子绝缘系统PDIV的精准测试。
在绝缘系统性能评估中,与PDIV紧密相关的另一个关键参数是局部放电熄灭电压(PDEV),它对于衡量绝缘系统的绝缘性能同样具有重要意义。图8为PDIV和PDEV的示意图,从图中可以看出,当过电压尖峰超过绝缘系统的PDIV且保持在高于PDEV的水平时,放电过程将持续发生,对绝缘系统危害较大;而过电压超过PDIV但降低到PDEV电压水平之下,放电将自动熄灭,该放电对绝缘系统危害较小。
PDIV与PDEV的测试流程如图9所示。为了提升测试效率,初始时迅速提高外加电压的幅值至1 kV(鉴于实际PDIV超过1 kV,此时尚未观察到局部放电现象)。随后,以10 V/min的速率稳步提高电压直至首次放电现象出现,此刻所记录的外加电压幅值定义为PDIV。在达到PDIV之后,继续维持加压状态5 min以确保放电的稳定,接着以10 V/min的速率逐步降低外加电压,直至最后一次放电发生,此时记录下的外加电压幅值即为PDEV。
在文献[46]中,研究者设计了一种自动测试系统(如图10所示),专门用于评估变频电机绝缘在重复脉冲电压下的PDIV与PDEV。该系统采用微控制器作为核心,实现了与高压脉冲电源和高速数字示波器的有效通信,从而自动化地控制输出电压的升降和选择PDIV与PDEV的测试模式。此外,系统还集成了高压继电器的控制功能,支持多路测试系统的切换,确保在同一环境条件下对多个试样进行连续、高效的测试。
除了承受快速变化的电脉冲应力,新能源汽车电机还面临各种环境工况,如何充分考虑变频电机所面临的各种应力并将其集成到一套自动测试设备中,实现精准控制升压速率和环境参数以保证测试结果的可靠性,同时解放人力、提高测试效率,是未来针对不同环境下多试样的PDIV、RPDIV和PDEV的自动测试系统需要解决的问题。
一般认为,电热老化是电机驱动绝缘系统最终失效的主要因素。宽禁带电力电子器件驱动使新能源汽车电机运行条件具有较多特殊性,体现在绝缘系统承受高频、高dv/dt电应力冲击,高频脉冲电压快速极性反转时电机绝缘应力显著增加,放电产生后放电能量随dv/dt的增加而显著提高,放电与介质损耗协同作用导致高频脉冲下绝缘电-热累积效应增加,加速驱动电机绝缘失效;电机实现高功率/扭矩密度运行,在高频介质损耗、集肤效应协同作用下,绝缘系统局部可能承受接近绝缘耐热等级的极限温度,且过高的温度将同时影响绝缘结构的机械强度。文献[47]针对绝缘系统的老化特征开展了大量研究,涉及的主要电气参数有动态力学特性、介质损耗、交流电流和击穿电压等。
IEC 60034-18-42规定应使用1.5倍PDIV对绝缘系统进行耐电晕测试,并提出了一种不同电压幅值下耐电晕寿命的反幂模型,其公式如式(1)所示[7]
L=kU-n
式(1)中:L为试样耐电晕寿命;k为常数;U为所施加于试样两端的对地电压峰值;n为常数,代表耐久系数。
文献[48]研究了驱动电机绝缘系统在多因素应力下的PDIV演化规律。对于内部热老化过程,寿命与温度的关系一般可用Arrhenius方程表示,如式(2)所示。
L=Ae-BT
式(2)中:L为绝缘失效时间;AB为常数,由化学反应的活化能确定;T为温度。
在高压变频电机的实际运行中,匝间绝缘不仅面临热老化问题,同时还会经历电热联合作用下的老化过程。文献[49]建议在利用Arrhenius方程进行老化分析时,纳入电应力的影响,该影响随外加电场的变化而变化,可用f(E)进行表述,即式(3)
L=AfEe-BT
总体来讲,绝缘寿命评估和预测的计算方法有限,计算结果往往与实际情况存在较大偏差。并且,由于老化时长的局限性,加速应力测试仅考虑预测段数值,而在长时间尺度远端缺乏数据验证,这使得在评估和预测绝缘寿命时,所构建的物理数学模型缺乏足够的数据支持,难以得出准确的结论。
