Article(id=1209927721010983585, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149653034449285133, issueId=1209927720432169632, articleNumber=null, orderNo=null, doi=10.16790/j.cnki.1009-9239.im.2024.03.001, pmid=null, cstr=null, oa=null, hot=null, price=null, onlineType=0, articleFormat=0, articleType=null, articleTypeStr=research-article, receivedDate=1677600000000, receivedDateStr=2023-03-01, revisedDate=1684857600000, revisedDateStr=2023-05-24, acceptedDate=null, acceptedDateStr=null, onlineDate=1766398848058, onlineDateStr=2025-12-22, pubDate=1710864000000, pubDateStr=2024-03-20, doiRegisterDate=null, doiRegisterDateStr=null, onlineIssueDate=1766398848058, onlineIssueDateStr=2025-12-22, onlineJustAcceptDate=null, onlineJustAcceptDateStr=null, onlineFirstDate=null, onlineFirstDateStr=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, createTime=1766398848058, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1766398848058, updator=13701087609, issue=Issue{id=1209927720432169632, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149653034449285133, year='2024', volume='57', issue='3', pageStart='1', pageEnd='128', issueExtLink='null', onlineDate='null', pubDate='null', beforeIssueId=null, nextIssueId=null, price=null, status=1, issueComplete=1, articleOrder=1, issueType=-1, specialIssue=null, createTime=1766398847920, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1766563849864, updator=13701087609, preIssue=null, nextIssue=null, ext={EN=IssueExt(id=1210619788792033962, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149653034449285133, issueId=1209927720432169632, language=EN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=), CN=IssueExt(id=1210619788792033963, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149653034449285133, issueId=1209927720432169632, language=CN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=)}, issueFiles=null}, startPage=1, endPage=14, ext={EN=ArticleExt(id=1209927721237476003, articleId=1209927721010983585, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149653034449285133, language=EN, title=Review of gas sensor detection methods for SF6 decomposition components, columnId=1198667062026531195, journalTitle=Insulating Materials, columnName=Review, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

Electrical equipment filled with sulfur hexafluoride (SF6) may experience overheating or discharge when there are internal insulation defects, which will cause SF6 to decompose and produce some gaseous by-products. By testing the type and concentration of these by-products, we can determine whether there were insulation defects in electrical equipment and the type and severity of these defects. As an important tool of gas detection, gas sensor had been paid more and more attention in the gas detection method of insulation defects. In this paper, the method of detecting SF6 decomposition products by using gas sensor was reviewed, the dissociation process of SF6 and the generation path of characteristic gas were introduced, and the gas-sensitive principle, advantages, and disadvantages of the sensor used for detecting SF6 decomposition characteristic gas were described in detail. The algorithm for diagnosing insulation defect using characteristic gas information was mainly discussed, and the development direction of using sensors to detect gas decomposition components for insulation defect diagnosis was prospected.

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填充六氟化硫(SF6)的电气设备内部存在绝缘缺陷时可能发生过热或放电,迫使SF6分解产生一些特定的气体副产物。通过检测这些副产物的种类和浓度,可以判断电气设备中是否存在绝缘缺陷以及缺陷的类型和严重程度。气体传感器作为气体检测的重要工具,在绝缘缺陷的气体检测法中受到了越来越多的关注。本文重点回顾了使用气体传感器检测SF6分解产物的方法,介绍了SF6解离过程和特征气体的生成路径,详细阐述了用于SF6分解特征气体检测的传感器气敏原理和优缺点;重点讨论了利用特征气体信息诊断绝缘缺陷的算法,并展望了通过传感器检测气体分解组分方法诊断绝缘缺陷的发展方向。

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蒋庆明(1997-),男(汉族),广西桂林人,硕士生,主要从事机器嗅觉与人工智能在空气开关柜绝缘劣化检测方面的研究;

贾鹏飞(1988-),男(汉族),山东烟台人,副教授,博士,主要从事机器嗅觉技术理论和应用研究的工作。

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蒋庆明(1997-),男(汉族),广西桂林人,硕士生,主要从事机器嗅觉与人工智能在空气开关柜绝缘劣化检测方面的研究;

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蒋庆明(1997-),男(汉族),广西桂林人,硕士生,主要从事机器嗅觉与人工智能在空气开关柜绝缘劣化检测方面的研究;

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贾鹏飞(1988-),男(汉族),山东烟台人,副教授,博士,主要从事机器嗅觉技术理论和应用研究的工作。

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贾鹏飞(1988-),男(汉族),山东烟台人,副教授,博士,主要从事机器嗅觉技术理论和应用研究的工作。

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journalId=1149653034449285133, articleId=1209927721010983585, language=EN, label=Tab.1, caption=The types, detection principles, advantages and disadvantages of common gas sensors, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
气体传感器种类气敏材料检测途径优点缺点
光学传感器光电二极管、光敏材料光学性质的变化气敏性好、可识别混合气体的组分操作复杂、不便携带
导电聚合物传感器改性的导电聚合物电阻的变化可在室温下工作、响应时间短、不易中毒敏感度低、易受温湿度影响、寿命较短
金属氧化物半导体传感器

掺杂金属氧化物

半导体

电阻、电容等的变化气敏性好、响应速度和恢复速度快、可测气体种类多容易中毒、漂移,存在交叉敏感性,对温湿度敏感
电化学传感器固体或液体电解质电流或电压的变化可在室温下工作、能耗低、可重复性好体积大、对小分子气体敏感度不够、寿命较短
石英微天平传感器石英晶体表面敏感薄膜石英晶体振荡频率的变化精度高、气敏性好噪声大、对温湿度敏感、测量电路复杂
表面声波传感器压电晶体表面的气敏聚合物薄膜材料吸附气体后声表面波的频率变化体积小、响应时间短、几乎对所有气体敏感、成本低对温度敏感、电路复杂、对气体种类的针对性受聚合物薄膜影响
催化燃烧传感器催化剂和热敏电阻可燃气体燃烧使热敏材料电阻变化寿命长,维护成本低,受温湿度、风、粉尘及影响小只适用于检测可燃气体
碳纳米管气体传感器碳纳米管电阻、电容等的变化高灵敏度、低噪声、可在室温下工作对低吸附能的气体不敏感、恢复时间长
), ArticleFig(id=1217486330108498777, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149653034449285133, articleId=1209927721010983585, language=CN, label=表1, caption=

常见气体传感器的种类、检测原理和优缺点

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
气体传感器种类气敏材料检测途径优点缺点
光学传感器光电二极管、光敏材料光学性质的变化气敏性好、可识别混合气体的组分操作复杂、不便携带
导电聚合物传感器改性的导电聚合物电阻的变化可在室温下工作、响应时间短、不易中毒敏感度低、易受温湿度影响、寿命较短
金属氧化物半导体传感器

