Article(id=1241686767988961492, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1227999626482147330, issueId=1241686759470329942, articleNumber=null, orderNo=null, doi=10.16579/j.issn.1001.9669.2025.09.008, pmid=null, cstr=null, oa=null, hot=null, price=null, onlineType=0, articleFormat=0, articleType=null, articleTypeStr=null, receivedDate=1753372800000, receivedDateStr=2025-07-25, revisedDate=null, revisedDateStr=null, acceptedDate=null, acceptedDateStr=null, onlineDate=1773970794912, onlineDateStr=2026-03-20, pubDate=1757865600000, pubDateStr=2025-09-15, doiRegisterDate=null, doiRegisterDateStr=null, onlineIssueDate=1773970794912, onlineIssueDateStr=2026-03-20, onlineJustAcceptDate=null, onlineJustAcceptDateStr=null, onlineFirstDate=null, onlineFirstDateStr=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, createTime=1773970794912, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1773970794912, updator=13701087609, issue=Issue{id=1241686759470329942, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1227999626482147330, year='2025', volume='47', issue='9', pageStart='1', pageEnd='249', issueExtLink='null', onlineDate='null', pubDate='null', beforeIssueId=null, nextIssueId=null, price=null, status=1, issueComplete=1, articleOrder=1, issueType=-1, specialIssue=null, createTime=1773970792882, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1773970911747, updator=13701087609, preIssue=null, nextIssue=null, ext={EN=IssueExt(id=1241687258093375901, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1227999626482147330, issueId=1241686759470329942, language=EN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=), CN=IssueExt(id=1241687258093375902, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1227999626482147330, issueId=1241686759470329942, language=CN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=)}, issueFiles=null}, startPage=90, endPage=101, ext={EN=ArticleExt(id=1241686768567775457, articleId=1241686767988961492, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1227999626482147330, language=EN, title=Reliability analysis of high-temperature structure based on damage-threshold interference principle, columnId=null, journalTitle=Journal of Mechanical Strength, columnName=null, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

At present, the deterministic design and evaluation of high-temperature structural strength have been fully developed and formed a relatively complete system framework, laying the theoretical foundation for the design and manufacturing of numerous mechanical equipment under harsh service conditions. Considering the randomness of high-temperature structural failure and the small-sample characteristics of failure data, safety factors are usually adopted for conservative design in engineering. However, this often leads to structural redundancy and cost waste, so there is an urgent need to conduct research on design methods from determinism to uncertainty. Nevertheless, no universal and mature theoretical methods for high-temperature structural reliability or national/industrial standards have been established so far,making it difficult to effectively predict and guarantee the reliability of high-end equipment such as China's aero-engines during operation. Based on this, firstly, uncertainty analysis was elaborated. The damage-threshold interference criterion was introduced in detail, and its differences from and connections with the stress-strength interference criterion was explained.Finally, taking a certain steam turbine rotor as an example, it illustrates the engineering application of the damage-threshold interference criterion in the reliability analysis of high-temperature structures.

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ZHANG Xiancheng, E-mail:
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当前,高温结构强度的确定性设计与评估已经得到了充分的发展,并形成了较为完备的体系框架,为严苛服役条件下机械装备的设计制造奠定了理论基础。考虑到高温结构失效的随机性和失效数据的小样本特性,工程中通常采用安全系数进行保守设计,但这往往造成结构冗余和成本浪费,亟须开展从确定性到不确定性的设计方法研究。然而,迄今尚未形成通用且成熟的高温结构可靠性理论方法或国家/行业标准,导致我国航空发动机等高端装备在运行过程中的可靠性难以得到有效预测和保障。基于此,首先阐述了不确定性分析;详细介绍了损伤-阈值干涉准则,并说明了其与应力-强度干涉准则的区别及联系;最后以某汽轮机转子为例,说明了损伤-阈值干涉准则在高温结构可靠性分析中的工程应用。

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张显程,男,1979年生,安徽安庆人,博士,教授,博士研究生导师;主要研究方向为机械装备寿命保障理论与技术;E-mail:

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张显程,男,1979年生,安徽安庆人,博士,教授,博士研究生导师;主要研究方向为机械装备寿命保障理论与技术;E-mail:

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张显程,男,1979年生,安徽安庆人,博士,教授,博士研究生导师;主要研究方向为机械装备寿命保障理论与技术;E-mail:

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label=Tab.1, caption=

Each parameter and its distribution

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参数Parameter均值Mean value标准差Standard deviation
α1.8×10-37
n10.94
s/MPa300/320/34015/16/17
Δt/s60030
Dth0.70.035
R/MPa1 10055
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各参数及其分布情况

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参数Parameter均值Mean value标准差Standard deviation
α1.8×10-37
n10.94
s/MPa300/320/34015/16/17
Δt/s60030
Dth0.70.035
R/MPa1 10055
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Uncertain operating condition parameters in reliability evaluation of the steam turbine rotor

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
参数
Parameter
变化范围
Variation range
均值
Mean value
标准差
Standard deviation
转子初始温度
Initial temperature of rotor/℃
20~215117.532.5
蒸汽温度
Steam temperature/℃
320~40036013.3
温升速率
Temperature rise rate/(℃/min)
0.7~21.350.217
升转速率
Rising speed/(r/min2
20~1006013.3
升负荷速率
Load increase rate/(%/min)
0.2~0.80.50.1
停机时间
Downtime/min
180~36027030
), ArticleFig(id=1241810820707979416, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1227999626482147330, articleId=1241686767988961492, language=CN, label=表2, caption=

