Article(id=1193556934507856266, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149653034449285133, issueId=1193556932167431095, articleNumber=null, orderNo=null, doi=10.16790/j.cnki.1009-9239.im.2025.04.015, pmid=null, cstr=null, oa=null, hot=null, price=null, onlineType=0, articleFormat=0, articleType=null, articleTypeStr=research-article, receivedDate=1714665600000, receivedDateStr=2024-05-03, revisedDate=1719158400000, revisedDateStr=2024-06-24, acceptedDate=null, acceptedDateStr=null, onlineDate=1762495748402, onlineDateStr=2025-11-07, pubDate=1745078400000, pubDateStr=2025-04-20, doiRegisterDate=null, doiRegisterDateStr=null, onlineIssueDate=1762495748402, onlineIssueDateStr=2025-11-07, onlineJustAcceptDate=null, onlineJustAcceptDateStr=null, onlineFirstDate=null, onlineFirstDateStr=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, createTime=1762495748402, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1762495748402, updator=13701087609, issue=Issue{id=1193556932167431095, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149653034449285133, year='2025', volume='58', issue='4', pageStart='1', pageEnd='144', issueExtLink='null', onlineDate='null', pubDate='null', beforeIssueId=null, nextIssueId=null, price=null, status=1, issueComplete=1, articleOrder=1, issueType=-1, specialIssue=null, createTime=1762495747843, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1762498255746, updator=13701087609, preIssue=null, nextIssue=null, ext={EN=IssueExt(id=1193567451108573868, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149653034449285133, issueId=1193556932167431095, language=EN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=), CN=IssueExt(id=1193567451112768173, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149653034449285133, issueId=1193556932167431095, language=CN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=)}, issueFiles=null}, startPage=117, endPage=125, ext={EN=ArticleExt(id=1193556934704988556, articleId=1193556934507856266, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149653034449285133, language=EN, title=Analysis on pyrolysis kinetics of epoxy resin impregnated paper, columnId=1192878364340924664, journalTitle=Insulating Materials, columnName=Test and Analysis, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

As a key device in ultra-high voltage and extra-high-voltage transmission projects, the deflagrate accidents of bushings seriously threaten the safe and stable operation of the power system. Adhesive impregnated paper bushing is an alternative to oil-impregnated paper bushings with deflagration risks, while there is relatively little research on the thermodynamic behavior of its core insulating material of epoxy resin impregnated paper during arc faults and the risk of bushing deflagration. In this paper, the thermogravimetric experiments and differential scanning calorimetry analysis at different heating rates were conducted on epoxy resin impregnated paper, and its thermal decomposition process was analyzed. Flynn-Wall-Ozawa (FWO) method and Coast-Redfern (CR) method were used to obtain the pyrolysis kinetic models of epoxy resin impregnated paper at high temperature in an oxygen-free environment. The results show that the thermal decomposition process of epoxy resin impregnated paper in adhesive impregnated paper bushing can be divided into three stages: epoxy melting, endothermic reactions, and decomposition gasification, and the first two stages conform to three-dimensional diffusion model, random nucleation and subsequent growth model, respectively. After an arc breakdown fault occurs in bushing cores, the thermal decomposition mass loss of epoxy resin impregnated paper is as high as 90% under the effect of high temperature. The high temperatures and gas expansion produce high amplitude internal stress inside the core, which leads to core cracking and even explosion.

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套管作为超特高压输电工程中的关键设备之一,其爆燃事故严重威胁电力系统的安全稳定运行。胶浸纸套管作为有爆燃风险油浸纸套管的替代方案,其芯子绝缘材料环氧浸渍纸在电弧故障时的热力学特性及套管爆燃风险的相关研究较少。本文对环氧浸渍纸,进行不同升温速率下的热重实验和差示扫描量热分析,研究其热解过程,采用Flynn-Wall-Ozawa(FWO)法与Coast-Redfern(CR)法,获得无氧环境下环氧浸渍纸在高温下的热解动力学模型。结果表明:胶浸纸套管芯子材料环氧浸渍纸的热解过程可分为环氧熔融、反应吸热、分解气化3个阶段,前两个阶段分别符合三维扩散模型、随机成核和随后生长模型;套管芯子内部发生电弧击穿故障后,环氧浸渍纸在高温效应下的热分解质量损失高达90%,高温与气体膨胀使得芯子内部产生高幅值内应力进而导致芯体开裂甚至爆炸。

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周远翔(1966-),男(汉族),北京人,教授,主要从事高电压与绝缘技术的教学与科研工作;

钟波(1997-),男(汉族),江西吉安人,硕士生,主要从事超高压干式套管芯体材料特性及仿真的研究。

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周远翔(1966-),男(汉族),北京人,教授,主要从事高电压与绝缘技术的教学与科研工作;