掺杂金属氧化物

半导体

电阻、电容等的变化气敏性好、响应速度和恢复速度快、可测气体种类多容易中毒、漂移,存在交叉敏感性,对温湿度敏感
电化学传感器固体或液体电解质电流或电压的变化可在室温下工作、能耗低、可重复性好体积大、对小分子气体敏感度不够、寿命较短
石英微天平传感器石英晶体表面敏感薄膜石英晶体振荡频率的变化精度高、气敏性好噪声大、对温湿度敏感、测量电路复杂
表面声波传感器压电晶体表面的气敏聚合物薄膜材料吸附气体后声表面波的频率变化体积小、响应时间短、几乎对所有气体敏感、成本低对温度敏感、电路复杂、对气体种类的针对性受聚合物薄膜影响
催化燃烧传感器催化剂和热敏电阻可燃气体燃烧使热敏材料电阻变化寿命长,维护成本低,受温湿度、风、粉尘及影响小只适用于检测可燃气体
碳纳米管气体传感器碳纳米管电阻、电容等的变化高灵敏度、低噪声、可在室温下工作对低吸附能的气体不敏感、恢复时间长
), ArticleFig(id=1217486330183996254, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149653034449285133, articleId=1209927721010983585, language=EN, label=Tab.2, caption=Common metal oxide semiconductor gas sensitive materials, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
类型金属氧化物
n型SnO2ZnOIn2O3WO3TiO2Fe2O3V2O3Ga2O3Nb2O3Ta2O5
p型NiOCo3O4Sb2O3CuOCr2O3La2O3Bi2O3TeO2CeO2PdOY2O3
), ArticleFig(id=1217486330255299426, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149653034449285133, articleId=1209927721010983585, language=CN, label=表2, caption=

常见的金属氧化物半导体气敏材料

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
类型金属氧化物
n型SnO2ZnOIn2O3WO3TiO2Fe2O3V2O3Ga2O3Nb2O3Ta2O5
p型NiOCo3O4Sb2O3CuOCr2O3La2O3Bi2O3TeO2CeO2PdOY2O3
), ArticleFig(id=1217486330364351332, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149653034449285133, articleId=1209927721010983585, language=EN, label=Tab.3, caption=Comparison on preparation methods of metal oxide semiconductor materials, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=

方法

制备

原理优点缺点
水热法前驱物溶解在高压下加热的水中再结晶参数可控、产物质量较高成本高、反应时间长
溶剂热合成法前驱物溶解在高压下加热的溶剂中再结晶操作简单、产物纯度高成本高、存在安全隐患
溶胶凝胶法前驱物转化为溶液,再陈化形成凝胶,再经干燥和煅烧得到固态材料成品材料结晶性能好、颗粒尺寸细小且均匀难以控制纳米颗粒的微观形貌
), ArticleFig(id=1217486330460820329, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149653034449285133, articleId=1209927721010983585, language=CN, label=表3, caption=

金属氧化物半导体材料的制备方法对比

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=

方法

制备

原理优点缺点
水热法前驱物溶解在高压下加热的水中再结晶参数可控、产物质量较高成本高、反应时间长
溶剂热合成法前驱物溶解在高压下加热的溶剂中再结晶操作简单、产物纯度高成本高、存在安全隐患
溶胶凝胶法前驱物转化为溶液,再陈化形成凝胶,再经干燥和煅烧得到固态材料成品材料结晶性能好、颗粒尺寸细小且均匀难以控制纳米颗粒的微观形貌
), ArticleFig(id=1217486330553095019, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149653034449285133, articleId=1209927721010983585, language=EN, label=Tab.4, caption=Effect comparison on modification strategies of moisture stability, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
改进策略材料相对响应Rr(湿度范围)文献
涂覆疏水透气涂层ZnO@ZIF-CoZn88% (0/90 RH%) *[36]
ZnO@ZIF-8120% (0/75 RH%) *[37]
PFS-Pd/TiO260%(25/75 RH%)[38]
ZnO-PANI90%(20/60 RH%)[39]
Tb4O7-In2O386%(0/80 RH%)[40]
CoSnO3@MOF@PDMS98%(0/90 RH%)[41]
掺杂羟基吸收剂Tb-doped SnO280%(0/80 RH%)[42]
Ni-doped SnO244%(0/25 RH%)[43]
Pr-doped In2O3103%(0/80 RH%)*[44]
Al-doped SnO227%(0/45 RH%)*[45]
Rh-loaded WO355%(0/80 RH%)*[46]
Al2O3-loaded SnO233%(0/45 RH%)*[45]
In2O3/CuO85%(25/95 RH%)[47]
NiO/ZrO286%(11/95 RH%)[48]
In2O3-SnO275%(20/95 RH%)[49]
调节表面吸附氧Sb-doped SnO260%(0/96 RH%)[50]
CeO2-loaded In2O395%(0/80 RH%)[51]
Tb-loaded SnO280%(0/80 RH%)[42]
), ArticleFig(id=1217486330657952624, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149653034449285133, articleId=1209927721010983585, language=CN, label=表4, caption=

抗湿稳定性改性策略的效果对比

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
改进策略材料相对响应Rr(湿度范围)文献
涂覆疏水透气涂层ZnO@ZIF-CoZn88% (0/90 RH%) *[36]
ZnO@ZIF-8120% (0/75 RH%) *[37]
PFS-Pd/TiO260%(25/75 RH%)[38]
ZnO-PANI90%(20/60 RH%)[39]
Tb4O7-In2O386%(0/80 RH%)[40]
CoSnO3@MOF@PDMS98%(0/90 RH%)[41]
掺杂羟基吸收剂Tb-doped SnO280%(0/80 RH%)[42]
Ni-doped SnO244%(0/25 RH%)[43]
Pr-doped In2O3103%(0/80 RH%)*[44]
Al-doped SnO227%(0/45 RH%)*[45]
Rh-loaded WO355%(0/80 RH%)*[46]
Al2O3-loaded SnO233%(0/45 RH%)*[45]
In2O3/CuO85%(25/95 RH%)[47]
NiO/ZrO286%(11/95 RH%)[48]
In2O3-SnO275%(20/95 RH%)[49]
调节表面吸附氧Sb-doped SnO260%(0/96 RH%)[50]
CeO2-loaded In2O395%(0/80 RH%)[51]
Tb-loaded SnO280%(0/80 RH%)[42]
), ArticleFig(id=1217486330762810223, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149653034449285133, articleId=1209927721010983585, language=EN, label=Tab.5, caption=Comparison of CNTs preparation methods, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
碳纳米管制备方法优点缺点
电弧法技术简单;成品较直,缺陷较少,纯度较高制备装置复杂;成品尺寸不一;生产率低
化学气相沉淀法设备简单,易于工业化生产;成品纯度较高,尺寸均匀成品表面有缺陷,易弯曲变形
激光蒸馏法可连续生产,成品纯度高,尺寸可控制备过程能耗大;设备复杂;制备成本高
), ArticleFig(id=1217486330855084913, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149653034449285133, articleId=1209927721010983585, language=CN, label=表5, caption=