汽轮机转子可靠性评估中的不确定性工况参数

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
参数
Parameter
变化范围
Variation range
均值
Mean value
标准差
Standard deviation
转子初始温度
Initial temperature of rotor/℃
20~215117.532.5
蒸汽温度
Steam temperature/℃
320~40036013.3
温升速率
Temperature rise rate/(℃/min)
0.7~21.350.217
升转速率
Rising speed/(r/min2
20~1006013.3
升负荷速率
Load increase rate/(%/min)
0.2~0.80.50.1
停机时间
Downtime/min
180~36027030
), ArticleFig(id=1241810820968026267, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1227999626482147330, articleId=1241686767988961492, language=EN, label=Tab.3, caption=

Damage evaluation results of different weak links

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SRG1st BG2nd BG3rd BG4th BG5th BG
μd5×10-56×10-58×10-63×10-53×10-52×10-5
2×10-92×10-102×10-111×10-101×10-108×10-11
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不同薄弱环节的损伤评估结果

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SRG1st BG2nd BG3rd BG4th BG5th BG
μd5×10-56×10-58×10-63×10-53×10-52×10-5
2×10-92×10-102×10-111×10-101×10-108×10-11
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基于损伤-阈值干涉准则的高温结构可靠性分析
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张显程
机械强度 | 2025,47(9): 90-101
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机械强度 | 2025, 47(9): 90-101
基于损伤-阈值干涉准则的高温结构可靠性分析
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张显程
作者信息
  • 华东理工大学 承压系统与安全教育部重点实验室,上海 200237
  • 张显程,男,1979年生,安徽安庆人,博士,教授,博士研究生导师;主要研究方向为机械装备寿命保障理论与技术;E-mail:

Reliability analysis of high-temperature structure based on damage-threshold interference principle
Xiancheng ZHANG
Affiliations
  • Key Laboratory of Pressure Systems and Safety, Ministry of Education, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai 200237, China
出版时间: 2025-09-15 doi: 10.16579/j.issn.1001.9669.2025.09.008
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当前,高温结构强度的确定性设计与评估已经得到了充分的发展,并形成了较为完备的体系框架,为严苛服役条件下机械装备的设计制造奠定了理论基础。考虑到高温结构失效的随机性和失效数据的小样本特性,工程中通常采用安全系数进行保守设计,但这往往造成结构冗余和成本浪费,亟须开展从确定性到不确定性的设计方法研究。然而,迄今尚未形成通用且成熟的高温结构可靠性理论方法或国家/行业标准,导致我国航空发动机等高端装备在运行过程中的可靠性难以得到有效预测和保障。基于此,首先阐述了不确定性分析;详细介绍了损伤-阈值干涉准则,并说明了其与应力-强度干涉准则的区别及联系;最后以某汽轮机转子为例,说明了损伤-阈值干涉准则在高温结构可靠性分析中的工程应用。

高温结构  /  强度  /  失效  /  可靠性  /  损伤  /  损伤阈值

At present, the deterministic design and evaluation of high-temperature structural strength have been fully developed and formed a relatively complete system framework, laying the theoretical foundation for the design and manufacturing of numerous mechanical equipment under harsh service conditions. Considering the randomness of high-temperature structural failure and the small-sample characteristics of failure data, safety factors are usually adopted for conservative design in engineering. However, this often leads to structural redundancy and cost waste, so there is an urgent need to conduct research on design methods from determinism to uncertainty. Nevertheless, no universal and mature theoretical methods for high-temperature structural reliability or national/industrial standards have been established so far,making it difficult to effectively predict and guarantee the reliability of high-end equipment such as China's aero-engines during operation. Based on this, firstly, uncertainty analysis was elaborated. The damage-threshold interference criterion was introduced in detail, and its differences from and connections with the stress-strength interference criterion was explained.Finally, taking a certain steam turbine rotor as an example, it illustrates the engineering application of the damage-threshold interference criterion in the reliability analysis of high-temperature structures.