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周远翔(1966-),男(汉族),北京人,教授,主要从事高电压与绝缘技术的教学与科研工作;

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钟波(1997-),男(汉族),江西吉安人,硕士生,主要从事超高压干式套管芯体材料特性及仿真的研究。

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钟波(1997-),男(汉族),江西吉安人,硕士生,主要从事超高压干式套管芯体材料特性及仿真的研究。

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Materials,2010,3(8):4300-4327., articleTitle=Recent developments in halogen free flame retardants for epoxy resins for electrical and electronic applications, refAbstract=null)], funds=[Fund(id=1195072374040175230, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149653034449285133, articleId=1193556934507856266, awardId=5500-202240125A-1-1-ZN, language=CN, fundingSource=国家电网公司科技项目(5500-202240125A-1-1-ZN), fundOrder=null, country=null)], companyList=[AuthorCompany(id=1195072369560658478, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149653034449285133, articleId=1193556934507856266, xref=1, ext=[AuthorCompanyExt(id=1195072369569047087, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149653034449285133, articleId=1193556934507856266, companyId=1195072369560658478, language=EN, country=null, province=null, city=null, postcode=null, companyName=null, departmentName=null, remark=1 The Wind Solar Storage Division of State Key Laboratory of Control and Simulation of Power System and Generation Equipment, School 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机理名称 符号 f (α) g(α)
扩散模型 D1 0.5α -1 α 2
D2 [-ln(1-α)]-1 α+(1-α)ln(1-α)
Jander(D2) (1-α)1/2[1-(1-α)1/2]-1 [1-(1-α)1/2]2
Jander(D3) 1.5(1-α)2/3[1-(1-α)1/3]-1 [1-(1-α)1/3]2
D4 1.5[(1-α)-1/3-1]-1 1-2α/3-(1-α)2/3
反Jander(D3) 1.5(1+α)2/3[(1+α)1/3-1]-1 [(1+α)1/3-1]2
Z-L-T 1.5(1-α)4/3[(1-α)-1/3-1]-1 [(1-α)-1/3-1]2
随机成核和随后生长 A0.5 0.5(1-α) [-ln(1-α)]-1 [-ln(1-α)]2
A2/3 2/3(1-α)[-ln(1-α)]-1/2 [-ln(1-α)]3/2
A2 2(1-α)[-ln(1-α)]1/2 [-ln(1-α)]1/2
反应级数 F1 1-α -ln(1-α)
F2 (1-α)2 (1-α)-1-1
F3 (1-α)3 [(1-α)-2-1]/3
), ArticleFig(id=1195072373629133433, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149653034449285133, articleId=1193556934507856266, language=CN, label=表1, caption=

常见固相反应机理函数

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
机理名称 符号 f (α) g(α)
扩散模型 D1 0.5α -1 α 2
D2 [-ln(1-α)]-1 α+(1-α)ln(1-α)
Jander(D2) (1-α)1/2[1-(1-α)1/2]-1 [1-(1-α)1/2]2
Jander(D3) 1.5(1-α)2/3[1-(1-α)1/3]-1 [1-(1-α)1/3]2
D4 1.5[(1-α)-1/3-1]-1 1-2α/3-(1-α)2/3
反Jander(D3) 1.5(1+α)2/3[(1+α)1/3-1]-1 [(1+α)1/3-1]2
Z-L-T 1.5(1-α)4/3[(1-α)-1/3-1]-1 [(1-α)-1/3-1]2
随机成核和随后生长 A0.5 0.5(1-α) [-ln(1-α)]-1 [-ln(1-α)]2
A2/3 2/3(1-α)[-ln(1-α)]-1/2 [-ln(1-α)]3/2
A2 2(1-α)[-ln(1-α)]1/2 [-ln(1-α)]1/2
反应级数 F1 1-α -ln(1-α)
F2 (1-α)2 (1-α)-1-1
F3 (1-α)3 [(1-α)-2-1]/3
), ArticleFig(id=1195072373704630906, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149653034449285133, articleId=1193556934507856266, language=EN, label=Table 2, caption= Eα values based on the CR method., figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
升温速率/(℃/min) 阶段1:g(α)=1-2α/3+(1-α)2/3 阶段2:g(α)=[-ln(1-α)]3/2
Eα/(kJ/mol) R 2 Eα/(kJ/mol) R 2
2 203.799 2 0.996 4 209.391 3 0.993 8
5 198.356 4 0.998 0 235.759 3 0.993 1
10 191.161 4 0.994 8 235.759 3 0.993 1
20 193.724 2 0.999 0 265.834 4 0.994 7
30 199.082 3 0.997 6 262.313 4 0.993 6
40 186.095 5 0.997 7 252.363 2 0.990 2
), ArticleFig(id=1195072373775934075, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149653034449285133, articleId=1193556934507856266, language=CN, label=表2, caption=