对于I型变频电机,局部放电将加速绝缘失效,重复脉冲下的PDIV是评估此类电机的基本指标。脉冲参数对PDIV会产生一定影响,但影响规律、机理解释等尚未形成统一结论。而对于II型变频电机,由于运行电压高,运行中允许出现局部放电,脉冲电压下耐电晕寿命是评估电机绝缘性能的主要参数。我国标准和国际标准对用于变频电机绝缘耐电晕寿命测试的重复脉冲电压有不同的要求,GB/T 21707—2018[50]规定须采用对称双极性高频重复脉冲进行耐电晕测试,而IEC 60034-18-42未对脉冲电压波形的形状进行严格要求。
若局部放电主导了绝缘系统的老化过程,那么当采用具有相同峰峰值和频率的正弦电压与重复方波脉冲电压对试样进行作用时,所获得的测试结果在反映变频电机绝缘寿命方面将展现出相似的趋势。鉴于产生重复方波脉冲电压的复杂性,电机制造商通常选择正弦电压进行绝缘系统的电老化测试,并以此为基础评估绝缘系统在逆变器输出的重复脉冲电压下的耐电晕性能。然而有研究表明,重复脉冲的极性、上升时间等因素对绞线对的耐电晕寿命具有显著影响,特别是在频率达到5 kHz时,测试试样的耐电晕寿命与频率之间的类线性关系出现了转折点[51],试样在正弦电压下的寿命明显长于脉冲电压下的寿命,这一发现挑战了以正弦电压评估变频电机匝间绝缘寿命的传统观点。
文献[36]和[52]研究发现重复脉冲上升时间在4~40 μs、15~800 ns范围内,上升时间较短时,电介质局部放电幅值更大,并提出汤逊放电到流注放电的转换假设。文献[41]对此理论进行了验证,并认为脉冲上升时间小于1 μs时,脉冲电压下绝缘试样局部放电能量在1 GHz以上分布逐渐明显。此现象说明正弦电压与脉冲电压下放电机理存在差异,因此,正弦条件下的测试结果并不能准确反映绝缘在脉冲条件下的性能,研究不同脉冲参数对电机绝缘测试的影响是很有必要的。行业学者对变频电机电磁线试样进行了多方面研究,指出脉冲电压上升时间、频率和占空比等脉冲参数不但影响着局部放电的统计特性,而且与试样的耐电晕寿命存在关联。
对于I型变频电机的绝缘结构,PDIV和PDEV是研究其绝缘强度的重要参数。在正极性重复脉冲电压下,受初始电子产生概率、温度及表面电荷随频率衰减特性的影响,在频率为5 Hz~5 kHz范围内随着频率增加,绝缘漆包线PDIV和PDEV呈现一定的下降趋势(如图11所示)[53]。因此,在保证测试灵敏度的前提下,优先选用较高频的脉冲进行测试,有利于发现潜在的绝缘缺陷。对于II型变频电机的绝缘结构,必须重视电压频率对加速绝缘老化的影响,而局部放电存在时的电热联合老化是加速电机绝缘失效的主要原因。频率越高,单位时间内局部放电次数越多,同时如图12所示,实测显示在高频下漆包绞线对具有明显的温升效应,使得自由电子对绝缘结构的破坏加剧,电老化和热老化共同促成了对绝缘的加速老化作用[54]
在μs级的上升时间下,绞线对试样局部放电幅值随着上升时间的减小而增大,但单个周期放电总量逐渐减少[55-56]。研究发现,在上升时间为20~1 000 ns范围内,上升时间越短,PDIV越大,如图13所示;同时,上升时间越短,过电压越大。而重复脉冲上升时间处的过电压是PDIV测试结果偏大的主要原因,但若过电压幅值持续时间较短,虽然其幅值超过了实际的PDIV,由于缺少激发电子崩的初始电子,仍不会发生局部放电[57]。同时,过电压将影响PDEV[58],当脉冲电压波形中存在过电压时,PDIV和PDEV相差较小;当脉冲电压波形中不存在过电压时,PDIV和PDEV相差较大。如图14所示,当已经存在持续放电现象时,上升时间越短(50 ns~16 μs),绝缘漆包线耐电晕寿命越短,这是由于在较小的上升时间下局部放电强度(通过放电幅值表征)更大[59]