碳纳米管制备方法对比

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
碳纳米管制备方法优点缺点
电弧法技术简单;成品较直,缺陷较少,纯度较高制备装置复杂;成品尺寸不一;生产率低
化学气相沉淀法设备简单,易于工业化生产;成品纯度较高,尺寸均匀成品表面有缺陷,易弯曲变形
激光蒸馏法可连续生产,成品纯度高,尺寸可控制备过程能耗大;设备复杂;制备成本高
), ArticleFig(id=1217486330943165298, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149653034449285133, articleId=1209927721010983585, language=EN, label=Tab.6, caption=Improvement in gas sensitivity of CNTs, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
材料改进方法使用的材料/官能团测试气体
掺杂和嵌入Ni[62]、Ga[63]、PtN3[64]、Pt[65]、Au、Ag和Cu[66]SOF2、SO2、H2S、SO2F2、SO2F3
官能团修饰羧基[67]、羟基[68]、氨基[69]SO2、SO2F2、SOF2、CF4、Cl2、H2S
), ArticleFig(id=1217486331027051380, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149653034449285133, articleId=1209927721010983585, language=CN, label=表6, caption=

碳纳米管气敏性能的改进

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
材料改进方法使用的材料/官能团测试气体
掺杂和嵌入Ni[62]、Ga[63]、PtN3[64]、Pt[65]、Au、Ag和Cu[66]SOF2、SO2、H2S、SO2F2、SO2F3
官能团修饰羧基[67]、羟基[68]、氨基[69]SO2、SO2F2、SOF2、CF4、Cl2、H2S
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SF6分解组分的气体传感器检测方法综述
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蒋庆明 1 , 张艳妹 1 , 王明祥 2 , 李洨雨 2 , 徐敏 3 , 贾鹏飞 1
绝缘材料 | 综述 2024,57(3): 1-14
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绝缘材料 | 综述 2024, 57(3): 1-14
SF6分解组分的气体传感器检测方法综述
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蒋庆明1, 张艳妹1, 王明祥2, 李洨雨2, 徐敏3, 贾鹏飞1
作者信息
  • 1广西大学,电气工程学院,广西 南宁 530004
  • 2广西大学,广西电力装备智能控制与运维重点实验室,广西 南宁 530004
  • 3西华大学 食品与生物工程学院,四川 成都 610039
  • 蒋庆明(1997-),男(汉族),广西桂林人,硕士生,主要从事机器嗅觉与人工智能在空气开关柜绝缘劣化检测方面的研究;

    贾鹏飞(1988-),男(汉族),山东烟台人,副教授,博士,主要从事机器嗅觉技术理论和应用研究的工作。

Review of gas sensor detection methods for SF6 decomposition components
Qingming JIANG1, Yanmei ZHANG1, Mingxiang WANG2, Xiaoyu LI2, Min XU3, Pengfei JIA1
Affiliations
  • 1School of Electrical Engineering, Maintenance of Power equipment, Guangxi University, Nanning 530004, China
  • 2Guangxi Key Laboratory of Intelligent Control and, Maintenance of Power equipment, Guangxi University, Nanning 530004, China
  • 3College of Food Science and Bioengineering, Xihua University, Chengdu 610039, China
出版时间: 2024-03-20 doi: 10.16790/j.cnki.1009-9239.im.2024.03.001
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填充六氟化硫(SF6)的电气设备内部存在绝缘缺陷时可能发生过热或放电,迫使SF6分解产生一些特定的气体副产物。通过检测这些副产物的种类和浓度,可以判断电气设备中是否存在绝缘缺陷以及缺陷的类型和严重程度。气体传感器作为气体检测的重要工具,在绝缘缺陷的气体检测法中受到了越来越多的关注。本文重点回顾了使用气体传感器检测SF6分解产物的方法,介绍了SF6解离过程和特征气体的生成路径,详细阐述了用于SF6分解特征气体检测的传感器气敏原理和优缺点;重点讨论了利用特征气体信息诊断绝缘缺陷的算法,并展望了通过传感器检测气体分解组分方法诊断绝缘缺陷的发展方向。

六氟化硫  /  气体组分分析法  /  绝缘缺陷  /  气体传感器  /  金属氧化物半导体

Electrical equipment filled with sulfur hexafluoride (SF6) may experience overheating or discharge when there are internal insulation defects, which will cause SF6 to decompose and produce some gaseous by-products. By testing the type and concentration of these by-products, we can determine whether there were insulation defects in electrical equipment and the type and severity of these defects. As an important tool of gas detection, gas sensor had been paid more and more attention in the gas detection method of insulation defects. In this paper, the method of detecting SF6 decomposition products by using gas sensor was reviewed, the dissociation process of SF6 and the generation path of characteristic gas were introduced, and the gas-sensitive principle, advantages, and disadvantages of the sensor used for detecting SF6 decomposition characteristic gas were described in detail. The algorithm for diagnosing insulation defect using characteristic gas information was mainly discussed, and the development direction of using sensors to detect gas decomposition components for insulation defect diagnosis was prospected.