基于CR法计算的Eα

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
升温速率/(℃/min) 阶段1:g(α)=1-2α/3+(1-α)2/3 阶段2:g(α)=[-ln(1-α)]3/2
Eα/(kJ/mol) R 2 Eα/(kJ/mol) R 2
2 203.799 2 0.996 4 209.391 3 0.993 8
5 198.356 4 0.998 0 235.759 3 0.993 1
10 191.161 4 0.994 8 235.759 3 0.993 1
20 193.724 2 0.999 0 265.834 4 0.994 7
30 199.082 3 0.997 6 262.313 4 0.993 6
40 186.095 5 0.997 7 252.363 2 0.990 2
), ArticleFig(id=1195072373838848636, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149653034449285133, articleId=1193556934507856266, language=EN, label=Table 3, caption=Calculation results of kinetic parameters by the PSO method, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
阶段 权重ω 表观指前因子lgA/s-1 表观活化能Eα/(kJ/mol)
阶段1 0.181 10.762 178.000
阶段2 0.819 12.606 198.272
), ArticleFig(id=1195072373905957501, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149653034449285133, articleId=1193556934507856266, language=CN, label=表3, caption=

动力学参数粒子群优化算法计算结果

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阶段 权重ω 表观指前因子lgA/s-1 表观活化能Eα/(kJ/mol)
阶段1 0.181 10.762 178.000
阶段2 0.819 12.606 198.272
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环氧浸渍纸热解动力学分析
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周远翔 1, 2 , 钟波 1 , 李宇航 2 , 白正 2 , 黄欣 2 , 陈健宁 2 , 姜贵敏 1
绝缘材料 | 测试与分析 2025,58(4): 117-125
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绝缘材料 | 测试与分析 2025, 58(4): 117-125
环氧浸渍纸热解动力学分析
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周远翔1, 2, 钟波1, 李宇航2, 白正2, 黄欣2, 陈健宁2, 姜贵敏1
作者信息
  • 1 新疆大学 电气工程学院 电力系统及发电设备控制和仿真国家重点实验室风光储分室, 新疆 乌鲁木齐 830047
  • 2 清华大学 电机工程与应用电子技术系电力系统及发电设备控制和仿真国家重点实验室,北京 100084
  • 周远翔(1966-),男(汉族),北京人,教授,主要从事高电压与绝缘技术的教学与科研工作;

    钟波(1997-),男(汉族),江西吉安人,硕士生,主要从事超高压干式套管芯体材料特性及仿真的研究。

Analysis on pyrolysis kinetics of epoxy resin impregnated paper
Yuanxiang ZHOU1, 2, Bo ZHONG1, Yuhang LI2, Zheng BAI2, Xin HUANG2, Jianning CHEN2, Guimin JIANG1
Affiliations
  • 1 The Wind Solar Storage Division of State Key Laboratory of Control and Simulation of Power System and Generation Equipment, School of Electrical Engineering, Xinjiang University, Urumqi 830047, China
  • 2 State Key Laboratory of Control and Simulation of Power Systems and Generation Equipment, Department of Electrical Engineering, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
出版时间: 2025-04-20 doi: 10.16790/j.cnki.1009-9239.im.2025.04.015
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套管作为超特高压输电工程中的关键设备之一,其爆燃事故严重威胁电力系统的安全稳定运行。胶浸纸套管作为有爆燃风险油浸纸套管的替代方案,其芯子绝缘材料环氧浸渍纸在电弧故障时的热力学特性及套管爆燃风险的相关研究较少。本文对环氧浸渍纸,进行不同升温速率下的热重实验和差示扫描量热分析,研究其热解过程,采用Flynn-Wall-Ozawa(FWO)法与Coast-Redfern(CR)法,获得无氧环境下环氧浸渍纸在高温下的热解动力学模型。结果表明:胶浸纸套管芯子材料环氧浸渍纸的热解过程可分为环氧熔融、反应吸热、分解气化3个阶段,前两个阶段分别符合三维扩散模型、随机成核和随后生长模型;套管芯子内部发生电弧击穿故障后,环氧浸渍纸在高温效应下的热分解质量损失高达90%,高温与气体膨胀使得芯子内部产生高幅值内应力进而导致芯体开裂甚至爆炸。