High-temperature structure  /  Strength  /  Failure  /  Reliability  /  Damage  /  Damage threshold
张显程. 基于损伤-阈值干涉准则的高温结构可靠性分析. 机械强度, 2025 , 47 (9) : 90 -101 . DOI: 10.16579/j.issn.1001.9669.2025.09.008
Xiancheng ZHANG. Reliability analysis of high-temperature structure based on damage-threshold interference principle[J]. Journal of Mechanical Strength, 2025 , 47 (9) : 90 -101 . DOI: 10.16579/j.issn.1001.9669.2025.09.008
随着现代过程工业向高参数、极端化方向的迅猛发展,高温结构作为航空发动机、燃气轮机、核电设备等高端机械装备的核心承力与功能部件,其可靠性直接决定着机械装备的安全运行与服役寿命。在航空领域,发动机热端部件,如涡轮叶片、燃烧室等,长期处于1 600 ℃以上的高温极端环境并承受复杂热-力耦合载荷;在能源领域,汽轮机/燃气轮机的高温结构是实现热机能量转换的核心,其运行可靠性直接影响整个电力系统的供电稳定性与能源利用效率。这些高温结构的失效不仅会导致机械装备停机检修,造成巨大经济损失和维修代价,更可能引发灾难性事故。因此,发展有效的高温结构可靠性分析技术与理论方法对于保障高端装备的安全稳定运行至关重要。长期以来,高温结构强度的确定性设计与评估体系为机械装备的设计制造筑牢了理论根基。借助材料本构模型与力学分析手段,工程师能够精确计算高温结构在特定工况下的应力应变分布,确保结构具备足够的承载能力。然而,实际服役过程中,高温结构面临着诸多不确定性因素。材料性能的离散性源于冶炼、加工工艺的微小差异,不同批次甚至同一批次的材料性能也会存在波动。制造过程中的尺寸偏差、装配误差等也会使结构实际受力状态偏离设计预期。此外,复杂多变的服役环境,如温度的剧烈波动、热循环载荷的作用等,进一步加剧了结构失效的随机性。另一方面,在电力能源行业,汽轮机需大规模参与深度调峰以提升电网对清洁能源的消纳能力。这要求汽轮机必须根据电网负荷需求做出灵活调整,使得转子等高温结构的服役工况更加复杂多变。按照传统设计方法可能高估结构实际服役寿命,造成非计划维修率提升,这凸显了确定性设计在应对随机失效风险时的局限性。
为应对不可控的随机失效风险,工程实践中多采用安全系数法进行保守设计。这种设计方法虽在一定程度上保障了结构的安全性,却不可避免地造成结构冗余。以重型燃气轮机为例,这不仅大幅增加了材料成本与制造成本,同时也降低了能源转换效率,造成长期的能源浪费。随着高端装备向轻量化、高性能、长寿命方向的发展,这种粗放式的设计方法逐渐难以满足行业发展需求,迫切需要引入先进的可靠性设计理念与方法。当前,高温结构可靠性领域仍处于探索发展阶段,尚未形成一套成熟、完善的理论方法体系,也缺乏统一的国家或行业标准。研究机构与企业各自为政,采用的可靠性分析模型、参数选取标准以及评估流程存在较大差异,导致评估结果缺乏可比性与通用性。这一现状严重制约了我国航空发动机、燃气轮机等高端装备的自主研发进程,使产品可靠性水平难以得到有效提升,在国际市场竞争中处于劣势地位。在此背景下,开展系统性的高温结构可靠性研究,建立科学合理的评估方法,对于提升我国高端装备的核心竞争力具有重要现实意义。
不同于常规结构,高温结构的失效模式往往更为复杂,需要深入理解结构失效机制,并在此基础上建立能够描述失效过程的物理模型。因此,以往针对梁、桁架等常规结构的可靠性理论方法可能并不完全适用于汽轮机转子等高温旋转结构。本文围绕高温结构可靠性研究,阐述了不确定性来源以及从确定性到不确定性设计的过渡;着重介绍了损伤-阈值干涉准则并分析了其与应力-强度干涉准则的区别及联系。以汽轮机转子为工程实例,说明了该准则在高温结构中的具体应用,旨在为高温结构可靠性设计提供新的理论视角与技术手段,以期助力我国高端机械装备高质量发展。
机械结构在遵循确定性失效物理规律的前提下,多源不确定性的存在使得其失效行为具有一定的随机性[1]。确定性失效物理分析揭示了机械结构的损伤模式,并为强度和寿命设计或预测方法提供基础;而不确定性理论则主要关注不确定性因素的影响分析,将多源不确定性因素作为输入,揭示机械结构在不确定性因素影响下的随机响应,并根据结构可接受阈值确定失效概率。
经过数十年的发展,尽管确定性理论模型已经建立了较为完善的体系框架,但是如何科学保障结构在不确定性因素影响下仍能具备较高的可靠性并未得到有效解决。在以往的结构设计中,仍沿用确定性设计方法来处理不确定性问题,往往采用安全裕度系数来进行设计[2-3]。其设计原则是强度R不能小于外载应力s,通常采用安全系数K表示部件的安全性程度。安全系数K的表达式为