SF6  /  gas component analysis method  /  insulation defect  /  gas sensor  /  metal oxide semiconductor
蒋庆明, 张艳妹, 王明祥, 李洨雨, 徐敏, 贾鹏飞. SF6分解组分的气体传感器检测方法综述. 绝缘材料, 2024 , 57 (3) : 1 -14 . DOI: 10.16790/j.cnki.1009-9239.im.2024.03.001
Qingming JIANG, Yanmei ZHANG, Mingxiang WANG, Xiaoyu LI, Min XU, Pengfei JIA. Review of gas sensor detection methods for SF6 decomposition components[J]. Insulating Materials, 2024 , 57 (3) : 1 -14 . DOI: 10.16790/j.cnki.1009-9239.im.2024.03.001
六氟化硫(SF6)因其良好的绝缘性能,常被用于气体绝缘组合电器(gas insulated switchgears,GIS)中[1]。纯净的SF6是一种无毒、无色、无味的气体,化学性质非常稳定。但大量研究发现,SF6在放电和高温的作用下会发生分解,产生一些低氟硫化物,这些低氟硫化物会进一步与水分和氧气等发生反应,生成一些有毒和具有腐蚀性的化合物[2]。当GIS内部存在绝缘缺陷时,极有可能发生局部放电和局部过热[3-4],由此生成的腐蚀性气体会进一步恶化设备的绝缘性能,最终导致事故的发生。因此,检测绝缘缺陷是电气设备维护工作中的重要内容[5-6]
目前已有的绝缘缺陷检测方法全都是围绕放电或过热产生的各类物理化学反应展开。例如检测放电的方法有特高频法、脉冲电流法、暂态对地电压法、超声波法、光学法和气体组分分析法等[7];检测局部过热的方法有红外分析法和气体组分分析法等[8-9]。其中,气体组分分析法作为一种非电检测的方法,可用于放电和过热两种故障的检测。气体组分分析法对电力设备现场复杂的电磁环境具有极强的抗干扰作用,具有较高的检测灵敏度和可在线检测等优点,因此近年来受到了越来越多的关注。
气体组分分析法是指通过检测电气设备内部SF6气体分解的标志性气体成分,来判断电气设备内部是否存在绝缘缺陷以及绝缘缺陷的类型或严重程度的方法。SF6分解的标志性气体主要有SOF2、SO2F2、SO2[10]。目前常用来检测这些气体的方法有气相色谱法、红外吸收光谱法、检测管法和气体传感器法等[11]。近年来随着人工智能技术的飞速发展,由气体传感器组成的机器嗅觉系统(又称电子鼻)的性能越来越强大,气体传感器也由此得到了快速发展和深入研究,在气体组分分析法中被大量应用,对GIS的绝缘缺陷检测起到了十分重要的作用。
本文总结了SF6气体组分分析法中的气体传感器检测方法,主要阐述了SF6气体在放电作用下的解离过程和标志性气体的合成路径,介绍了常用于检测SF6分解特征气体传感器的原理和优缺点,讨论了用于气体组分分析法检测绝缘故障的人工智能算法,并对气体组分分析法未来的发展方向进行了展望。
当GIS内部存在绝缘缺陷或接触不良等而发生局部放电或局部过热时,SF6会分解出多种低氟硫化物,这些低氟硫化物会进一步与设备内部的导体和绝缘材料以及氧气和水分发生反应产生稳定的分解产物[12-14]。因为GIS故障的类型、严重程度等信息和这些分解产物有着密切的关系,故通过定性和定量分析SF6分解产物可以实现对GIS绝缘状态的监测和故障诊断[15]
GIS内部的放电形式主要有电晕放电、火花放电和电弧放电等。SF6在电晕放电和火花放电下的分解由电子撞击和局部过热两部分原因引起[16-17],而在电晕放电下SF6分解的主要原因则是电子撞击[18]。SF6发生反应的路径如图1所示。设备存在绝缘缺陷的情况下,GIS内部的水分和氧气会被电子撞击产生O、OH等高活性粒子,这些高活性粒子会与低氟硫化物发生一系列反应,最终生成HF、SOF4、SO2F2、S2OF10、SOF2及SO2等气体[19-21]
许多学者希望建立SF6放电分解的物理模型,以解释SF6分解过程和气体产物的产生机制。R J V BRUNT等[22]提出的三区域分解模型得到了广泛认可,该模型表明气体绝缘设备的内部空间在电晕放电下可分为辉光区、离子迁移区和主气室放电区3部分,图2说明了各种气体产物在不同区域中的生成机制。
三区域分解模型较为全面和系统地解释了金属突出物缺陷在负极性直流放电情况下SF6的分解机制,对SF6分解过程和产物的生成路径都作了详细的介绍。但在其他放电条件下的SF6分解机制可能与此模型介绍的内容存在较大差异,故这一模型的适用范围还存在局限性。SF6在负极性直流或交流放电等其他放电情况下的分解机制还有待进一步研究。
总的来说,SF6在火花放电下会生成S2F10和S2F10O两种特有产物,在局部放电下的主要产物有CF4、SO2F2、SOF4、SOF2、SO2和HF。其中,SO2F2、SOF2和CF4常作为绝缘劣化检测的特征气体。SOF4不稳定,易与空气中的水分进一步反应生成SO2F2;HF具有强酸性,易与设备中的金属和绝缘材料等反应生成氟化物,不适合作为特征气体。
在通过SF6气体分解组分来检测设备故障的方法中,气体传感器因简便易用和可在线检测等优点得到了广泛的关注和使用。气体传感器利用目标气体分子与气敏材料发生物理反应或化学反应,将产生的物理量或化学量的变化转变为易于测量的电信号或光信号等,从而完成对气体组分和浓度的测量。将气体传感器安装在设备中,可根据传感器的响应和模式识别算法判断设备是否存在绝缘异常甚至可以判断绝缘异常的严重程度。表1总结了常见的气体传感器及其优缺点。金属氧化物半导体气体传感器和碳纳米管气体传感器因气敏性能优良,常被用于检测SF6气体的分解组分,本文将重点介绍上述两种类型的传感器。
评价一个气体传感器性能好坏的参数,主要有灵敏度、响应时间、恢复时间、选择性和可重复性等。
灵敏度是指传感器对目标气体的敏感程度,按照传感器的测量原理主要分为电压表示法、电流表示法和电阻表示法。对于以气敏材料电阻的变化来响应被测气体的传感器,电阻表示法最为常见,其响应定义如式(1)所示。
Ar=Rv-R0/R0
式(1)中:Ar是传感器的响应;Rv是传感器处于目标气体中的电阻值;R0是传感器处于洁净空气中的电阻值。
响应时间表示气体传感器对目标气体响应速度的快慢。一般来说,响应时间越短越好。设传感器在洁净空气中的电阻为R0,在目标气体中的稳定电阻为Rg,则传感器的响应时间定义为将传感器从置入目标气体后,传感器电阻从R0变化到0.9Rg所需的时间。
与响应时间的定义方式类似,恢复时间表示传感器在脱离目标气体后,电阻恢复到R0所需的时间。同样地,恢复时间越短越好。
选择性表示传感器对非目标气体的不敏感性。在气体传感器的实际工作环境中,往往存在多种气体。若传感器对非目标气体存在较大响应,则会影响气体识别系统的识别效果。传感器对目标气体的响应越大,对非目标气体的响应越小,说明传感器的选择性越好[23]
可重复性是指气体传感器在同等条件下多次重复测量同一气体样本得到的响应曲线的一致性。可重复性是决定传感器性能优劣的重要参数。