干式套管  /  环氧浸渍纸  /  热解过程  /  热解动力学

As a key device in ultra-high voltage and extra-high-voltage transmission projects, the deflagrate accidents of bushings seriously threaten the safe and stable operation of the power system. Adhesive impregnated paper bushing is an alternative to oil-impregnated paper bushings with deflagration risks, while there is relatively little research on the thermodynamic behavior of its core insulating material of epoxy resin impregnated paper during arc faults and the risk of bushing deflagration. In this paper, the thermogravimetric experiments and differential scanning calorimetry analysis at different heating rates were conducted on epoxy resin impregnated paper, and its thermal decomposition process was analyzed. Flynn-Wall-Ozawa (FWO) method and Coast-Redfern (CR) method were used to obtain the pyrolysis kinetic models of epoxy resin impregnated paper at high temperature in an oxygen-free environment. The results show that the thermal decomposition process of epoxy resin impregnated paper in adhesive impregnated paper bushing can be divided into three stages: epoxy melting, endothermic reactions, and decomposition gasification, and the first two stages conform to three-dimensional diffusion model, random nucleation and subsequent growth model, respectively. After an arc breakdown fault occurs in bushing cores, the thermal decomposition mass loss of epoxy resin impregnated paper is as high as 90% under the effect of high temperature. The high temperatures and gas expansion produce high amplitude internal stress inside the core, which leads to core cracking and even explosion.