式中,μRμs分别为强度和应力的均值。安全系数法没有定量考虑结构抗力与外部载荷作用的随机性,而是靠经验或工程判断的方法取值,因此有人为因素或主观臆断的成分。工程中通常凭借已有经验主观地采用较大的安全系数。但是,采用大的安全系数将导致过保守设计,易导致结构冗余,造成不必要的经济浪费;且大的安全系数并不一定能保证结构具备高的可靠性。这是因为强度与应力并不是固定不变的确定性量,而是受到随机性因素影响的不确定性量,忽视对分散性或不确定性的考虑可能使基于安全系数的设计结果存在不可接受的失效风险。因此,工程中首次引入了基于应力-强度干涉准则的可靠性设计方法[4],完成从确定性设计到不确定性设计的过渡,如图1所示。其将应力和强度均视为随机变量,通过两者在分布区间内干涉区域的面积来定量评价失效概率。为简化计算并说明问题,假设应力与强度均为服从正态分布且相互独立的随机变量,其离散程度可以用标准差(σRσs)表示,基于一次二阶矩的可靠度计算方法可知,此时结构的可靠度指标可以表示为
式中,σRσs分别为强度和应力的标准差;VRVs分别为强度和应力的变异系数,其定义为各自标准差与均值的比。
一方面,采用可靠性方法可以同时考虑外载荷及抗力的均值和离散性程度,相比于安全系数K,可靠度指标更能反映结构的安全性程度。另一方面可以看出,采用相同安全系数设计的结构的可靠性程度并不一定相同。安全系数越高,结构的可靠性程度不一定越高;安全系数越低,结构的可靠性程度不一定越低;其整体依赖于应力与强度的概率分布参数。
因此,基于安全系数的设计方法存在一定缺陷。随着当前计算方法与模拟技术的空前发展,迫切需要建立更加精细化的设计方法。为了完成从确定性到考虑不确定性的分析模式跨越,首先,以往确定性分析中视为常量的载荷历程参数、结构参数、材料参数以及模型参数等都应视为不确定性量或随机过程;紧接着开展不确定性处理,包括进行合理的不确定性表征量化,分析结构在不确定性输入下的随机响应输出,并判断此时结构失效风险能否承受。
常用“不确定性”来衡量某一物理量估计值的准确性,以判断该估计值与真实值的偏差程度,为机械设备的健康与安全评估的决策制订提供理论依据。不确定性普遍存在于机械结构研发、设计、制造的各个阶段[5-7],如图2所示。
材料属性的不确定性:首先,材料的微观组织存在不均匀性,晶粒尺寸、取向、晶界分布的随机性会导致局部力学性能差异,进而影响疲劳裂纹萌生位置。其次,夹杂物与缺陷分布存在随机性,材料制备过程中引入的夹杂物(如氧化物、硫化物等)或气孔的尺寸、形状及位置具有随机性,可能成为疲劳裂纹的初始源。在微观组织与缺陷分布的作用下,材料力学性能呈现显著的分散性。直观上看,即使是选取同一批次、经统一加工处理的同组光滑试棒,其拉伸强度及疲劳强度也表现出明显的分散性。
几何与制造缺陷的不确定性:对于机械结构而言,其设计制造误差是不可避免的,尤其是关键构件的尺寸加工偏差会显著改变应力分布,例如螺栓孔直径存在的微小超差可使孔边应力集中系数显著提升。机械连接中的装配误差会导致局部应力状态偏离设计预期,从而影响实际服役寿命。此外,制造过程中的人为因素使得加工工艺存在不确定性,磨削、铣削等加工工艺产生的表面划痕或刀痕将改变结构表面粗糙度,使得结构寿命显著缩短;对于焊接结构而言,焊接接头中的未熔合、咬边、气孔等缺陷会提升局部应力集中系数,从而显著缩短结构寿命。
载荷与工况的不确定性:机械结构的实际服役载荷与工况非常复杂,这是导致结构服役寿命分散性的直接外因,需要格外关注。即便对于相同批次出厂的机械结构,单个结构在其实际工况下所承受载荷的幅值、频率和波形也均表现出随机性,如图3(a)所示,其载荷历程为随机变幅载荷。对于相同批次的其他机械结构,由于其服役场景、运行参数存在差异,因此即使它们中的任意一个均承受随机变幅载荷,各结构所承受的载荷特征也各不相同,如图3(b)所示,不同个体的随机变幅载荷历程各不相同。图3(a)描述的是所有样本中某独立个体的载荷不确定性,而图3(b)描述的是样本中所有个体表现出来的载荷不确定性,这充分体现了个体差异性的内涵[8]
环境与服役条件的不确定性:机械结构的实际服役环境可能相差巨大。如两架相同型号批次的飞机,一架飞机经常飞跃沙漠地带,另一架飞机经常飞跃海洋地带,显然机械结构在不同环境与服役条件下的失效机制不同,它们的服役寿命必然迥异。
计算模型与方法的不确定性:现有的疲劳及蠕变理论模型具有局限性,虽然已经有诸多模型可以用来分析结构疲劳及蠕变性能,但均基于特定假设(如忽略某些因素的影响,从而便于构建模型),因此不同模型的分析结果存在差异。对材料本构模型而言,塑性变形中的各向同性/随动硬化假设、蠕变中的幂律方程对某些特定加载路径适用,但对于更加复杂加载路径(如多轴非比例等路径)的适用性有限,此时可能带来显著误差。此外,数值模拟也不可避免存在误差,如有限元建模中的网格密度、单元类型和边界条件简化会直接引入计算偏差。
测试与数据处理的不确定性:材料或结构性能测试中漫长的试验周期和巨大的试验成本使我们面临小样本困局。疲劳试验中样本量不足会导致寿命统计参数(如均值、标准差等)估计偏差,不同测试单位的大量试验数据表明,可以使用Weibull分布描述相同应力水平下疲劳寿命的分散性[9-11],但是Weibull分布中各个参数的估计均与样本量有关,其估计误差随样本量的减小而增大。另一方面,测试方法与设备存在差异,不同试验机的载荷控制精度、温度波动范围(±3 ℃)会在一定程度上影响试验结果的一致性。
一般而言,根据不确定性本质属性可以将其划分为客观(随机)不确定性和主观不确定性[12],前者表示物理现象、物理参数存在的固有随机性,后者则是由于主观知识的不完备而无法实现对物理参数进行精准的描述。因此,第1.2节中载荷工况、材料性能、加工装配等都被视为影响结构失效进程的客观不确定性因素,而针对各个失效模式建立的本构方程、寿命模型以及有限元数值离散误差都被视为主观不确定性因素。