金属氧化物半导体(metal oxide semiconductor,MOS)气体传感器采用金属氧化物半导体材料经特殊工艺制成,与气体相互作用时会产生表面吸附或反应,引起以载流子运动为特征的电导率、伏安特性或表面电位等电学特性的变化[24]。MOS气敏材料按照多数载流子的不同可分为p型和n型,其中p型MOS气敏材料的多数载流子为空穴,n型MOS气敏材料的多数载流子为自由电子。常见的p型和n型MOS气敏材料见表2[25]
MOS气敏材料的电学特性变化与材料表面物理反应和化学反应、表面状态、温湿度等因素有关,涉及气体吸附理论和半导体电子相关理论,因此其气敏机理非常复杂,解释模型众多。其中,表面耗尽层模型和晶界势垒模型等在解释电阻型MOS传感器气敏机理方面已经得到了广泛认可。表面耗尽层模型详细描述了发生在MOS材料表面的氧化还原反应,说明了气敏的主要过程。以还原性气体检测为例,氧气会捕获n型MOS材料表面附近导带的自由电子并附着在材料表面形成化学吸附氧,由此产生电子耗尽层。电子耗尽层内多数载流子浓度降低,导致电导率降低。当传感器暴露在目标气体(如CO)中时,化学吸附氧将与目标气体发生反应,释放出电子,使材料表面的多数载流子浓度升高而电阻降低,从而检测到目标气体[26]。对p型MOS材料而言,氧气会捕获其表面的电子使表面产生空穴,导致材料的多数载流子浓度升高,电阻降低。当传感器置于还原性气体中时,电子会被释放回到材料表面的导带中,进而导致多数载流子浓度降低,电阻升高。晶界势垒模型则从晶粒与势垒的角度解释了MOS材料的气敏机理。无数微晶颗粒的凝聚与其晶界构成了形貌结构多样的气体传感材料。以还原性气体检测为例,置于纯净空气中的n型MOS材料表面会聚集化学吸附氧,并且晶粒与晶粒之间的连接处会产生空间电荷层(晶界势垒),此时电子在晶粒间的移动将变得困难,宏观上表现为n型MOS材料的电阻较大[27]。材料被置于还原性气体中,还原性气体与材料表面的化学吸附氧发生氧化还原反应并释放电子,此时空间电荷层的高度下降(晶界势垒降低),电子在晶粒间移动的阻碍变小,MOS材料的电阻减小。p型MOS材料的气敏机理与此类似,只是由于多数载流子的不同,电阻的变化过程与n型MOS材料相反。
目前合成MOS气敏材料的方法有水热法、溶剂热合成法、溶胶凝胶法等。表3总结了上述方法的大致原理和优缺点。近年来,用于检测SF6气体分解组分的MOS气敏材料的制备及其气敏特性研究是一个热点。YANG A J等[28]通过水热法合成了氧化铈纳米颗粒(CeO2 NPs),掺杂Au、Ag和Pd等金属后,材料在适宜的温度下表现出对H2S、SO2和SOF2的高灵敏度响应,并且具有较高的响应速度和恢复速度。PAN X等[29]采用密度泛函理论(density functional theory,DFT)研究了SO2、SOF2和SO2F2气体在单分子金属氧化物(ZnO/CuO)掺杂石墨烯的吸附性能,探索金属氧化物掺杂石墨烯的可行性。LI L等[30]制备了TiO2/NiSO4复合纳米纤维传感器,该传感器在室温下对SO2F2表现出极高的灵敏度,但温度升高时灵敏度有所下降。
金属氧化物传感器在实际应用中仍存在一些不可忽视的问题:①漂移。MOS气体传感器稳定性较差,容易受到温度、湿度、光照和材料老化的影响而发生响应的漂移,导致原有的气体识别模型在漂移后的传感器上性能严重下降;②个体差异。由于制作工艺和半导体材料特性的影响,同一厂家、同一型号、同一批次中不同的传感器对同一气体样本的响应也会存在不同,极大限制了气体识别模型的通用性;③中毒。接触酸性气体或硫化物,或长时间接触某种高浓度气体,会导致传感器中毒,显著缩短传感器的使用寿命;④交叉敏感性。传感器对非目标气体也会出现响应,即传感器的选择性差,这会导致气体检测系统的性能下降;⑤湿度敏感。传感器对工作环境中的湿度变化较为敏感,严重影响了传感器的检测精度。这些问题严重限制了气体识别技术的发展,国内外许多学者对此展开了大量的研究。目前针对漂移和个体差异问题的主要解决方法是算法校正,这一内容将在3.3中介绍。本节主要对中毒、交叉敏感性和湿度敏感的解决方法进行描述。
针对高浓度气体环境下传感器中毒的问题,应当尽量避免传感器长时间处于高浓度的目标气体环境下,并定期对传感器进行校准,确保传感器输出值与气体真实浓度值相匹配。此外,还可以采取材料修饰的方法来提高传感器对酸性气体和硫化物的抗中毒能力。B S KIM等[31]开发了一种新方法,将负载在活性γ-Al2O3上的纳米氧化铈水热处理后,在CeO2(111)的晶面上形成八面体纳米二氧化铈,然后负载Pt。结果表明Ce3+的低碱度缺陷位点减少,材料显示出良好的抗硫性。ZHANG Y G等[32]提出在载有贵金属(Pt和Pd)的SnO2气敏材料表面涂敷一层抗中毒材料SnO2/α-Al2O3,在不降低对CH4气敏性能的情况下提高了传感器对六甲基二硅氧烷的抗中毒能力。
对于交叉敏感性问题,主要有两种解决方法:①预先了解目标气体种类和传感器使用环境中可能出现的气体种类,根据目标气体和干扰气体选择敏感气体不同的多个传感器制成传感器阵列。由于每个传感器对不同气体的响应特性都不同,如果传感器选择适当,传感器阵列的响应中会具有冗余且相互补充的气体信息。使用信息更加丰富的传感器阵列响应数据训练模式识别模型,可以有效抑制交叉干扰问题。不过,确定阵列中传感器的型号和数量目前没有一定的规律,大多数情况下依靠研究者的个人经验,这给阵列法的实际运用带来了不确定性。②对传感器气敏材料进行掺杂和修饰等改进,文献[33-35]分别报道了Au掺杂SnO2、Zn掺杂In2O3和Pt掺杂CeO2等材料制成的传感器,显著提升了传感器对CO的选择性。图3为文献[33]中对Au掺杂SnO2气敏材料的选择性测试结果。
要减小MOS传感器对湿度敏感的问题,有3种方法:①在材料表面涂覆疏水透气的涂层,减小水在材料表面的吸附作用;②在材料中掺杂可以吸附水汽的羟基吸收剂,减小水与氧的竞争吸附;③控制水与吸附氧的反应,或还原已与水形成羟基的吸附氧。具体方法总结在表4[52]
总的来说,MOS传感器对目标气体的气敏特性好、响应速度快,符合人们对理想气体传感器的要求,大量应用于空气质量检测和危害气体检测等方面,适合作为SF6分解组分法检测GIS绝缘缺陷的气体传感器。
碳纳米管(carbon nanotubes,CNTs)由Iijima Sumio于1991年首次发现,是一种完美六边形结构的纳米材料,具有优异的力学性能、电学性能和化学性能[53]。碳纳米管有单壁和多壁两种类型,区别在于单壁碳纳米管(single-walled carbon nanotubes,SWCNTs)是由一层石墨原子卷曲而成,多壁碳纳米管(multi-walled carbon nanotubes,MWCNTs)是由多层同轴但直径不同的单壁碳纳米管组合而成[54]。由于碳纳米管具有很大的比表面积[55],对目标气体的吸附率极高,在室温下对目标气体表现出高敏感性[56]。在碳纳米管上有4处主要的气体吸附位点,如图4所示[57]。在吸附目标气体分子后,碳纳米管的电学特性会发生变化。以单壁碳纳米管吸附NO2为例,在碳纳米管表面上,每个碳原子以sp2杂化轨道与周围的碳原子形成3个σ键。NO2分子因存在一个未成对的电子而具有强氧化性,与碳纳米管表面的碳原子发生接触后,强烈的吸电子效应迅速地使碳纳米管表面的π电子云偏向NO2分子,宏观上表现为从碳纳米管到NO2的电荷转移。电子的流失增大了半导体碳纳米管空穴载流子的浓度,使其电阻大幅下降[58]