图15展示了8组样品在具有相同上升时间(20 ns)、不同下降时间(20 ns或1 μs)和不同频率的电压下耐电晕寿命的变化。从图15可以看出,非对称重复脉冲波形在绝缘测试中获取的寿命数据约为对称重复脉冲波形的两倍[60],这一数据揭示了脉冲波形的不对称性对绝缘测试结果产生显著影响。因此,为确保测试的准确性和可靠性,进行绝缘测试时,脉冲电源波形的上升与下降时间应保持相同,以消除因波形不对称性对结果带来的潜在偏差。
使用PWM技术对电压进行调制时,尽管占空比随时间周期性地变动,但在当前的变频电机绝缘PDIV和耐电晕寿命测试中,标准操作为设定固定的电压占空比。在两电平正弦脉冲宽度调制电压下,维持开关频率恒定并调整基波频率来测试聚酰亚胺薄膜的绝缘寿命,结果表明其变化相对有限,并且在不同基波频率下的绝缘寿命与50%占空比的方波下的绝缘寿命大体相近。基于这些结果,可以推断采用50%固定占空比、相同幅值和频率的重复方波能有效地检验变频电机的绝缘寿命。此外,研究表明,在50%占空比下测得的耐电晕寿命相较于5%占空比下的寿命缩短了20%[61]
针对聚酰亚胺薄膜试样,重复方波极性不是影响PDIV以及耐电晕寿命的重要因素,采用双极性重复方波有利于减小测试结果的分散性[62]。在死区时间为0~10 μs范围内,观察到总放电数量与死区时间长度呈现正相关,漆包线试样的耐电晕寿命逐渐缩短,如图16所示[63]
综上所述,虽然绝缘材料及绝缘结构存在差异,根据施加应力条件的不同,放电检测方法也有所差别,但关于电机绝缘局部放电的研究主要集中在测试电压波形的选择以及电压参数对局部放电幅值、PDIV、PDEV、局部放电相位谱图(PRPDP)与耐电晕寿命的影响规律上,对绝缘放电、老化和失效机理的理论研究仍需完善。
当新能源汽车在高原、沿海等地域行驶时,其驱动电机的绝缘系统会受到电、热、环境以及机械应力波动的综合影响,致使绝缘电阻下降、介质损耗增加,加之面临PWM产生的重复高频脉冲电压,绝缘老化的风险更为显著。随着电机绝缘老化程度的加剧,其绝缘性能对温度和环境的敏感度也逐渐提升,使得环境成为加速电机绝缘老化与失效的关键因素。对此,国内外学者展开了多方面研究。
文献[64]研究了不同类型耐电晕绝缘材料的双绞线在低温低压环境下的耐久性,提出现有的耐电晕材料不足以完全保证该种环境条件下电机的运行安全。文献[65]研究了电机在高温、低气压环境下的局部放电特性,发现随着气压的降低和温度的升高,其局部放电强度显著提升。文献[66]对双绞线进行了局部放电测试,提出气压和湿度会显著影响PDIV和PDEV。采用NHN绝缘纸研究不同气压下电机的绝缘性能,发现在较低气压下,电机局部放电起始电压明显降低,发生局部放电的概率增大,样品的介电常数和介质损耗在老化过程中也发生显著变化[67]。采用I型变频电机匝间绝缘试样,研究不同相对湿度环境中样品在重复短脉冲电压下PDIV的变化。结果表明,随着相对湿度的逐渐提升,样品的局部放电幅值呈现先减小后增大的趋势,且其耐电晕寿命显著缩短[68],如图17图18所示。