对于客观不确定性的表征与量化,概率论是目前业界广泛认可的核心方法[13]。概率理论将所研究的不确定性因素视为随机变量,在样本量足够的情况下,可以通过样本统计的方法分析得到随机变量的概率分布类型(正态分布、对数正态分布、指数分布、极值分布、Weibull分布等)以及分布参数。主观不确定性本质上是由知识不完备、模型简化或数据稀缺导致的认知局限,需采用非概率方法或混合方法进行表征[14-17]。例如,材料本构模型一般基于特定假设,忽略某些损伤机制,此时模型不确定性可通过区间分析将未知参数界定在合理区间内,利用凸集理论计算结构响应的极值范围。对于蠕变-疲劳交互作用中缺乏足够试验数据的情况,可借助证据理论通过专家知识或有限数据构建基本概率分布函数,可用信任函数等描述寿命预测的不确定性范围;模糊集理论则适用于处理如“高载荷”“高温环境”等语义模糊的主观认知,通过隶属函数将语言变量转化为数学表征,进而量化主观判断引入的不确定性。若需同时考虑客观与主观不确定性及其交互作用,基于贝叶斯理论[18],可将先验概率(反映客观随机性)与后验信息(如有限试验数据、专家判断等)结合,通过贝叶斯更新迭代优化分析结果,例如利用马尔可夫链蒙特卡洛方法融合试验数据与仿真结果,缩减认知不确定性并更新材料参数的概率分布[19]
厘清上述不确定性来源并建立相应量化表征方法后,需要进一步分析结构在不确定性输入作用下的响应输出(如结构寿命),从而服务结构可靠性分析。结构的服役寿命具有显著的分散性,通过试验的方法,例如测试上百架飞机同一型号发动机的服役寿命,可以直观量化发动机寿命的分散性规律。但是在现实情况下根本不允许开展如此规模的试验,只能通过模拟手段进行不确定性传播分析。不确定性传播研究的内容聚焦于如何精确高效地量化结构系统在不确定性输入下的输出响应规律。
一般而言,将不确定性输入量进行参数化处理即可通过各种手段分析输出响应的统计规律。采样法如蒙特卡洛模拟[20]是最为简单易行且在工程实践中广为采纳的1种分析方法,原则上只要样本点数目足够多就可以逼近真实的系统响应输出。对于实际高温结构系统而言,在1组样本点下进行1次确定性仿真就要花费若干小时,因此该方法的缺点在于计算代价高、效率低下。改进的抽样方法,如重要性采样[21]通过改变抽样中心的位置,在对输出响应贡献较大的位置进行采样,从而在一定程度上减少了所需的样本量,但是其整体计算效率仍然不高。代理模型方法,如响应面法[22]、Kriging[23]、深度神经网络[24]和支持向量机[25]等模型通过构造输入与输出之间的隐式函数关系,结合采样法即可高效地进行不确定性传递分析。其主要建模流程包括:试验设计采样、基于采样点的仿真模拟、构造数学模型进行数据学习、误差评估与分析。简单来说,代理模型技术的核心思想是通过有限的已知样本点信息构造数学函数关系来逼近真实的结构响应输出,在保证计算精度的同时极大程度地提高了效率。多项式混沌展开(Polynomial Chaos Expansion, PCE)[26-28]在处理不确定性传播及结果量化方面具有显著优势,可以根据不确定性变量的概率分布类型选择合适的正交多项式基函数,将输出响应表示为正交多项式基函数的组合函数。PCE系数多采用非侵入式方法获取,如通过积累若干组样本点采用投影法或回归法计算获得,输出响应的均值和标准差可以直接基于PCE系数获得。值得一提的是,在面临高维输入时PCE模型复杂性急剧提升,所需的样本量将急剧增加(“维度灾难”问题)。研究表明,稀疏PCE方法[29-30]是处理此类问题的有效手段,通过采用正交匹配追踪算法,舍弃无关紧要的基函数项并保留对输出响应贡献较大的项,从而降低计算成本。胡汉铎等[31]利用正交匹配追踪算法实现PCE的稀疏重构,以飞机机翼为研究对象,开展了加工、装配过程和实际飞行工况下的几何不确定性传递分析,获得了翼型气动力系数和流场参数在考虑几何不确定性影响下的均值和标准差。
一般来说,损伤可以定义为材料在外部载荷作用下,由内部微缺陷的形成和扩展导致的材料力学性能的退化和最终破坏[32]。KACHANOV[33]提出连续损伤力学的概念,并用于预测金属材料在恒张力作用下的脆性蠕变断裂时间。他注意到,蠕变损伤是由蠕变过程中微观孔洞的形成引起的,并使用连续度ψ(0≤ψ≤1)来表示损伤状态,其中ψ=1表示初始未损伤状态,ψ=0表示最终完全损伤状态。RABOTNOV等[34]随后改进了他的理论,引入了损伤变量D(0≤D≤1),其物理意义可以解释为由孔洞的形核和长大导致的有效承载面积的减小,如图4所示。
若拉伸试样的中间初始截面积为A,孔洞总面积为AD,则有效承载面积可表示为
根据上述损伤定义的物理内涵,损伤变量D可以表示为
对于图4中单轴拉伸的光滑试棒,根据Kachanov-Rabotnov损伤理论,损伤演化率可以表示为
式中,αn为与材料和温度相关的参数;s*为有效应力水平,计算式为
式中,F为施加的外载;s'为圆棒试样所受的名义应力。
解出上述微分方程后,可获得累积损伤的一般表达式。当损伤变量D达到1时,结构因完全丧失承载能力而断裂(),断裂寿命tf
式(9)表明,损伤累积呈非线性特征,且随着时间推移,损伤累积速率逐渐加快。为简化损伤累积分析,采用线性化的计算方法,不考虑损伤累积对结构应力水平的影响,可以表示为
