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The rapid assessment method for metal fatigue performance based on the infrared thermography presents advantages such as short testing cycles, low costs, and high efficiency. However, accurately quantifying factors influencing the dissipation of energy, such as convective heat transfer and thermal radiation, proves challenging. The difficulty leads to complications in achieving the precision necessary to meet test standards in the final assessment results. A mixed-hardening constitutive model for 304 stainless steel was established and coupled with the low-cycle fatigue thermomechanical mechanism, to analyze the evolution pattern of dissipated energy caused by convective heat transfer and thermal radiation during the loading process. Furthermore, the impact of low-cycle fatigue loading frequency on the rapid assessment results of fatigue performance was explored based on the critical threshold of dissipated energy. The research indicates that during the low-cycle fatigue process of 304 stainless steel, the dissipated energy from convective heat transfer and thermal radiation constitutes over 54% of the total dissipated energy. Moreover, this proportion continuously increases with the augmentation of the convective heat transfer coefficient. Therefore, it is crucial not to neglect these factors in dissipated energy assessment calculations. With an increase in loading frequency, the peak load narrows within the region of action time. Consequently, the dissipated energy of each load cycle decreases, leading to a rapid assessment result of fatigue performance that tends to be larger than the test value.

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LUO Jiayuan, E-mail:
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基于红外热像法的金属疲劳性能快速评估方法具有周期短、成本低和效率高等优点,然而热对流、热辐射等影响耗散能结果的因素很难准确测算,导致最终评估结果精度很难达到试验标准。为此,建立了304不锈钢混合硬化本构模型,结合低周疲劳生热机制来分析受载过程中热对流、热辐射引起的耗散能演变规律;并基于耗散能临界值探究低周疲劳加载频率对疲劳性能快速评估结果的影响。研究表明,304不锈钢低周疲劳过程中,热对流、热辐射所耗散能量占总耗散能的54%以上,且随着热对流系数增大而不断提高,所以在耗散能评估测算时不可忽略;随着加载频率的增加,载荷峰值沿作用时间分布区域变窄,循环载荷单周期耗散能减小,导致疲劳性能快速评估结果比试验值偏大。

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罗家元,男,1978年生,湖北黄冈人,博士,教授;主要研究方向为残余应力评估及消除、结构疲劳寿命等;E-mail:

王佳林,男,1998年生,四川乐山人,硕士研究生;主要研究方向为金属疲劳性能快速评估;E-mail:

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罗家元,男,1978年生,湖北黄冈人,博士,教授;主要研究方向为残余应力评估及消除、结构疲劳寿命等;E-mail:

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王佳林,男,1998年生,四川乐山人,硕士研究生;主要研究方向为金属疲劳性能快速评估;E-mail:

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王佳林,男,1998年生,四川乐山人,硕士研究生;主要研究方向为金属疲劳性能快速评估;E-mail:

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language=CN, label=图9, caption=不同加载频率下的单周期耗散能, figureFileSmall=VJ5yD9uZaAnDVTLe2OUM0w==, figureFileBig=sjPcuddzaaOz5WjKbCP5UA==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1241446349024055807, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1227999626482147330, articleId=1241446332188119088, language=EN, label=Tab. 1, caption=

304SS material parameters

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材料参数Material parameter值Value
密度Density/(kg/m3)7 930
弹性模量Elastic modulus/MPa183 500
泊松比Poisson ratio0.3
导热系数Thermal conductivity/[W/(m·K)]16.2
比热容Specific heat/[J/(kg·K)]500
), ArticleFig(id=1241446349116330498, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1227999626482147330, articleId=1241446332188119088, language=CN, label=表1, caption=

304SS材料参数

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
材料参数Material parameter值Value
密度Density/(kg/m3)7 930
弹性模量Elastic modulus/MPa183 500
泊松比Poisson ratio0.3
导热系数Thermal conductivity/[W/(m·K)]16.2
比热容Specific heat/[J/(kg·K)]500
), ArticleFig(id=1241446349208605189, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1227999626482147330, articleId=1241446332188119088, language=EN, label=Tab. 2, caption=

Mixed hardening parameters

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C1C2C3γ1γ2γ3
165 36260 14043 2227 9372802.5
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混合硬化参数