碳纳米管的制备方法主要有电弧法、化学气相沉淀法和激光蒸馏法,3种方法的优缺点总结在表5中。电弧法是最早提出制备碳纳米管的方法,此法通过在两个石墨电极之间施加电压来生成电弧,在电弧的作用下,阳极石墨蒸发为碳蒸气并在催化剂的作用下重组,最终在阴极沉淀成碳纳米管。化学气相沉淀法大致过程为将碳源气体(如甲烷、乙炔或乙烯等)与载气混合后送入高温反应室,在催化剂的作用下,碳源气体将会分解形成碳原子或碳簇,并在催化剂表面生长成碳纳米管。激光蒸馏法与电弧法较为相似,区别在于激光蒸馏法在惰性气体环境下通过激光的能量蒸发石墨,使石墨蒸气规则地沉积为碳纳米管。3种方法中,化学气相沉淀法由于所需设备简单、工艺参数可控、成品纯度较高,是实验室中制备碳纳米管最常用的方法[59]
碳纳米管由于其优异的气敏性能受到了广泛关注,许多学者研究了碳纳米管对SF6分解组分的气敏特性。DING W D等[60]研究了本征SWCNTs对SF6分解产物的气敏特性,发现SWCNTs在吸附SOF2或SF4后电导率提高,故CNTs具有作为SF6分解产物检测传感器的潜质。但本征CNTs可以检测的气体种类较少、灵敏度较低且恢复时间较长[61],为了改善CNTs的气敏性能,许多学者开始对CNTs进行掺杂、官能团修饰等处理。
GUI Y G等[62]制备了一种Ni改性的碳纳米管气体传感器,对H2S、SOF2、SO2、SO2F2等具有较高的灵敏度,检测限度可达1×10-6。QIAN H等[63]提出了一种Ga掺杂单壁氮化硼纳米管(Ga-BNNT)气敏材料,通过密度泛函理论(density functional theory,DFT)计算分析表明掺杂Ga后BNNT对SOF2和SO2F2气体的敏感性和选择性都有了大幅提升。表6总结了近年来部分改进碳纳米管对SF6分解组分气敏性能的研究报道。
碳纳米管是一种极具潜力的气敏材料,由碳纳米管材料制成的传感器具有检测限度低、响应速度快和气敏性好等优点。但本征CNTs对SF6大部分分解组分的响应不足以让人满意,故研究人员对本征CNTs进行了掺杂和官能团修饰的改进。经过合理改进的CNT材料对SF6分解组分表现出高度的敏感性,具有巨大的研究价值和实用潜力。
人工智能技术的快速发展为气体传感器的研究和应用注入了强劲动力,使用气体分解组分诊断绝缘缺陷的方法也得到快速发展。诸如支持向量机(support vertor machine,SVM)和人工神经网络(artificial neural network,ANN)等许多分类和回归模型常见于SF6分解组分法的相关文献中,用于处理气体传感器的响应信号或经其他方法得到的特征气体浓度值以实现绝缘缺陷诊断任务。下面简要介绍SVM和ANN的算法原理。
SVM是一种经典的监督学习算法,可用于分类和回归问题。其主要思想是将数据映射到高维空间,并在该空间中找到一个最优超平面来分割不同类别之间的数据。SVM通过最大化不同类别样本之间的间隔和最小化分类错误率来寻找最优超平面,同时只使用了少数支持向量,因此具有较好的泛化能力和鲁棒性。SVM还可以使用核函数来处理非线性分类问题。图5为一个简单的SVM分类结果示例,图5中SVM找到了一条最佳的分类边界(图中间的黑色实线)来分开两类样本,两条虚线的距离为样本的间隔。
设分割两类数据的最优超平面的方程如式(2)所示。
wTx+b=0
式(2)中:w是待求解的最优超平面方程的系数;b是偏移量;x是待分类的数据样本;T代表矩阵的转置运算。
通过求解式(3)所示的优化问题可以确定最优超平面的两个参数wb
minw,b 12w2,s. t.  yiwTxi+b1,  i=1, 2, , m
式(3)中:yi是样本xi的标签;m为样本个数。
由于实际数据并不总是线性可分,并且常常带有一定噪声,在特征样本构成的空间里很难找到一个最优超平面将异类样本分开,因此原始SVM在面对此类数据时效果不佳。在处理带有噪声和线性不可分数据这类更具挑战性的任务中,加入核函数和软间隔的SVM凭借更优异的性能和更出色的泛化能力而更受青睐。设最优超平面的方程为式(4)
wTϕx+b=0
式(4)中,ϕ(x)表示x映射到高维空间后的向量。
可通过求解式(5)所示的优化问题确定最优超平面的参数wbξ
minw,b,ξi 12w2+Cj=1mξi,s. t. yiwTϕxi+b1-ξi ,ξi0, i=1, 2, , m  
式(5)中:ξi是松弛因子,用于为模型引入软间隔;C>0,为惩罚系数,是一个超参数,用于限制模型的软间隔宽度。
通过引入拉格朗日乘子α=αiβ=βi, i=1, 2, , m,利用拉格朗日乘数法求解式(5),列出拉格朗日乘数法的目标函数,再将其转换为对偶问题可得式(6)。可通过Karush-Kuhn-Tucker(KKT)条件和Sequential Minimal Optimization(SMO)算法求解这一优化问题得到最佳的分类超平面。
maxα i=1mαi-12i=1mj=1mαiαjyiyjκxi, xj,s. t. i=1mαiyi=0 ,0αiC, i=1, 2, , m
式(6)中,κ为核函数。
高斯核函数是最常用的核函数之一,其表达式如式(7)所示。
κxi, xj=exp-xi-xj22σ2
式(7)中,σ为高斯核的带宽。
人工神经网络是一种模拟生物神经系统的计算模型,由大量简单的神经元单元组成,通过连接权重和激活函数来实现信息的处理和传递。图6(a)为一个简单的神经元模型,从图中可以看出,神经元具有两个参数:w=(w1,w2)b。神经元通过这两个参数对输入数据进行简单的加权求和,再经过激活函数f来求得输出y。激活函数在神经网络中起着重要作用。常用的激活函数有sigmoid函数σ(x)和relu(rectified linear unit)函数等,它们的表达式分别如式(8)式(9)所示。
σ(x)=11+e-x
relu(x)=max(0, x)
人工神经网络是由许多神经元组合级联而成的网络,可以拟合许多复杂的函数。图6(b)为一个简单的神经网络,其中每一条有向线段代表一个权重参数,简洁起见,图中略去了偏差项b的线段。图6(b)中展示的神经网络仅有1个隐藏层。实际使用时,神经网络可以具有多个隐藏层。具有多层隐藏层的神经网络也有另一个名字——深度神经网络(deep neural networks,DNN)。
神经网络的训练过程,就是通过一定的学习算法确定每一个神经元的参数wb的过程。反向传播(back propagation,BP)算法是常用于训练神经网络的方法。BP算法利用链式法则将误差从输出层向输入层逐层传递和计算,在此过程中计算出每个参数的梯度,然后根据梯度下降的方法更新每个参数,如式(10)所示,从而最小化损失函数,提升神经网络的性能。
ww-αLossw
式(10)中:α是学习率;Loss是损失函数。
人工神经网络是目前使用最广泛的机器学习模型之一,已经衍生出了卷积神经网络、循环神经网络和生成对抗网络等热门模型,常用于分类、回归、图像识别和自然语言处理等任务,在人工智能领域占据了重要地位。
SF6气体分解组分可以用于识别GIS内部的绝缘故障情况。将气体传感器或其他气体识别和分析装置获取的GIS内部气体信息用于训练一个性能强大的人工智能模型,就可以使用该模型根据气体信息判断GIS内部的绝缘故障情况。相比其他方法,气体组分法检测绝缘缺陷具有更强的抗干扰能力,并且可以识别故障的具体类型和严重程度,故国内外许多学者对此展开了深入研究。