其中,各模型参数可根据材料试验结果(即载荷与对应的断裂寿命)拟合确定。
根据第1.2节对多源不确定性的阐述,在外部不确定性作用下结构的损伤累积也具有随机性,最为典型的影响就是载荷不确定性。为了清晰地展示与时间相关的损伤累积概率特性,本节主要关注载荷不确定性,暂不考虑计算模型及其参数等主观不确定性因素,仍以图4中受拉光滑圆棒为例,探究损伤累积的概率分布特征。由于本节仅考虑一个受拉光滑圆棒个体,因此个体差异性暂不考虑,在随机载荷作用下,损伤累积过程如图5所示,其中所施加的外力与持续作用时间被认为是两个相互独立的随机变量。
在该随机载荷作用下,损伤增量可表示为
式中,Δt为外载荷F的作用时长。
因此,从整个载荷时间历程上看,累积的损伤变量可表示为
式中,N为在整个载荷时间历程中施加外载的次数。
由于ΔtF为两个相互独立的随机变量,因此损伤增量d同样为随机变量,故可以认为,didjij=1,2,…,N)为来自损伤增量d概率分布中的两个相互独立的样本。根据中心极限定理[35],无论总体分布的形状如何,从该样本中抽取的样本均值分布近似服从正态分布。因此,光滑圆棒试样(图4)在随机载荷(图5)作用下,累积的损伤变量D的期望和方差可分别表示为
式中,μd分别为损伤增量的期望和方差。
接下来的难点在于如何计算获得μd。限于式(12)的复杂性,精确计算损伤增量的统计矩非常困难,因此采用一阶泰勒展开式获得μd的近似估计值,其原理如下:
XY为两相互独立的随机变量,Z=X/Y,则变量Z可在均值点处进行一阶泰勒展开:
μZ分别为
因此,μd分别为
式中,μt分别为Δt的均值和方差;μs分别为应力s的均值和方差。
在第2.2节中,随机载荷等外部不确定性导致了损伤累积的随机性,而材料属性自身的分散性导致了损伤阈值的不确定性。与应力-强度干涉类似,在损伤-阈值干涉中,损伤累积与损伤阈值二者干涉区域的面积代表结构失效概率,其表达式为
式中,P(·)表示概率计算函数;Φ(∙)表示标准正态分布的概率累积分布函数;G1为极限状态方程;β为可靠度指标,β值越高,结构失效概率越小;Dth为损伤阈值。在图4所示的情况中,损伤阈值可表示为
式中,tc为裂纹萌生寿命。
本节主要研究裂纹萌生阶段,因此损伤阈值采用裂纹萌生寿命与断裂寿命的比值。若认为损伤阈值为服从正态分布的随机变量(对于其他分布情形,可通过概率等价转换原理将其等效为正态分布进行处理),其可靠度指标(近似闭合解)可表示为
可以看到,结构的失效概率是与时间相关的,其可以反映出结构在随机载荷作用下最终萌生宏观裂纹的概率-时间关系。若在结构设计寿命下的可靠度指标满足规定要求,则认为该失效风险可以接受,可以投运生产。
根据原始应力-强度干涉准则的定义,第1.1节已给出了基于应力-强度干涉的可靠度指标[式(2)],其并不包含时间或载荷作用次数等显示动态特征的参数,因此仅适用于结构受单次载荷作用(如瞬时加载、冲击等)下的失效分析。可以看出,原始应力-强度干涉给出的可靠度指标并不适用于转子、叶片等长期持续承受外部载荷作用的高温结构。
为考虑随机外部载荷多次作用下的失效分析,有学者根据载荷作用的统计学意义开展了进一步研究,结合次序统计量的性质,将原始应力-强度干涉准则进行了拓展[36-37]。其内涵在于,随机载荷作用N次,相当于从载荷分布的母体中抽取N个样本;当结构在最大的载荷作用下不失效时,则结构在这N次载荷的作用下也不失效。因此可以看出,随机载荷作用N次时,结构可靠度等价于载荷样本中最大载荷处所对应的可靠度。若载荷的概率分布函数为Fsx),则最大载荷的概率分布函数容易推导得到,为
在本文应力-强度干涉中,假定应力与强度均服从正态分布。但仍无法通过式(24)获得最大应力smax的分布与分布参数,只能做近似处理,本节采用Gumbel分布(第一型极值分布)近似其分布,在大样本情况(即N很大的情形)下smax的期望与方差可以表示为
此时,拓展后应力-强度干涉给出的可靠度指标近似估计值为
可以看出,式(27)给出的结构可靠度指标是与载荷作用次数N相关的动态参量。为了比较式(2)与式(27)的区别,假设μs=300 MPa,σs=15 MPa、 μR=1 100 MPa,σR=55 MPa,两者给出的可靠度指标计算结果如图6所示。
式(27)给出的分析结果表明,随着载荷作用次数的增加(或时间推移),结构可靠度指标逐渐减小,意味着结构失效风险逐渐扩大,而式(2)无法反映出这一现象。
值得注意的是,课题组前期已经开展了多种材料的高温疲劳及蠕变-疲劳中断试验。试验结果发现,材料的屈服、抗拉强度等力学性能均随时间发生退化[38],这主要是由于时间相关的损伤累积效应给材料带来的劣化现象。而原始应力-强度干涉与拓展后的计算方法并未考虑强度退化,其仍局限在宏观结构响应层面,并未在结构失效机制层面建立失效判断准则。因此,式(2)、式(27)无法直接与基于损伤-阈值干涉的可靠度指标式(23)进行比较,这显示了应力-强度干涉与损伤-阈值干涉的区别。
损伤-阈值干涉是基于对结构失效物理机制的深刻理解,再结合不确定性分析方法量化结构失效风险而建立的。第3.1节已经提到,由于损伤累积效应将使结构强度发生退化,因此可以将损伤-阈值干涉中“损伤”的概念进一步嫁接到应力-强度干涉中,从而以“损伤”为媒介建立两者的联系。具体而言,需要在原始应力-强度干涉模型的基础上进一步考虑强度退化,引入剩余结构强度。