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C1C2C3γ1γ2γ3
165 36260 14043 2227 9372802.5
), ArticleFig(id=1241446349422514705, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1227999626482147330, articleId=1241446332188119088, language=EN, label=Tab. 3, caption=

Energy dissipation calculation results

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hc/t5/27010/16015/12020/100
dc+r/(mW/mm3)0.317 50.223 60.181 40.149 0
dm/(mW/mm3)0.696 60.531 40.450 40.424 4
P/%54.4257.9259.7264.89
), ArticleFig(id=1241446349539955220, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1227999626482147330, articleId=1241446332188119088, language=CN, label=表3, caption=

能量耗散测算结果

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hc/t5/27010/16015/12020/100
dc+r/(mW/mm3)0.317 50.223 60.181 40.149 0
dm/(mW/mm3)0.696 60.531 40.450 40.424 4
P/%54.4257.9259.7264.89
), ArticleFig(id=1241446349644812826, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1227999626482147330, articleId=1241446332188119088, language=EN, label=Tab. 4, caption=

Calculation values of dissipated energy at different loading frequencies

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能耗散值
Energy dissipation value
频率Frequency/Hz
0.070.10.30.5
d00.028 840.040 8240.122 150.203 79
dT0.411 940.408 240.407 160.407 59
能耗散值
Energy dissipation value
频率Frequency/Hz
0.60.70.91.0
d00.243 000.278 640.340 200.372 60
dT0.405 000.398 060.378 000.372 60
), ArticleFig(id=1241446349720310304, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1227999626482147330, articleId=1241446332188119088, language=CN, label=表4, caption=

不同加载频率下的耗散能测算值

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
能耗散值
Energy dissipation value
频率Frequency/Hz
0.070.10.30.5
d00.028 840.040 8240.122 150.203 79
dT0.411 940.408 240.407 160.407 59
能耗散值
Energy dissipation value
频率Frequency/Hz
0.60.70.91.0
d00.243 000.278 640.340 200.372 60
dT0.405 000.398 060.378 000.372 60
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疲劳性能快速评估过程中耗散能求解及加载频率对评估结果的影响
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罗家元 1 , 王佳林 1 , 高聪 2
机械强度 | ·疲劳·损伤·断裂·失效分析· 2025,47(7): 73-79
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机械强度 | ·疲劳·损伤·断裂·失效分析· 2025, 47(7): 73-79
疲劳性能快速评估过程中耗散能求解及加载频率对评估结果的影响
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罗家元1 , 王佳林1 , 高聪2
作者信息
  • 1.重庆交通大学 机电与车辆工程学院,重庆 400074
  • 2.重庆长安汽车股份有限公司 长安研究院,重庆 400023
  • 罗家元,男,1978年生,湖北黄冈人,博士,教授;主要研究方向为残余应力评估及消除、结构疲劳寿命等;E-mail:

    王佳林,男,1998年生,四川乐山人,硕士研究生;主要研究方向为金属疲劳性能快速评估;E-mail:

Solution of dissipated energy and influence of loading frequency on evaluation results in the rapid evaluation process of fatigue performance
Jiayuan LUO1 , Jialin WANG1 , Cong GAO2
Affiliations
  • 1.School of Mechatronics and Vehicle Engineering, Chongqing Jiaotong University, Chongqing 400074, China
  • 2.Chang’an Research Institute, Chongqing Chang’an Automobile Co., Ltd., Chongqing 400023, China
出版时间: 2025-07-15 doi: 10.16579/j.issn.1001.9669.2025.07.009
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基于红外热像法的金属疲劳性能快速评估方法具有周期短、成本低和效率高等优点,然而热对流、热辐射等影响耗散能结果的因素很难准确测算,导致最终评估结果精度很难达到试验标准。为此,建立了304不锈钢混合硬化本构模型,结合低周疲劳生热机制来分析受载过程中热对流、热辐射引起的耗散能演变规律;并基于耗散能临界值探究低周疲劳加载频率对疲劳性能快速评估结果的影响。研究表明,304不锈钢低周疲劳过程中,热对流、热辐射所耗散能量占总耗散能的54%以上,且随着热对流系数增大而不断提高,所以在耗散能评估测算时不可忽略;随着加载频率的增加,载荷峰值沿作用时间分布区域变窄,循环载荷单周期耗散能减小,导致疲劳性能快速评估结果比试验值偏大。