TANG J等[70]选择了SO2F2、SOF2、CO2和CF4 4种SF6分解产物作为检测特征成分,构造了1个气室和金属突出物、自由金属微粒、绝缘子气隙、绝缘子金属污秽4个缺陷模型来模拟GIS中的局部放电,使用SVM来识别绝缘缺陷的类型,分类准确率达到97.22%,故障检测结果的混淆矩阵如图7所示。混淆矩阵是机器学习领域中常用于展示分类结果的工具。混淆矩阵中方块的颜色越深,说明预测结果和真实结果一致的数据越多,最好的情况是所有的数据样本都集中在混淆矩阵的主对角线上。混淆矩阵右侧带有渐变色彩的数据条用以对照说明预测结果与真实结果一致的样本数量。图7中,横纵坐标分别是真实的故障类型和模型预测的故障类型,其中Pr为金属突出物缺陷,G为电极/环氧树脂界面处的间隙缺陷,C为垫片表面的污染缺陷,Pa为自由金属微粒缺陷。为了更好地适应实际情况,研究人员并不满足于单独使用SVM来诊断绝缘缺陷。ZHANG R等[71]先通过信息熵理论和主成分分析(principal component analysis,PCA)找出对分类作用最大的特征样本,再将其送入SVM进行分类。主成分分析是一种经典的无监督学习算法,主要用于数据降维,即在最大程度保留主要特征信息的同时,减小数据的使用量。结果表明准确率从使用原始数据分类的78.13%提升到88.75%。
文献[70]和[71]都使用了SVM来进行绝缘缺陷的分类,不过各有侧重。文献[70]重点分析了所选特征参数的物理意义,认为选用的浓度比值c(SO2F2)/c(SOF2)表示放电能量,其中c(∙)代表括号中气体的浓度;c(CF4)/c(CO2)可视为区分缺陷类型的指标之一;c(CO2+CF4)/c(SOF2+SO2F2)与绝缘材料或电极的降解程度呈正相关。但是,文中并未详细解释通过什么过程或何种评价标准选出这些参数作为特征。文献[71]则通过信息熵与PCA结合的方式来挑选特征,挑选和处理特征的流程如图8所示。在同样使用SVM进行分类的情况下,经过信息熵与PCA挑选的特征数据相比原数据训练的分类器分类准确率提升超过10%。
上述研究仅关注单一绝缘缺陷的识别,但实际情况下设备内可能同时存在多种不同程度的绝缘缺陷。为了能够利用分解组分识别多个故障,ZHENG K等[72]使用改进的k近邻算法结合SVM来诊断GIS内的绝缘缺陷,先通过SVM确定缺陷类型,再通过改进的k近邻算法确定缺陷严重程度。该方法不仅能够克服传统浓度比值法的缺点,而且适用于复杂混合故障的诊断,对绝缘缺陷的状态能够做出准确的预测。N A MUHAMAD等[73]使用随机森林来判断绝缘缺陷的类型,从局部放电故障气体中提取了12种分解产物样本作为特征,在单一故障和混合故障情况下都表现出不错的性能,详细结果见图9图10
图9中,横纵坐标分别为真实的故障类型和模型预测的故障类型,Fr代表自由导电微粒缺陷,Pr代表金属突出物缺陷,Vo代表电极介电空隙缺陷,Fi代表固定铜颗粒缺陷。图10中,Pr-Fi为金属突出物与固定铜颗粒的混合缺陷,Pr-Fr为金属突出物与自由导电微粒的混合缺陷,Vo-Fr为电极介电空隙与自由导电微粒的混合缺陷。
SVM仅在样本量较小的情况下表现较好,当需要分类的数据量过大时,SVM计算最佳分类超平面的过程就会变得十分复杂,会耗费大量的计算资源和运算时间。而且SVM的性能与超参数和核函数的选择关系十分密切,而超参数与核函数的选择主要取决于人的经验。此外,SVM只适用于二分类任务,对于多分类任务需要额外的扩展技术,例如基于有向无环图的支持向量机(directed acyclic graph-based SVM,DAG-SVM),编程实现过程更加复杂。上述原因在一定程度上影响了SVM在气体组分法中的应用。
回顾上述研究可以发现,使用气体传感器和响应或分解组分的浓度值来诊断设备内部的绝缘缺陷取得了不错的效果,但是这些研究大多数是在模拟气室环境下进行的,现场条件下能否达到同样的效果还有待进一步检验。此外,上述研究更加关注放电模型的设计和数据特征的提取,所以使用了一些传统的机器学习算法。而深度学习模型具有自行学习数据特征的强大能力,可以让使用者从繁杂的特征提取工作中解放出来,将注意力放在如何提高模型性能上。一方面,深度学习模型的性能比传统机器学习模型的性能更加强大;另一方面,深度学习技术的发展日新月异,不断有性能更加强大的模型出现,其中有许多可以被借鉴到设备内部绝缘缺陷的诊断,因此结合深度学习技术的气体组分识别具有广阔的发展前景。
传感器技术是气体组分法诊断绝缘故障的关键技术之一。但目前气体传感器还存在漂移和个体差异问题,上述问题会缩短气体识别系统的寿命,限制模型的通用性,这严重限制了气体组分法的使用和发展。
从统计学上来看,传感器的漂移和个体差异问题本质上归结于传感器响应的数据分布出现了变化。漂移是传感器材料老化等原因导致的数据分布逐渐变化;个体差异是更换传感器后数据分布发生的变化。传感器响应数据的分布变化会严重恶化气体识别模型的性能,进而影响诊断。针对这一问题,当前主要的解决方法就是算法校正,主要分为两种:①构建一个性能强大的气体分类或浓度预测模型[74-76],以此来抵消漂移产生的影响,这一方法的显著缺点是需要用到漂移后数据的标签来训练模型,因而通用性较差;②采用无监督域自适应(unsupervised domain adaptation,UDA)技术进行校正。UDA是一种机器学习技术,用于处理源域和目标域分布不匹配的分类问题。UDA技术主要是在有标签的源域数据上学习一个模型,并将其适应到无标签的目标域上并取得尽可能好的结果。在传感器校正问题中,针对漂移,源域一般由传感器未漂移的响应数据组成;针对个体差异,源域一般由一个表现良好的传感器(主传感器)的响应数据组成,源域上的数据带有标签。对应的目标域则分别由漂移后的响应数据或需要校正的其他传感器(从传感器)的响应数据组成,目标域数据没有标签。本文将重点介绍一些使用UDA技术的传感器校正算法。
针对气体传感器数据分布差异的问题,UDA校正法主要有线性投影矩阵法和对抗性训练法两种。
(1)线性投影矩阵法。计算出一个投影矩阵P,通过P将源域数据和目标域数据向新的域投影,缩小投影后源域数据和目标域数据之间的分布差异。YI Z K等[77]提出了局部判别子空间投影法(LDSP),通过求解最佳的投影矩阵P,将源域数据和目标域数据向同一个公共子空间投影,方法的大概过程如图11所示。结果表明提出的方法可以在最小化二者分布差异的同时利用漂移前传感器数据样本的标签信息来增大潜在子空间中具有不同标签的数据样本的距离,以最大限度地保留样本特征以便于模型分类。LIU R等[78]提出了一种名为MCSP-SSS的域自适应方法,用于解决传感器数据分布差异问题。该方法通过引入PCA、平均分布差异、希尔伯特-施密特独立性准则和加权类内散射矩阵4个约束来优化投影矩阵,可以显著减小源样本与目标样本间的分布差异,最大化特征与标签的关联性并避免投影后的样本发生重叠,可以有效克服数据分布差异带来的模型性能下降问题。
(2)对抗性训练法。通过对抗性训练来进行UDA的方法最早由Y GANIN等[79]在2015年提出,在后续研究[80]中该方法被命名为域对抗神经网络(domain adversarial neural network,DANN),用于图像数据的域自适应,DANN的结构如图12所示。