对于图4中的情况,其弹性应变可以表示为
式中,E0为初始未损伤状态的弹性模量。
因此,可以定义有效弹性模量为
类比有效弹性模量的定义,考虑时间相关的损伤累积效应所导致的强度退化,剩余强度Rr可以表示为
式中,R0为初始未损伤状态的材料强度。
此时,在考虑强度退化的应力-强度干涉中,剩余强度与应力二者干涉区域的面积代表结构失效概率,其极限状态方程为
在应力-强度干涉准则中,其失效判据为结构强度能否抵抗所承受的外载荷,即
因此,结构失效概率为
此时可以注意到,式(33)左右两个随机变量因为都包含应力s,因此两者具有一定的相关性,从而给结构失效概率计算带来了困难。为简化计算,忽略变量相关性的影响,依然采用一阶泰勒展开式近似计算,结合式(14)、式(18)、式(19),可靠度指标可以表示为
式中,μR分别为初始结构强度R的期望与方差。
本节采用材料试验数据对比式(23)、式(34)的差别,通过课题组前期开展的镍基高温合金GH4169在10种不同应力水平下的高温蠕变试验[39]可以确定式(10)中模型参数的取值以及损伤阈值,通过高温拉伸试验可以确定抗拉强度的取值。限于试验数据量,很难根据试验结果统计它们的实际分布情况和分布参数,因此假设损伤阈值与抗拉强度的变异系数均为5%,外载荷参数变异系数亦是5%,具体参数列于表1
利用式(34)与式(23)分别计算不同载荷作用时间下的可靠度指标,即通过改变不同的N计算时间相关的可靠度变化情况,结果如图7所示。本节考虑了3种情况,目的是对比分析不同载荷水平下两者计算结果的区别。一方面,基于损伤-阈值干涉的可靠度指标计算结果相比基于应力-强度干涉的可靠度指标计算结果更为保守,这对于工程实际而言是更容易被接受和采纳的。另一方面,随着应力水平的不断提升,两者之间的差距呈逐渐缩小趋势。这是因为式(23)中没有考虑损伤阈值与外载的关系,实际上根据式(22)中的定义,损伤阈值为裂纹萌生寿命在整个全寿命周期中的占比,其与载荷相关,可以通过开展不同应力水平下的多组平行蠕变试验确定损伤阈值统计矩(期望、方差)与载荷的关系,从而得到更为精细化、更加贴合实际情况的失效概率分析结果。
在能源电力领域,汽轮机是电厂出力的核心部件,而汽轮机转子的寿命则决定了汽轮机整机的寿命,因此必须保证汽轮机转子具有高的可靠性。转子一旦失效,汽轮机必须停机检修,从而给电厂造成巨大的经济损失。本节应用对象为某电厂300 MW汽轮机转子。汽轮机转子工作在极其恶劣的环境中,在稳态运行时暴露在538 ℃的蒸汽温度下。此外,在调峰背景下频繁的启停作业会加速累积疲劳损伤,在稳态期持续高温运行会导致蠕变损伤。汽轮机转子经过一定启动-稳态-停机循环周次后,若损伤累积超过损伤阈值将发生失效。
由于电力系统参与调峰,要求汽轮机能够灵活启停,从而极大影响了汽轮机转子的安全可靠性。根据收集到的历史监测数据,该汽轮机转子加载工况参数的变化范围列于表2的第2列。为量化这些参数的不确定性,采用正态分布来表示各个工况参数的概率分布,参数的期望作为上下边界的平均值,标准差由“6σ”原则确定,其中以期望为中心,围绕期望“±3σ”可以覆盖各参数变异范围的99.73%。
工程中实际高温结构如汽轮机转子,往往包含多个薄弱环节,其中每个环节均容易发生失效。转子尺寸较大且存在多个叶根槽等几何不连续位置,这些位置均可以被看作是薄弱位置,需要考虑所有薄弱环节的失效对整个结构失效的贡献,因此可以采用串联系统进行结构可靠性分析:
式中,Rs为包含M个薄弱环节的系统可靠度;DM(Xu)为系统中第M个薄弱环节的损伤累积;Xu为不确定性参数。
式(35)表明,只有当系统中所有环节的损伤累积均低于损伤阈值时才认为结构系统可靠。传统评估方法通常采用两种简化做法:①热点法,其仅关注最危险环节(如最大应力位置),忽略其他潜在失效点对整体可靠性的贡献;②独立性假设,默认各薄弱环节的失效事件彼此独立,不考虑各个环节的失效相关性。这两种方法虽简化了计算,但可能导致严重偏差。因此,必须考虑高温结构多薄弱环节失效相关性。根据第2节分析结果,随机载荷作用下损伤累积服从正态分布,因此可使用多元高斯Copula函数描述各个环节损伤之间的相关性,式(35)可以进一步表示为
式中,Φρ(·)为多元高斯分布,其均值为0,协方差矩阵为ρ分别为第i个薄弱环节损伤累积的期望和方差,其可以通过式(14)表达。协方差矩阵描述了各个环节的损伤相关性,可以表示为
式中,ρij为环节i与环节j的损伤相关性系数,其可以通过皮尔逊相关性系数表达为
式中,Cov(·)为协方差函数;分别为didj的标准差。
不同于最简单的单轴光滑圆棒试样,实际结构往往非常复杂,需要通过有限元分析计算损伤增量d,而为了获得其统计矩需要进行大量模拟,从而带来巨大计算负担。本节采用PCE方法进行结构随机响应分析,该方法具有显式的数学方程式,便于使用者直观量化各个随机变量输入与输出之间的关系,不同薄弱环节之间的相关性也可以显式表达,相比于传统黑箱代理模型更为直观,解释性也更强。在获取PCE参数后即可解析获得各个环节损伤累积的期望、方差以及相关性程度,本节不对其进行详细描述,可参考文献[40]。