混合硬化模型  /  耗散能  /  热对流  /  热辐射  /  加载频率

The rapid assessment method for metal fatigue performance based on the infrared thermography presents advantages such as short testing cycles, low costs, and high efficiency. However, accurately quantifying factors influencing the dissipation of energy, such as convective heat transfer and thermal radiation, proves challenging. The difficulty leads to complications in achieving the precision necessary to meet test standards in the final assessment results. A mixed-hardening constitutive model for 304 stainless steel was established and coupled with the low-cycle fatigue thermomechanical mechanism, to analyze the evolution pattern of dissipated energy caused by convective heat transfer and thermal radiation during the loading process. Furthermore, the impact of low-cycle fatigue loading frequency on the rapid assessment results of fatigue performance was explored based on the critical threshold of dissipated energy. The research indicates that during the low-cycle fatigue process of 304 stainless steel, the dissipated energy from convective heat transfer and thermal radiation constitutes over 54% of the total dissipated energy. Moreover, this proportion continuously increases with the augmentation of the convective heat transfer coefficient. Therefore, it is crucial not to neglect these factors in dissipated energy assessment calculations. With an increase in loading frequency, the peak load narrows within the region of action time. Consequently, the dissipated energy of each load cycle decreases, leading to a rapid assessment result of fatigue performance that tends to be larger than the test value.