图12可以看出,DANN主要包括4个部分,特征提取器(Feature Extractor)、梯度反转层(Gradient Reversal Layer)、域判别器(Discriminator)和分类器(Classifier)。首先给源域数据和目标域数据分配域标签,例如源域数据分配的域标签为0,目标域数据的域标签为1,再通过特征提取器提取源域数据和目标域数据的特征组成不变特征(Invariant Features),让域判别器来分辨不变特征来自源域或目标域,即预测不变特征的域标签。域判别器试图尽可能地正确预测域标签,而特征提取器试图尽可能地提取数据中难以分辨的特征来让判别器预测错误。在这样的对抗训练中,特征提取器和域判别器的性能都会越来越强大,最终达到纳什均衡,域判别器难以分辨特征提取器提取的特征究竟来自哪个域,来自两个域的不变特征之间的分布差异也被极大地缩小。近年来,也有学者利用对抗训练来校正气体传感器数据分布差异。CHEN X等[81]将对抗性训练引入气体传感器的数据校正,并对DANN做了改进,提出了一种名为FEDA的对抗网络,在特征提取器的损失函数中加入了最大平均分布差异损失和条件熵损失,可以在不求解投影矩阵的情况下实现源域数据和目标域数据的对齐。TAO Y等[82]将Wasserstein距离引入DANN,提出了WDLFR模型,用于校正传感器的响应数据差异。Wasserstein距离可以更加稳健和连续地度量两个域之间的分布差异,为神经网络的优化提供更加稳定的梯度。该研究使用Wasserstein距离作为判别器的损失函数,不再为数据分配域标签。在对抗训练的过程中,来自源域和目标域的域不变特征之间的Wasserstein被最小化,实现了二者分布的对齐。上述4个方法的准确性如图13所示。
线性投影矩阵法可以有效地完成源域与目标域的数据对齐,并且可以最大程度地避免样本重叠和保留样本的特征,但是为优化投影效果而引入的过多约束条件会让模型的超参数调整变得复杂。此外,漂移和个体差异对数据分布的影响含有非线性因素,因此线性矩阵的投影效果相对有限。对抗性训练的思想来自于生成对抗网络(generative adversarial networks,GAN)。通过对抗性训练,模型可以有效对齐传感器的源域数据和目标域数据,大幅改善分类器在目标域数据上的表现,而且模型结构简单,易于理解。但是,用于传感器数据校正的对抗网络也继承了GAN难以训练的缺点,需要精心设计网络参数才能让特征提取器得到有效训练,并且对抗网络对齐的数据会产生一定的重叠,给后续分类带来一定困难。因此,两种方法都有待进一步的发展完善。
本文主要回顾了使用气体传感器检测分解组分来诊断绝缘缺陷的方法。在SF6气体的分解组分中,SO2F2、SOF2、SO2和CF4与绝缘缺陷的关联程度更高且便于通过气体传感器检测,可通过气体传感器检测这些组分来诊断电力设备中是否存在绝缘缺陷。目前,SF6分解组分的气体传感器检测法可以有效识别电力设备中的绝缘缺陷,且不易受复杂电磁环境影响,但难以准确判断故障的所在位置,这给设备维护带来了一定困难。此外,通过气体传感器检测绝缘缺陷的方法发展时间不长,相关技术仍有待成熟,实际应用中可以与超声波法和暂态对地电压法等结合使用来提高诊断精度和效果。为了进一步改善气体组分法的诊断结果,未来可以从以下3个方面展开研究:
(1)SF6的分解过程机理较为复杂,且受到水分、氧气、压力和材料等诸多因素的影响,导致在模拟气室内建立的绝缘缺陷诊断模型应用于实际生产环境时准确率明显下降。因此,进一步研究电气设备实际工作条件下SF6的分解特性,建立更加稳健的诊断模型是十分必要的。
(2)气体传感器是气体组分法中的核心元件。受材料特性的影响,气体组分法中应用最广泛的MOS气体传感器的稳定性和鲁棒性较差,存在漂移、个体差异、交叉敏感性和容易中毒等缺点。这些缺点极大限制了气体组分法的发展。因此,解决上述问题是气体组分法发展的当务之急。
(3)过往的研究大多关注于使用SVM、随机森林和BPNN等浅层的机器学习模型来实现基于气体组分的故障诊断,并未过多关注深度学习模型。深度学习模型具有自动提取特征的强大能力,并且在许多任务中表现出远超传统模型的优异性能。目前少有研究涉及使用深度学习算法分析和处理SF6分解特征组分数据来诊断GIS绝缘缺陷。因此,结合深度学习技术的气体组分法具有广阔的发展前景。
  • 国家自然科学基金资助项目(61906160)
  • 四川省科技计划项目(2022NSFSC1632)
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2024年第57卷第3期
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doi: 10.16790/j.cnki.1009-9239.im.2024.03.001
  • 接收时间:2023-03-01
  • 首发时间:2025-12-22
  • 出版时间:2024-03-20
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  • 收稿日期:2023-03-01
  • 修回日期:2023-05-24
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国家自然科学基金资助项目(61906160)
四川省科技计划项目(2022NSFSC1632)
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    1广西大学,电气工程学院,广西 南宁 530004
    2广西大学,广西电力装备智能控制与运维重点实验室,广西 南宁 530004
    3西华大学 食品与生物工程学院,四川 成都 610039
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2种不同金属材料的力学参数

Family
属数
Number of
genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of
total species (%)

Genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of total
species (%)
鹅膏菌科Amanitaceae 2 11 5.26 鹅膏菌属 Amanita 10 4.78
小菇科 Mycenaceae 2 12 5.74 丝盖伞属 Inocybe 5 2.39
多孔菌科 Polyporaceae 8 14 6.70 蜡蘑属 Laccaria 5 2.39
红菇科 Russulaceae 3 23 11.00 小皮伞属 Marasmius 6 2.87
小菇属 Mycena 11 5.26
光柄菇属 Pluteus 5 2.39
红菇属 Russula 17 8.13
栓菌属 Trametes 5 2.39
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