dry-type bushing  /  epoxy resin impregnated paper  /  pyrolysis process  /  pyrolysis kinetics
周远翔, 钟波, 李宇航, 白正, 黄欣, 陈健宁, 姜贵敏. 环氧浸渍纸热解动力学分析. 绝缘材料, 2025 , 58 (4) : 117 -125 . DOI: 10.16790/j.cnki.1009-9239.im.2025.04.015
Yuanxiang ZHOU, Bo ZHONG, Yuhang LI, Zheng BAI, Xin HUANG, Jianning CHEN, Guimin JIANG. Analysis on pyrolysis kinetics of epoxy resin impregnated paper[J]. Insulating Materials, 2025 , 58 (4) : 117 -125 . DOI: 10.16790/j.cnki.1009-9239.im.2025.04.015
近年来,变压器油浸纸套管存在漏油、油色谱异常和燃爆等风险,有可能导致变压器套管故障,严重时甚至引起变压器火灾[1]。胶浸纸(resin impregnated paper,RIP)干式套管凭借其无油、机械强度高、防潮等优点[2]成为油浸纸套管的替代方案,然而关于它的爆燃特性缺乏关注和研究。目前干式套管在电力系统中作为换流变阀侧套管[2]、直流穿墙套管以及网侧套管[3]得到广泛应用,其数量不断增多。但随着应用电压等级和输送容量不断增大,且套管长期处在电、热和机械应力等复杂运行工况下,其芯子内部难免产生裂纹和局部损伤等缺陷[4-7]。缺陷的不断积累以及极限工况可能引发RIP套管芯子内部发生电弧击穿,在仅考虑电弧高温效应的影响下,RIP套管芯子材料会受热分解,进而导致套管发生爆燃事故。然而对RIP套管芯子材料环氧浸渍纸高温下的热解特性研究较少,无法支撑对干式套管在电弧故障下的爆燃风险分析,导致变电站现场进行设备选型以减少爆燃事故时缺乏技术理论支撑。因此对RIP套管爆燃研究需求极为迫切。
目前针对RIP套管芯子内部电弧故障引发套管爆燃的研究鲜有报道,研究多集中于RIP套管的绝缘结构及其主绝缘材料的电气性能和理化特性。本团队建立了环氧树脂和环氧浸渍纸固化反应动力学模型并得出两种体系的固化特性差异[8];潘志城等[9]阐述了换流变网侧和阀侧油纸复合套管因内部绝缘故障引发的火灾的特点及发展规律;王青于等[10]采用三维电磁-热-流耦合仿真研究环氧树脂/皱纹纸干式套管的温度分布并用实验加以佐证;许佐明等[11]构建套管温升与绝缘性能同步测试回路,获得了不同载流量下RIP套管芯子材料的温度分布及热点温度对其绝缘性能的影响规律;张寒等[12]研究了热效应对RIP套管绝缘特性的影响,提出温度反演法能够实现对RIP套管内最高温度的间接测量。而对于RIP材料热力学性能特性的研究鲜有报道,国内外学者多针对环氧树脂经阻燃剂改性后的燃烧动力学及阻燃性能的提升开展了大量研究[13-15]。曹东风等[16]发现硅磷元素同时接枝的环氧树脂相对于单独接枝硅、磷元素的环氧树脂,阻燃性能和力学性能显著提升,体现了硅磷元素的协同效应;LIU X等[17]制备含磷氟元素的低聚阻燃固化剂,使环氧树脂固化后的阻燃性能、力学性能和介电性能得到显著提升。
此外,国内外学者针对RIP材料的研究内容主要集中于其在试验温度低于300℃时的电学性能及热效应,无法满足高幅值弧温作用下RIP材料热解特性的研究需求[18-20]。为研究RIP热力学特性并评估芯子在内部电弧击穿下的爆燃风险,本文首先通过非等温热重试验(TG)研究RIP材料热解过程的质量变化特征并构建动力学方程,同时结合场发射扫描电镜(SEM)和红外光谱仪(FTIR)分析热解过程中RIP材料在不同温度下的表面形貌以及气体产物的成分和变化规律,利用氮气氛围下的差示扫描量热分析(DSC)曲线,计算热解过程中的产热情况及焓变,进而构建RIP材料的热解动力学模型以及热解反应机制。
将双酚A型环氧树脂E51(环氧值为0.48~0.54 mol/100 g)、固化剂甲基六氢邻苯二酸酐(MHHPA)、促进剂二甲基苄胺(BDMA)按质量比为1∶0.85∶0.02倒入烧杯,用搅拌器由慢到快分段配速对混合溶液充分搅拌,形成泡沫状环氧树脂体系。将搅拌好的环氧树脂混合液置于50℃真空烘箱中脱气30 min,直至溶液透明无气泡。脱气完毕后,将真空干燥后的皱纹纸放入定制模具,并在真空下浸渍环氧树脂;按100℃/2 h+120℃/2 h+140℃/2 h+160℃/2 h的固化程序将其加热固化,最终得到厚度为1 mm的环氧浸渍纸样片。试样制备流程如图1所示。
在热重分析仪上,采用流速为50 mL/min的氮气为载气,分别以2、5、10、20、30、40℃/min的升温速率将试样从室温升温至900℃,研究氮气氛围下RIP材料的热解行为。
在氮气氛围下,采用型号为耐驰STA449F3的同步热分析仪对RIP材料进行DSC测试,以5℃/min的升温速率将试样从室温升高至800℃。
试样以20℃/min的升温速率分别升高至300、350、400、425、450℃并保持1 min,冷却后取出试样,采用型号为GEMINISEM 500的扫描电子显微镜观察其表面微观形貌。
试样在氮气气氛下以10℃/min的升温速率从室温升高至800℃,采用型号为耐驰X70的同步热分析与傅里叶变换红外光谱联用系统实时采集监测RIP材料热解过程中气体产物与挥发分混合物的红外光谱。
热解动力学方程的求解过程即为确定动力学三因子活化能E、指前因子A和机理函数f (α)的过程。