Mixed hardening model  /  Dissipated energy  /  Thermal convection  /  Heat radiation  /  Loading frequency
罗家元, 王佳林, 高聪. 疲劳性能快速评估过程中耗散能求解及加载频率对评估结果的影响. 机械强度, 2025 , 47 (7) : 73 -79 . DOI: 10.16579/j.issn.1001.9669.2025.07.009
Jiayuan LUO, Jialin WANG, Cong GAO. Solution of dissipated energy and influence of loading frequency on evaluation results in the rapid evaluation process of fatigue performance[J]. Journal of Mechanical Strength, 2025 , 47 (7) : 73 -79 . DOI: 10.16579/j.issn.1001.9669.2025.07.009
在进行材料疲劳性能评估时,传统的疲劳试验存在周期长、耗费高和效率低等缺点,严重限制了新材料的开发和结构的设计进程[1]。随着红外热像仪测量精度的提高以及耗散能测算方法的改进[2],相较于传统疲劳性能预测方法,红外热像法越来越受关注。红外热像法借助红外热像仪记录试件在循环应力作用下的温度场数据,并结合相关理论进行能量转换分析,进而对材料或结构的疲劳性能进行快速评估。相较于传统疲劳性能预测方法,红外热像法不仅可以快速预测材料的疲劳性能,而且可以通过能量耗散来探究疲劳的产生机制[3]
在金属疲劳试验加载过程中,温度变化可分为3个阶段[4]:温度快速上升阶段、温度稳定阶段和温度急剧上升阶段。第1阶段主要由微塑性和晶界摩擦等引起温度随着加载振荡升高;第2阶段由于热弹性效应以及能量耗散与热扩散达到动态平衡使得温度变得恒定;第3阶段由于试样经过长时间的循环加载后出现微裂纹,随着微裂纹的扩展会在开裂处释放大量的热,使得试样的温度急剧增大。
国内外对红外热像法做了很多研究[5-7]。在前期研究中很多学者直接忽略了热对流和热辐射效应在疲劳试验过程中对能量耗散测算的影响[8]。李源[9]通过设置参考式样、隔热装置和三点固定装置来降低环境噪声的影响,但由于环境变化等因素,仍存在较大误差;杨文平[10]55-65结合传热学估计了自然对流和辐射系数,研究了自然对流和辐射的影响。本文通过数值模拟方法,直接排除环境噪声影响,使用热扩散模型探究热对流和热辐射效应对低周疲劳耗散能测算的影响,并且通过每个周期的耗散能来探究低周疲劳加载频率对材料疲劳寿命评估结果的影响。
以304不锈钢(304SS)作为研究对象,根据应变控制疲劳试验的标准试验方法ASTM-E606[11]建立板状几何试验模型。由于该试件模型为轴对称结构,施加的是对称载荷,为了提高计算效率,取试件的1/8对称模型为研究对象,如图1所示,其材料参数见表1。使用热应力耦合模型,采用对称约束边界条件,施加应力比为0、应力幅值为0.4%的脉动载荷。
混合硬化模型由非线性各向同性硬化模型和Chaboche非线性随动硬化模型组成[12],可以精准描述疲劳过程中304不锈钢的应力应变行为。其中,在非线性随动硬化模型中,将模型总应变分解为弹性应变与塑性应变两部分,总应变率可以表示为弹性和塑性应变率之和:
式中,̇为总应变率;为塑性应变率;为弹性应变率。
根据von Mises屈服准则,σeq只与应力偏量第二不变量(J2理论)有关:
式中,σeq为等效屈服应力;α为背应力张量;s为偏应力张量,与屈服面在应力空间的平移有关。在Chaboche多级背应力模型基础上,将单级背应力离散为n级背应力,并对线性项进行叠加,每一级背应力覆盖一个应变区域:
在单轴循环加载时,随动硬化的演化方程可积分为
式中,X0εp0分别为背应力和塑性应变的初始值;v=±1,表示正、负塑性应变速率;Ciγi分别为材料常数,可由单调拉伸曲线或循环曲线得到。可以看出背应力与塑性应变的非线性关系由演化方程的第二部分反映,当εp - εp0足够大时,背应力达到饱和值vCi/γi
各向同性硬化律实际上可以表示为循环过程中各向同性应力Q与不同加载/卸载阶段累积塑性应变p的函数关系,其具体表达形式为
式中,QQ变化的最大值;b为达到稳定的速度。
将随动硬化与各向同性硬化进行叠加,则单轴循环加载过程中,材料循环应力与塑性应变的关系为
根据试验数据,刘士杰等[13]40-49利用发展的伪贡献数法和试错法,得到了可以同时近似模拟应力控制和应变控制下304SS应力应变响应的Chaboche混合硬化参数,各参数如表2所示。
使用混合硬化模型计算得到的在不同应变控制下达到稳定循环时的载荷-位移的曲线如图2所示,与刘士杰等[13]40-49由试验得到的滞回曲线基本相同,验证此混合硬化模型的准确性。
疲劳过程就是耗散能累积的过程,每一个循环周期都伴随着材料的能量损耗,即塑性功的产生:
式中,σu为加载应力;σl为卸载应力。
系统所做的塑性功约有90%以热能的形式耗散掉,因此可将单次循环所做的塑性功引起的温度变化定义如下:
将非线性热源引入有限元分析中,描述循环载荷下塑性变形引起的能量耗散。材料在发生塑性变形时产生的热量与非线性变形速率有关。塑性变形导致热流可表示为
式中,rpl为热流增量;η为非弹性热份额。
将塑性应变的增量定义为具有方向性的矢量:
式中,n为塑性流方向;为定量参数,与塑性模型中应力流方向和应变强化有关。
塑性应变由后向欧拉方法进行积分求得,在一定增量步后,热流增加的表达式为
数值模拟得到的温度时间曲线如图3所示,该曲线和魏巍等[14]利用红外热像仪测得的试验曲线的趋势完全一致。本文有限元模型不仅验证了热弹性效应,而且符合温升三段论,证明了模型的可靠性。
基于热力学定律和传热学相关理论,做出如下假定:
1)本文使用的是板状试件,试样的截面尺寸相对于长度方向较小,热传导主要影响试样沿长度方向的温度分布。因此,假设试样截面内温度为均匀分布,可以将试样的温度场简化为一维形式。
2)导致疲劳损伤的能量耗散主要由材料局部的微塑性引起,且分布不均匀。而温度场是能量耗散的宏观响应,是被测区域内所有微塑性效应共同作用的结果,是平均值。因此,本文将单位体积的能量耗散作为试样疲劳的评价指标,假定在某一确定的循环载荷下的单周循环能量耗散为常数。
3)在疲劳试验过程中,试样温升不大,对热力学参数影响很小。因此,假定试样的弹性模量、比热容和导热系数等都是材料常数,在试验过程中不随温度变化。
大部分金属材料在循环载荷的作用下都会发生能量耗散,能量耗散通常是由材料内部的塑性滑移、内摩擦和晶体位错等多种机制引起的,而温度演化是能量耗散在疲劳试验中的宏观表现。根据热力学定律,在循环加载下板状试件沿着加载方向(x方向)的一维热的传导方程为
式中,ρ为材料密度;c为材料比热容;k为材料导热系数;表示因试件温度变化而储存或者释放的能量;qc (xt)为单位体积内热对流引起的能量损失;qr (xt)为单位体积内热辐射引起的能量损失;se (xt)为由热弹性引起的能量变化;d0为不可逆的能量耗散值。
根据热弹性效应,绝热条件下的热弹性源可以表示为
式中,α为线性热膨胀系数;Ta为绝对温度。对于加载频率为f、应力幅值为σa的循环加载过程,热弹性源可推导为
由此可知,机械能与热能保持动态平衡,负号表示材料在受拉时温度降低,在受压时温度升高。所以,热弹性效应只会导致温度产生周期性的变化,不会引起每个载荷循环结束时温度升高。
在疲劳试验过程中的稳定温升阶段,对多个加载周期进行平均可减小误差,消除热弹性效应。因此得到:
热弹性源:
温度变化引起的能量变化:
对于绝热条件式可简化为
式中,
其通解为θ(x) = Ax2 + Bx + cA =-d0/2kd0 =-2kA
由上述方程对疲劳试验过程中能量耗散进行计算时,得到的耗散能是通过热传导的方式耗散掉的能量,忽略了热对流和热辐射所耗散的能量。然而,根据前人对高周疲劳的研究可知,在疲劳试验过程中,热对流和热辐射所耗散的能量比例很大,不可忽视,当使用绝热边界条件时,疲劳试验过程中产生的能量绝大部分是以热传导方式耗散掉,可以使用上述计算式测算。因此,在仿真分析过程中分别设置绝热边界条件、正常热对流和热辐射边界条件来进行对比分析计算。
在疲劳加载过程中,在循环载荷作用一段时间后,试件产热与热扩散达到动态平衡,排除热弹性效应,试件表面温度基本不会发生改变。根据已有研究结果可知,空气中的热对流系数在5~25[15],因此取4组不同的热交换系数进行研究。由于热交换环境不同,试件表面温度达到动态平衡的时间也不同;随着热对流系数的增大,达到稳定温度时的时间逐渐减少,最大温升逐渐降低。温升云图如图4所示;试件沿x路径方向的温升曲线如图5所示。
为计算除热传导造成的能量耗散以外的热交换条件引起的能量耗散值,设置了除热传导因素外完全绝热的边界条件,加载时间与图4情况对应相同,由于试件与环境没有热交换,所以随着加载时间的推移,温度稳定升高。温升云图如图6所示,沿x路径方向的温升曲线如图7所示。
采用二次多项式法对温度数据进行拟合,其决定系数Rsquare都达到0.998以上,证明拟合度很好。计算结果如表3所示。随着热对流系数增加,试件达到稳定温升的时间不断缩短,总耗散能和热对流热辐射所耗散的能量不断减小,但热对流热辐射所耗散能量占比不断提高。
计算结果与杨文平[10]55-65通过试验估算的热对流与热辐射在疲劳试验中耗散能占比40%~51.3%的结论基本吻合,本文的热对流与热辐射耗散能占比高于参考文献值,是由低周疲劳数值模拟条件计算得到的。相比于高周疲劳,低周疲劳试验过程中产热量更大,耗散也更为迅速,所以热对流与热辐射占比也会更高。同时也进一步说明在能量耗散测算时不能忽略热对流与热辐射,否则会严重影响疲劳寿命评估的准确性。
为研究不同加载频率对低周疲劳寿命评估的影响,建立了不同载荷频率的数值仿真模型。根据金属材料疲劳能量阈值理论[16],材料在疲劳进程中所消耗的能量存在一个临界值,当累积能量达到这个临界值时,材料就会发生疲劳破坏。由于上文所测算的能量耗散值为单位时间单位体积的能量,则每个循环周期的能量耗散值dT
假设能量耗散的临界值为E0,则疲劳寿命N0E0有如下关系:
在相同的温度边界条件下,为研究较低加载频率对试件疲劳寿命的影响,且低周疲劳加载频率一般低于1 Hz,因此设置加载频率范围为0.07~1.0 Hz。当不同加载频率的试件表面温度都达到动态稳定时,其沿x路径方向温升曲线如图8所示。由图8可知,试件表面的温度随着加载频率的不断增大而升高,与戴婷[17]的试验测试的温升结论相同。不同加载频率下的耗散能测算结果见表4
根据表4可知,单位时间单位体积的耗散能会随着加载频率的升高而不断增大;每个循环周期所耗散的能量会随着加载频率的增大而减小;但在较低加载频率(0.1~0.5 Hz)时,耗散能的减小趋势变得极为缓慢,如图9所示。
由式(9)可知,疲劳寿命快速评估结果会随着单周期耗散能的减小而增大。因此,随着加载频率的升高,疲劳寿命快速评估结果也会增大,且在加载频率小于0.5 Hz时加载频率对疲劳寿命快速评估结果的影响很小,所以可推断在此载荷条件下的最佳试验频率应该小于0.5 Hz。
低周疲劳试验过程中,加载的应力往往大于材料的屈服极限,加载频率越小,单个循环周期越长,使得最大载荷作用于试件的时间增加,从而使材料的温升加剧、单周期耗散能增大,最终导致疲劳寿命评估结果减小;随着加载频率升高,循环周期变短,最大载荷作用时间减少,单周期耗散能降低,疲劳寿命评估结果也会相应提高,这与张亚平[18]的低周疲劳试验结论相近。
主要研究了低周疲劳性能快速评估过程中耗散能求解及加载频率对低周疲劳性能快速评估结果的影响,具体研究过程及结果如下:
1)根据混合硬化模型建立了304SS低周疲劳仿真模型,生成了稳定的滞回曲线;引入非线性热源,对疲劳过程中的产热进行数值模拟,结果与试验大致相同,为疲劳性能快速评估提供了新的途径。
2)利用数值模拟方法对304SS低周疲劳过程中能量耗散进行测算;使用不同温度边界条件进行对比分析,求解得到304SS低周疲劳过程中由热对流和热辐射耗散的能量在总耗散能中的占比达到54%以上,高于高周疲劳中耗散能占比,不能忽略热对流与热辐射。
3)使用不同频率的载荷曲线对304SS低周疲劳温度场进行数值模拟,测算得到不同载荷频率下单个循环周期所耗散的能量;根据疲劳能量阈值理论,以304SS为对象,探究了加载频率对疲劳寿命快速评估结果的影响并得出结论:在0.07~1 Hz,随着加载频率的升高,疲劳寿命快速评估结果会增大;预测在该载荷条件下的最佳试验频率应小于0.5 Hz。
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2025年第47卷第7期
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doi: 10.16579/j.issn.1001.9669.2025.07.009
  • 接收时间:2023-10-24
  • 首发时间:2026-03-19
  • 出版时间:2025-07-15
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  • 收稿日期:2023-10-24
  • 修回日期:2024-01-15
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Chongqing Special Key Project for Technological Innovation and Application Development(cstc2021jscx-dxwtBX0022)
重庆市技术创新与应用发展专项重点项目(cstc2021jscx-dxwtBX0022)
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    1.重庆交通大学 机电与车辆工程学院,重庆 400074
    2.重庆长安汽车股份有限公司 长安研究院,重庆 400023
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2种不同金属材料的力学参数

Family
属数
Number of
genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of
total species (%)

Genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of total
species (%)
鹅膏菌科Amanitaceae 2 11 5.26 鹅膏菌属 Amanita 10 4.78
小菇科 Mycenaceae 2 12 5.74 丝盖伞属 Inocybe 5 2.39
多孔菌科 Polyporaceae 8 14 6.70 蜡蘑属 Laccaria 5 2.39
红菇科 Russulaceae 3 23 11.00 小皮伞属 Marasmius 6 2.87
小菇属 Mycena 11 5.26
光柄菇属 Pluteus 5 2.39
红菇属 Russula 17 8.13
栓菌属 Trametes 5 2.39
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