文献[69]研究了油污环境对I型电机匝间绝缘试样的PDIV及其耐电晕性能的影响,结果如图19图20所示。从图19图20可以看出,在室温环境下,随着外部环境中油污含量的增加,变频电机匝间绝缘的PDIV显著提升。当温度上升时,匝间绝缘的耐电晕寿命逐渐下降。值得注意的是,绝缘表面的微量油污会导致耐电晕寿命相较于无油污环境更短。进一步分析发现,油污对绝缘耐电晕寿命的影响程度与环境温度密切相关,在较高的运行温度下,油污对绝缘寿命的影响相对较小。这一发现表明,冷却油在有效增强低压散绕型电机绕组绝缘散热能力的同时,还能显著提升PDIV,从而在客观上增强了变频电机在高频脉冲电压下的绝缘性能[69]
电机各绝缘部位承受的电压并不相同,如图21所示。经测试,电机相间电压峰峰值(图示Upk/pk)最高,与相地电压均为矩形脉冲状,电压持续时间较长,而匝间电压持续时间较短[6]
鉴于脉冲过电压的振荡频率高达数兆赫兹至数十兆赫兹[70],此时对电机内部的寄生参数必须予以充分考虑[71]。寄生参数的影响与扁线绕组特有的层间换位构造相结合[72],导致绕组匝间电压分布不均匀,从而在特定几匝线圈间出现电压峰值。若这些匝间电压超过绝缘结构的PDIV,则会引发绝缘材料的局部放电,进而对电机的安全运行构成严重威胁。
由于电机绕组各部位实际承受的电应力幅值具有显著差异,因此通过电应力计算结合电场分布仿真,能够对最大电应力点进行定位,为进一步实现薄弱点准确定位提供参考。
关于电机绕组匝间电压计算模型的研究,重点聚焦于高频寄生参数的精准提取和高频等效电路模型的构建。在计算匝间电压时,主要方法为解析法与有限元法。解析法通过构建绕组等效电网络模型,依据基尔霍夫电流定律进行电路分析[73],但由于电机绕组结构的复杂性,求解电路方程往往需要极大的计算量。此外,鉴于电机绕组的电感参数与电机铁心饱和效应紧密相关,在激励参数动态变化的环境中,使用静态参数的解析法计算精度受限。近年来,瞬态电磁场耦合外电路的场路耦合有限元法已成为求解电机绕组匝间电压的优选方法,它能够应对复杂的绕组模型,同时充分考量绕组电感参数的非线性特性,从而提供更高的计算精度。
文献[74-76]搭建了散绕电机定子绕组的电压分布模型,通过仿真和实验验证,认为第一个线圈承受电压最高,第一匝的匝电压也最高。文献[77]研究了PWM逆变器供电电动机定子绕组线圈间的电压分布,利用多导体传输线理论进行建模和仿真,发现电机端部的最大电压与外加电压的上升时间和连接电缆的长度有明显的相关性,而匝间电压主要与施加电压的上升时间相关,与连接电缆的长度几乎无关。文献[78]通过搭建瞬态磁场和电路元件耦合的三相仿真模型,验证了端部绕组对瞬态电压分布的影响。文献[79]提出了一种应用于电机仿真的把瞬态磁场与电路直接耦合的方法,可以对位于磁场区域任意连接的固体导体进行求解。
在文献[80]中,研究者搭建了PWM逆变器励磁下2.5 MW永磁同步发电机的室内试验平台和相应的数值计算模型,分别分析了不同三相序列的重复脉冲对定子绕组电压分布的影响。发现定子绕组的匝对地电压、线圈对线圈电压和匝间电压沿各相绕组的分布呈减小趋势,并认为定子绕组中第一个线圈的主绝缘和每相绕组中第一个线圈前两匝之间的匝间绝缘应进一步加强。文献[81]建立以匝导体为基本单位的三相定子绕组的等效电路模型,进一步研究脉冲的相序和上升时间对绕组中重复过电压特性与电压分布的影响,发现越接近相绕组中性点的线圈对地电压波形受相序的影响越大,同时过电压幅值也呈增大趋势。此外,随着逆变器脉冲上升时间的减小,线圈对地的峰值电压、线圈之间的电压差和每个线圈沿定子绕组的匝间电压也相应增加。
根据气隙击穿的3个条件,外加电压幅值、初始电子的产生及放电时延是产生放电的必要因素[19]。电机相间绝缘、主绝缘及匝间绝缘材料特性不同,承受电压波形和大小也不一致;此外,在处理绝缘绕组时,在工艺上不可避免地出现绝缘缺陷,导致电场集中,从而影响电子崩的发展过程。在一个完整的定子绝缘系统中,可能造成绝缘薄弱点的原因具体有以下3点:
(1)定子绕组金属导体、聚酰亚胺绝缘层和浸渍树脂的热膨胀系数不同导致绝缘层出现裂纹,降低绝缘结构强度,并且使电场发生畸变;
(2)槽内浸渍树脂不完全填充导致绕组间存在空气气隙,这些气隙成为场强集中区域,进而增大放电发生的概率;
(3)相间绝缘的绝缘纸层错位或脱落导致分属不同相的绕组接触,加剧了绝缘层电压分布的不均匀性。
因此,变频电机各绝缘部位均具有首次放电的可能性,仅依据电应力大小对薄弱点进行定位存在局限性,需要将电应力计算与绝缘缺陷相结合,进行更为全面的电机绝缘系统的薄弱点定位。提前定位绝缘薄弱点位置并加强其绝缘性能,使电机绝缘系统安全更具保障,对保证电机安全运行具有重要意义。
在文献[82]中,研究者考虑了双导体边缘耦合效应,提取了电机绕组的高频分布参数,并基于此构建了Hairpin绕组匝间电压的计算模型。通过对SiC逆变器驱动下的电机绕组匝间绝缘电应力进行计算与验证,发现采用传统层间换位Hairpin绕组连接方式时,匝间电压的最大值往往出现在各相入线端和出线端的首尾两匝线圈位置。基于槽截面温度分布的实际情况,该研究建议将出线端置于槽底侧,以减轻匝间绝缘同时承受的高电热应力。此外,该研究还深入分析了不同匝间电压幅值、绝缘厚度、材料相对介电常数以及匝间气隙长度等因素对气隙电场(Eg-d)分布线的影响规律(如图2224所示),并提出了一种以气隙电场分布线与巴申曲线关系为依据的评估方法,用于准确判断绝缘气隙发生放电的风险。
在文献[83]中,研究者采用了场路耦合有限元法来计算Hairpin绕组电机的定子电压分布,分别针对相间绝缘、匝间绝缘和对地绝缘提取电压分布规律,发现电机的最大相地电压出现在三相绕组的入线端,与此同时,匝间电压和相间电压的最大值则集中在绕组连接电路中串联顺序最远但空间上相邻的位置。在这3种绝缘结构中,相间绝缘承受的电应力最大。此外,研究者还基于仿真模型探讨了匝间或对地电容的微小变化对绝缘关键位置电压大小的影响,进而提出:根据绕组实际承受的电压大小来调整绝缘厚度,不仅能有效降低绝缘制作成本,还有助于提升电机的功率密度。
综上所述,对绕组的电应力分布进行研究可以更好地理解电机的电气性能,预测潜在的绝缘故障,从而优化电机设计,提高电机的效率和绝缘的安全可靠性。
IEC TS 60034-18-41提出了对旋转电机的局部放电(PD)离线测试技术规范,建议在定子接地的情况下对电机的相间绝缘、主绝缘、匝间绝缘依次进行PD检测,并根据每次测试的结果综合判断电机绝缘水平合格与否。
文献[84]对电机的相间绝缘、主绝缘和匝间绝缘的PD进行了研究,提出由于定子接地,在测试相间绝缘时,匝间绝缘和主绝缘同时承受较大的电应力,因此不能确定检测到的PD是源自相间绝缘、主绝缘还是匝间绝缘,得到的结果并不能完全反映相间绝缘的绝缘水平。此外,根据标准的测试流程,当相间绝缘测试不合格时,必须重新测试主绝缘,如果主绝缘的RPDIV高于要求水平,则认为电机合格。但遵循该程序可能导致相间绝缘强度不达标的电机通过测试,文献[85]针对此问题提出了两种优化方法,一种是在对被测两相进行相间绝缘测试时,使定子悬空,并监测定子和非被测相上的感应电压;另一种是定子接地,在测试相间绝缘时,同步将幅值均为所需测试电压一半的两个相反极性脉冲分别施加到两个被测相上,以减少测试过程中主绝缘承受的电应力。