对于固相热解反应,其动力学方程可由式(1)表示[18-20]
d α d T = k ( T ) f ( α )
式(1)中:k(T)为Arrhenius定律表示的反应速率常数;f(α)为反应机理函数;α为转化率;T为绝对温度。
k(T)和α可分别由式(2)式(3)表示。
k ( T ) = A e x p - E R T
α = m 0 - m t m 0 - m
式(2)~(3)中:A为指前因子,s-1E为活化能, kJ/mol;R为气体常数,其值为8.314 J/(K·mol);m 0为反应物起始质量,mg;mtt时刻反应物质量,mg;m 为反应终止时反应的剩余质量,mg。
由于实验中是采用线性升温,升温速率( β)为定值,即β=dT/dt,故式(1)可改写为式(4)
d α d T = A β e x p - E R T f ( α )
式(4)的积分形式表示为式(5)
g ( α ) = 0 α d α f ( α ) = A β T 0 T e x p - E R T d T
式(5)中:T 0为反应起始绝对温度; g ( α )为机理函数的积分形式。
常用的等转化率法为Flynn-Wall-Ozawa(FWO)法和Kissinger-Akahira-Sunose(KAS)法[21],两种方法无需事先选择机理函数,便可直接计算材料的表观活化能Eα,可避免因对机理函数假设不同而导致的计算误差。
FWO法公式是由Doly近似式[22]导出,其表达式如式(6)所示。
l g β i = l g A α E α R g α - 2.315 - 0.4567 E α R T α , i
式(6)中:βi为第i个升温速率;Aα为转化率为α时的指前因子;Eα为转化率为α时的活化能;Tα , i为第i个升温速率下转化率为α时的温度。
KAS法公式是由Murray和White通过分部积分近似而来,其表达式如式(7)所示。
l n ( β i T α , i 2 ) = l n A α R E α g α - E α R T α , i
两种等转化率法均是通过不同近似求得到温度积分的近似解,但因近似方法不同而存在差异。FWO法使用率达到了80%,计算结果精度受Eα/RT的取值范围影响。虽然FWO法计算结果精度较低且局限于线性升温,但基于Doyle近似,经分部温度积分和近似计算精度得以修正。而KAS法计算结果精度较高,应用范围窄,仅在峰值区域有较好的计算精度[23-25]。一般情况下二者计算同一材料的活化能时数值相近,可用以检验由机理函数方法求出的活化能值。
由两种等转化率法计算公式可知,在给定转化率α时,g(α)是机理函数积分形式且为常数,每升温速率βi对应一个温度Tα , i,因此可用lgβi或ln(βi/T 2 α , i)对1/Tα , i作图得到一条直线,从直线的斜率求得该α下的Eα [26]。若不同α下的Eα相同,则可得到一组平行线。
固相热解过程各阶段的反应机理函数可由Coast-Redfern(CR)法确定,如式(8)所示。
l n g ( α ) T 2 = l n A R β E - E R T
本研究采用CR法应用数据拟合寻优筛先出可能的反应机理函数。假定各类反应机制的机理函数g(α)均满足固相热解反应过程,将g(α)和某升温速率下的α及所对应的温度T应用于式(8),根据 ln(g(α)/T 2)对1/T作最小二乘线性拟合,由拟合直线斜率可得该升温速率下该反应阶段的Eα。所有升温速率的热解数据都重复上述过程,便可得到该物质E t不同升温速率和反应阶段下由g(α)所确定的EαR 2。将CR法求得的Eα值与等转化率法求得的Eα进行比较,筛选出Eα与之最接近且决定系数R 2最大的机理函数,即为满足各升温速率的最概然机理函数,再确定相应表观指前因子Aα。在固相反应中常见的反应机理函数如表1所示[27]
国际热分析及量热学协会(ICTAC)认为:如果某反应的Eα不随温度和转化率变化,即保持恒定不变,则该反应过程可用单步动力学描述[28]。而在实际热解过程中,Eα很难完全保持恒定。因此,定义Eα变化的不确定度来描述其变化的显著性。当变化小于不确定度时,可认为Eα变化不显著,则该物质反应过程可用单步反应描述。即若Eα的最大值和最小值的差小于均值的10%~20%,则认为Eα变化不显著,表达式如式(9)所示。
Δ E = E m a x - E m i n E m
式(9)中,E maxE minE m分别对应于活化能的最大值、最小值和平均值; Δ E为极差率。
对于多步反应物理过程,动力学方程可由式(1)变换为式(10)
d α d t = i ω i d α i d t
式(10)中:ωi为第i步反应对整体反应的贡献权重;dαi/dt为满足第i步反应的动力学方程。
图2图3为氮气气氛中RIP材料在不同升温速率下的热重测试结果。
图2图3可以看出,不同升温速率下RIP材料热重曲线的变化趋势一致。升温速率增大,反应起始温度、终止温度和最大失重速率温度均向高温侧移动。这是因为升温速率增大,单位时间热源辐射到试样表面的能量增大,试样表面温度升高,但试样的导热系数一定且达到相同温度的受热时间较短,致使反应滞后,故三者均向高温侧移动。对于DTG曲线,在350℃附近存在“肩部”,即失重速率出现拐点,表明反应机制发生改变,而不同升温速率下最大失重速率峰值几乎保持不变,表明试样的质量损失率受升温速率影响较小。