通过Ansys软件建立汽轮机转子的二维有限元模型(图8),对其进行网格划分,设置合适的约束边界条件,采用温度+换热系数设置第三类换热条件,开展热力耦合分析,其主要目的是获取转子在启停过程中的载荷-时间历程曲线,以便分析每次启停造成的蠕变及疲劳损伤。图8中,SRG为应力释放槽(Stress Relief Groove)的简称;BG为叶根槽(Blade Groove)的简称。
采用Morrow疲劳模型与Larson-Miller蠕变模型分析每个启停工况下转子的疲劳蠕变损伤,其中模型参数根据转子材料30Cr1Mo1V在目标服役温度下的疲劳、蠕变试验数据进行标定[41]。根据工况参数的分布范围(表2),采用拉丁超立方抽样获取30组输入样本进行有限元模拟,通过建立二阶PCE模型,量化单周次损伤的随机响应,其中只涉及6个随机参数,样本量满足二阶PCE模型的要求,最终转子各个薄弱环节的损伤评估结果列于表3
利用式(38)、式(39)计算相关系数矩阵,衡量薄弱环节之间损伤的相关性,结果如图9所示。相关性矩阵的图形表示将每个单元格分配给两个变量之间的相关系数值,随着相关系数的增加,图9中的单元格颜色变深,表明存在更强的相关性。图9中大部分相关系数超过0.8,因此,在汽轮机转子可靠性评估中考虑多个薄弱环节的相关性是十分必要的。
此外,在考虑蠕变-疲劳相互作用的设计标准中,要求损伤阈值小于1,在工程实践中为了保守性通常设置为0.75。因此,在本案例中认为损伤阈值是一个正态分布变量,下边界为0.75,上边界为1。同样,期望值取为上下边界的平均值,标准差由“6σ”原则确定。在电网调峰过程中,参与调峰的汽轮机组启停频率要高于正常服役机组,通过改变稳态运行时间来调整启停频率,考虑3种不同的启停频率,1天1次启停(情形1)、2天1次启停(情形2)、5天1次启停(情形3)。提升启停频率,等同于在相同的时间间隔内增加了转子的启停循环次数,加速了疲劳损伤的积累,使得转子的服役寿命缩短。最终,不同情况下的转子可靠性预测结果如图10所示。
转子可靠性曲线随启停频率的增加逐渐向左移动;预测结果显示,在99.5%可靠度下情形3、情形2、情形1的寿命分别为131年、65年、35年。显然,汽轮机1天1次启停对转子30年设计寿命的安全要求构成了一定威胁。因此,尽管汽轮机的快速调峰提高了清洁能源的利用率,但如何在这种恶劣情况下保证转子等高温结构的高可靠性仍然面临很大的挑战。通过改进汽轮机启停运行方案,进行基于可靠性的优化设计可以有效降低故障风险。
随着当前高端机械装备的服役环境更趋极端、运行工况日益复杂,如何保障装备全寿命周期安全可靠服役、减少非计划停机频次已经成为航空航天及能源电力等工业领域亟待解决的工程难题。高温结构可靠性对于保障高端机械装备安全稳定性水平具有重要意义。传统基于应力-强度干涉的分析方法主要适用于结构在单次载荷作用下的失效分析,无法直接应用于受持续随机载荷作用的结构。为了将其应用于多次随机载荷作用下结构失效概率计算,通过次序统计量分析载荷的统计特征,建立了可靠度指标与载荷作用次数的关联,但其本质上仍未有效考虑强度退化。本文主要介绍了损伤-阈值干涉准则,其充分考虑了不确定性参量在时空尺度上的随机性,并将其纳入高温结构的本质退化过程,使可靠性分析结果更加接近实际情况。将其应用于某电厂汽轮机转子,分析汽轮机不同启停频率对转子可靠度的影响,其结果可为调峰背景下汽轮机高温热端部件的寿命管理提供指导。
  • 国家自然科学基金项目(51725503)
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doi: 10.16579/j.issn.1001.9669.2025.09.008
  • 接收时间:2025-07-25
  • 首发时间:2026-03-20
  • 出版时间:2025-09-15
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  • 收稿日期:2025-07-25
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National Natural Science Foundation of China(51725503)
国家自然科学基金项目(51725503)
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    华东理工大学 承压系统与安全教育部重点实验室,上海 200237
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2种不同金属材料的力学参数

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鹅膏菌科Amanitaceae 2 11 5.26 鹅膏菌属 Amanita 10 4.78
小菇科 Mycenaceae 2 12 5.74 丝盖伞属 Inocybe 5 2.39
多孔菌科 Polyporaceae 8 14 6.70 蜡蘑属 Laccaria 5 2.39
红菇科 Russulaceae 3 23 11.00 小皮伞属 Marasmius 6 2.87
小菇属 Mycena 11 5.26
光柄菇属 Pluteus 5 2.39
红菇属 Russula 17 8.13
栓菌属 Trametes 5 2.39
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