IEC标准提出的测试规程主要针对处于打开状态的绕组中性点,但中性点闭合的连接方式更能体现逆变器供电的变频电机的实际运行情况。文献[86]在绕组中性点打开和闭合的情况下分别测量了绕组中的电压分布,研究了使脉宽达到绕组所有类型的绝缘可产生PD的条件。结果表明测试应采用中性点闭合的方式,并且施加脉冲电压的脉宽应与电机在运行中承受PWM波的最大脉宽相当;或者,可在交流正弦电压下进行相间绝缘的测试。文献[87]将中性点连接,在定子接地或不接地的情况下改变脉冲电压的上升时间,通过识别PD首次发生的位置来识别绝缘组件的缺陷。
在新能源汽车变频电机的绝缘配置中,通常相间绝缘的厚度较大,而匝间绝缘厚度则相对较薄。电机的主绝缘承受逆变器输出的相地电压,而相间绝缘则承受相间电压。在测定PDIV时,正弦电压适用于主绝缘和相间绝缘的评估;而为了模拟脉宽调制电压下定子线圈内部电压分布的不均匀性,匝间绝缘的PDIV测定则采用重复脉冲电压。文献[88]同时将中性点断开和定子接地,分别利用重复脉冲电压和正弦电压测定电机绕组匝间绝缘和相间绝缘的PDIV,如图25所示。之后,在定子悬空的情况下,使用正弦电压测定主绝缘的PDIV,通过对比这些结果来识别电机的绝缘薄弱点。一旦确定薄弱点位于相间或主绝缘区域,则采取将悬浮相绕组或定子接地的方式,再次施加脉冲电压进行PDIV测试。这一步骤旨在通过与正弦电压下的测试结果对比,进一步确认绝缘薄弱点是否具体位于绕组的首端位置。
不同于传统直流、正弦以及低压脉冲下的变频电机绝缘系统失效机理、放电检测和寿命评估,第三代宽禁带电力电子器件的应用和800 V母线驱动电压使得新一代新能源汽车绝缘技术面临更加复杂的应力环境和严峻挑战,未来研究热点主要聚焦在:
(1)变频脉宽调制电压在电机绕组中分布规律研究。
绝缘系统的整体可靠性取决于系统短板,在高频脉冲电压作用下,明确电力电子脉宽调制参数对电场分布、起始放电特性的影响规律和机理并对薄弱点进行定位,是驱动电机绝缘优化设计的重要工作内容。然而,随着更高开关频率和速度的宽禁带电力电子器件的使用,在利用场路耦合模型计算电机绕组匝间绝缘、相间绝缘和主绝缘电压时,由于绕组电感参数与电机电磁过程、电容参数与电压频率和材料介电性能密切相关,提取高频寄生参数、构建高频等效电路变得更加复杂,基于静态参数的解析过程更加困难,需进一步开展系统研究。
(2)脉冲关键参数和环境应力对绝缘劣化影响分析。
新能源汽车驱动电机绝缘系统一般由有机和无机绝缘复合而成,放电过程会快速破坏有机电介质分子结构,劣化材料。在驱动电机启动、调速和制动时,驱动条件频繁改变,上升时间、占空比、载波频率、开断频率等关键脉宽调制参数对绝缘薄弱点处电场分布、放电初始电子产生、放电时延可能具有重要影响,汤逊放电至流注放电的转化机制、重复脉冲应力作用下绝缘老化和破坏机理仍需要大量系统研究。此外,在功率器件产生的高频脉冲基础上,耦合复杂环境因素后起始放电微观演变机理、劣化反应机制尚不清晰,在低气压、潮湿空气、冷却油等复杂环境作用下的变频电机绝缘系统在电应力和环境应力耦合下的劣化机制研究空白亟待填补。
(3)复杂电热应力下绝缘强度检测与评估技术优化。
驱动电机绝缘承受高dv/dt、高频脉宽调制电压,易造成电机端部承受过电压,加剧定子绕组内电压分布不均,且空间电荷在高频电场作用下更加活跃,更易诱发放电并加速绝缘老化;在高频介质损耗影响下,温升影响材料的电导、介电常数,可能促进放电产生;此外,频繁冷热冲击的运行环境可能加速绝缘材料劣化,降低驱动电机绝缘的电气及力学性能。
以上多个加速应力因素协同作用现象的存在,使得在对变频驱动电机绝缘实际强度进行评估和服役期限的预测时须考虑更多变量。因此,需模拟强电磁干扰环境,并耦合气压、油冷等复杂运行工况条件,构建脉冲参数可调的高电压、大容量、纳秒级脉冲绝缘测试综合平台,解决陡前沿脉冲强电磁干扰下局部放电离线检测的技术难题,完善宽禁带电力电子器件控制输出电应力下电机绝缘的起始放电测试与耐电晕寿命评估技术,以对构建的放电及寿命评估物理数学模型提供足够的数据支持。