RIP材料热解过程实际为化学键断裂与重构的过程,其可分为3个阶段,第1阶段是环氧树脂在热流作用下受热熔融;第2阶段是RIP分解炭化形成炭层;第3阶段是残炭物质在氮气下缓慢氧化。3个阶段接续进行且相互重叠,共同对热重曲线产生影响。图4为PIR试样的热解DSC曲线。从图4可以看出,在300℃以下试样失重较小,DSC曲线在130℃附近出现凹峰,表明试样表面由玻璃态转变为高弹态。随着温度升高,DTG曲线在352~412℃范围内存在明显的“肩部”,对应转化率α均为0.125,表明热解反应机制发生转变。这一过程对应热解过程的第1阶段,以环氧树脂受热熔融为主。随着反应的进行,热解进入主失重温度区间(温度为307~510),DTG曲线出现明显的失重速率峰,大量化学键断裂生成聚合物单体和热解炭,TG曲线呈现出快速失重的趋势,质量损失高达90%。图4的DSC曲线在峰值温度表现出明显吸热峰,焓值为-17.53 J/g,表明热解断键为吸热反应,对应热解过程的第2阶段,以RIP热解吸热为主。当温度大于550℃时,即第3段,残炭缓慢氧化,反应停滞,TG和DTG曲线趋于直线,DSC曲线无显著放热峰。
在氮气氛围中,以20℃/min的升温速率升温至相应温度并保持1 min后猝灭,观测各温度下热解残样的表面形貌,结果如图5所示。从图5可以看出,在室温时,试样表面光滑平整。当升温至300℃时,试样表面局部出现细小凸起;当温度升至350℃时,目视可见些许炭化条纹,通过扫描电镜观察,表面凸起变大,表面较平滑,几何形状完整。而不规则凸起可能是由于试样局部过热熔融膨胀,经软化、流动、冷却后形成;温度超过“肩部”温度,即400℃时,试样表面形貌出现明显变化,目视下几何形状趋于圆润,表面完全炭化呈亮黑状且凸起数量骤增,局部有明显鼓包气口,为内部气体产物膨胀释放所致;当温度达到425℃时,因保温1 min,试样仅剩较薄炭化树脂包覆于炭化皱纹纸表面,整体呈炭黑状,皱纹纸局部有较大气孔;当温度升至450℃时,即失重速率峰值温度,试样仅剩极薄片状残留物,皱纹纸表层树脂反应完全,纤维完全炭化且脉络清晰。残样表面呈现大量卵形孔洞,孔洞沿皱纹纸纤维呈串状排布。大量孔洞促进了热量传递至试样表面,增大了受热面积,有助于残碳物质氧化,但因载气中氧含量较低,失重速率仍处于较低水平,故热解动力学方程的构建暂不考虑第3阶段。
采用同步热分析与FTIR联用系统测定氮气氛围下,升温速率为10℃/min时,RIP材料热解过程气体产物的变化规律,其红外光谱如图6所示。从图6可以看出,热解反应前期(T≤200℃),温度升高,RIP试样残余水分挥发,FTIR图谱仅呈现出H2O的特征峰(波数为3 710 cm-1)。当温度升高至200℃时,试样已经进入热解反应阶段,主要气体产物为CO2(波数为2 354 cm-1、2 322 cm-1),由酯基脱羧或碳碳双键与碳氧双键断裂产生。随着反应的进行,温度为375℃时,试样进入主失重阶段,产生大量气体,特征峰强度急剧增强,主要气体产物为苯酚及其衍生物(波数分别为3 652、1 602、1 504、1 180、748 cm-1)、碳氢化合物(波数分别为2 954、2 876、1 212 cm-1)、含羰基化合物(酸酐:波数为1 870 cm-1,羧酸:波数为1 807 cm-1)以及由含氧基团裂解产生的H2O和CO2。RIP试样的热解反应过程如图7所示。热解过程气体产物红外光谱在“肩部”温度前后表现出明显差异,表明反应机制发生改变,验证以“肩部”温度划分两种不同的反应阶段的正确性。
式(6)式(7)可知,在不同升温速率下,当α相同时,g(α)为常数,等式左侧与1/Tα , i呈线性关系,最小二乘法线性拟合得拟合直线的斜率和截距,由FWO斜率(-0.456 7Eα)/R和KAS斜率(-Eα/R)解得E α。两种等转化率法计算所得的不同转化率下的Eα图8图9所示。从图8图9可以看出,两种等转化率法求得的Eα具有一致性。
对于RIP材料,热解过程中Eα随着α的增大,呈现先增大后减小再增大的变化趋势。其中α在0.035~0.850间活化能的误差波动较小,可用来判定Eα变化的显著性。根据FWO法和KAS法求得的Eα数据,由式(8)计算可得,ΔE分别为27.522%和27.492%,大于界定值20%,表明活化能Eα变化显著。因此,RIP材料的热解反应不能视为单步动力学过程。这验证了DTG曲线存在“肩部”,则表明该反应过程不能以单一步骤描述的结论。
由于DTG曲线的“肩部”对应的α均为0.125且此时Eα变化趋势由下降变为上升,又因反应过渡区界限不明显,为避免前后阶段两种反应机制共同作用的干扰,将RIP材料的热解反应过程暂且划分为2个阶段:阶段1为0.350≤α≤0.125,阶段2为0.15≤α≤0.85。
基于升温速率为10℃/min的热重数据,选择不同机理函数代入式(8),线性拟合得两个反应阶段不同机理函数的结果,如图10图11所示。根据各阶段的拟合结果,由斜率计算得到不同机理函数下的Eα。若某机理函数在6个升温速率下的Eα最接近等转化率法所求的EαR 2最大、残差最小,则表明该反应阶段可由该机理函数表征,最优机理函数计算结果列于表2。从表2可以看出,不同升温速率下,第1阶段符合3-D(Ginstling-Brounshtein)模型,第2阶段与基于Avrami-Erofeev方程,n=1.5的随机成核和随后生长的模型强相关。
对于氮气氛围下的RIP热解,6个升温速率下α小于0.125的区域,3-D(Ginstling-Brounshtein)模型所求Eα平均值为178~193 kJ/mol,接近FWO法和KAS法得到的表观活化能取值区间。因此,在RIP热解反应的第1阶段,扩散动力学起重要作用。在热解反应的第2阶段,基于Avrami-Erofeev方程,n=1.5的随机成核和随后生长的模型由CR法估计的Eα为209~253 kJ/mol,而FWO法和KAS法求得的Eα为178~255 kJ/mol,二者几乎一致。因此,在这一阶段RIP热解动力学符合随机成核和随后生长模型。