另外,目前对局部放电和耐电晕寿命的研究多集中在模拟低压电机匝间绝缘多点放电的漆包线绞线对试样上,试样的测试结果不能完全准确地反映整机绝缘的劣化状况,对于电机定子整机的测试方法和结果研究仍然存在空白。
传统离线测试方法检测周期长,且待测试电机须停机处理,不能及时发现电机绝缘退化,无法避免严重绝缘故障的发生。目前对于变频电机绝缘在线测试的研究已有所起色,但大多聚焦于绝缘退化程度的监测,未能全面对电机各部分的绝缘状态进行准确评估。复杂应力环境下新能源电力系统装备绝缘可靠设计与状态评估尚处于发展阶段,介电性能演化规律和绝缘失效机理仍需总结和明确,绝缘测试技术亟待升级,针对新工况下的绝缘优化设计任重而道远。
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2024年第57卷第11期
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doi: 10.16790/j.cnki.1009-9239.im.2024.11.001
  • 接收时间:2024-03-29
  • 首发时间:2025-12-24
  • 出版时间:2024-11-20
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  • 收稿日期:2024-03-29
  • 修回日期:2024-06-05
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    1四川大学 电气工程学院,四川 成都 610065
    2上海理想汽车科技有限公司,上海 201805

通讯作者:

王鹏(1982-),男(汉族),山东菏泽人,副教授,博士,主要从事新能源、电力电子装备中的绝缘系统性能评估的研究。
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2种不同金属材料的力学参数

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属数
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genus
种数
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species
占总种数比例
Percentage of
total species (%)

Genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of total
species (%)
鹅膏菌科Amanitaceae 2 11 5.26 鹅膏菌属 Amanita 10 4.78
小菇科 Mycenaceae 2 12 5.74 丝盖伞属 Inocybe 5 2.39
多孔菌科 Polyporaceae 8 14 6.70 蜡蘑属 Laccaria 5 2.39
红菇科 Russulaceae 3 23 11.00 小皮伞属 Marasmius 6 2.87
小菇属 Mycena 11 5.26
光柄菇属 Pluteus 5 2.39
红菇属 Russula 17 8.13
栓菌属 Trametes 5 2.39
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