为确定各反应阶段的Eα、表观指前因子Aα以及各阶段反应对总反应的贡献值,基于粒子群优化(PSO)算法,以FWO法和KAS法求得的各反应阶段EαAα的取值区间为约束条件,在残差平方和(RSS)最小和决定系数R 2(COD)最接近1的前置条件下,求解目标函数式(10)各项系数的最优解,计算结果如表3所示。
表3计算结果代入式(10)得到式(11)所示RIP材料热解动力学方程,对其进行积分绘制残留率关于温度的计算曲线,如图12实线所示。由图12可知,RIP热失重实验值与基于动力学参数的计算曲线吻合,因此构建的热解动力学方程可用于预测和描述RIP的热解过程。
d α d t = 0.181 × 10 10.762 e x p - 178 × 10 3 8.314 T f 1 ( α ) +           0.819 × 10 12.606 e x p - 198 × 10 3 8.314 T f 2 ( α )
式(11)中,f 1(α)和f 2(α)为机理函数微分形式分别如式(12)式(13)所示。
f 1 ( α ) = 1.5 1 - α - 1 3 - 1 - 1
f 2 ( α ) = 2 3 1 - α - l n 1 - α - 1 2
基于前述分析,RIP试样在氮气氛围下的热解主要经历环氧熔融、反应吸热(凝固、氧化、反应、交联)、分解气化3个反应阶段。热解物理过程可描述为:外界热通量通过热传导沿着RIP试样外表面向内部扩散,同时表面随机成核和随后生长形成结晶状凸起。随着温度升高,反应进入主失重区间,外表面开始炭化,试样内部大分子端基和随机链吸收能量断裂形成自由基,同时主链之外的官能团和原子剥离,产生的自由基发生反应,形成大量相对稳定的聚合物单体和气体小分子[29],因此在DSC曲线失重速率峰值温度附近表现为吸热峰,在FTIR曲线上出现各类气体产物的高强度特征峰。气体产物在材料内部积聚使得局部内应力过大,导致炭化表面形成大量裂纹和气孔。随着热解反应进行,试样残留率减少,最终只剩下极薄层炭化残留物于氮气中缓慢氧化。由RIP热解反应过程可知,若RIP芯子内部发生燃弧故障,将造成内部气体和挥发分积聚且局部因高温效应导致应力集中,形成裂纹,进而造成芯体开裂甚至爆炸。
(1)RIP复合材料热解过程反应机制改变,热力学特征随之改变;反应结束生成挥发分、气体以及多孔炭化残留物。
(2)RIP复合材料在氮气氛围下的热解过程分为3个阶段:阶段1为表层环氧树脂熔融阶段,符合G-B方程三维扩散的机理模型;阶段2为反应吸热,符合随机成核和随后生长,n=1.5的机理模型;阶段3为分解气化,对应残炭层的缓慢氧化,因失重不明显故不在动力学方程加以考虑。
(3)RIP材料热解主失重区间与主吸热阶段相对应,表明热解为吸热反应。在RIP芯子内部发生电弧故障后,若环氧浸渍纸在电弧高温热效应下质量损失高达90%,此时生成的挥发分和气体积聚于内部,同时高温使芯子内产生高幅值内应力,将导致芯体开裂甚至爆炸。
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doi: 10.16790/j.cnki.1009-9239.im.2025.04.015
  • 接收时间:2024-05-03
  • 首发时间:2025-11-07
  • 出版时间:2025-04-20
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  • 收稿日期:2024-05-03
  • 修回日期:2024-06-24
基金
国家电网公司科技项目(5500-202240125A-1-1-ZN)
作者信息
    1 新疆大学 电气工程学院 电力系统及发电设备控制和仿真国家重点实验室风光储分室, 新疆 乌鲁木齐 830047
    2 清华大学 电机工程与应用电子技术系电力系统及发电设备控制和仿真国家重点实验室,北京 100084
参考文献
分享链接
https://castjournals.cast.org.cn/joweb/jycl/CN/10.16790/j.cnki.1009-9239.im.2025.04.015
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2种不同金属材料的力学参数

Family
属数
Number of
genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of
total species (%)

Genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of total
species (%)
鹅膏菌科Amanitaceae 2 11 5.26 鹅膏菌属 Amanita 10 4.78
小菇科 Mycenaceae 2 12 5.74 丝盖伞属 Inocybe 5 2.39
多孔菌科 Polyporaceae 8 14 6.70 蜡蘑属 Laccaria 5 2.39
红菇科 Russulaceae 3 23 11.00 小皮伞属 Marasmius 6 2.87
小菇属 Mycena 11 5.26
光柄菇属 Pluteus 5 2.39
红菇属 Russula 17 8.13
栓菌属 Trametes 5 2.39
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