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In order to clarify the dynamic response, damage situation, and failure mode of titanium/steel corrugated composite plates and interfaces under impact loads, small energy (53 J)impact experiments were conducted on titanium/steel corrugated composite plates using a light air cannon. On the basis of verifying the effectiveness of the numerical calculation model, numerical simulations were conducted on composite plates under various velocities to study the impact mechanical response of composite plates and their interfaces under various energies. The results show that, under low energy impact conditions, the front of the corrugated composite plate shows plastic expansion damage, and the back plate has protrusions with cracks at the raised areas. The corrugated interface layer is tightly bonded and overall concave; cut the target plate along the impact center and observe that there are no cracks, delamination, or other damages on the cross-section. This is different from fiber reinforced composite laminates. There will generally be obvious delamination inside when there is barely visible damage on the impact surface. In numerical simulation, the cohesive force interface damage area of the corrugated composite plate under impact is less than that of the planar interface composite plate. When subjected to low energy impact, the absorption of bullet kinetic energy by the corrugated plate is mainly dominated by overall deformation energy absorption, and the damage to the titanium/steel composite plate at the corrugated interface is relatively small. Under various energy impacts,corrugated interface composite plates have tighter interface bonding, better structural integrity, and are less prone to damage compared to planar interface composite plates.

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CAO Yong, E-mail:
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为了明晰在冲击载荷下钛/钢波纹复合板及界面的动态响应、损伤情况以及失效模式,使用空气炮对钛/钢波纹复合板开展小能量(53 J)冲击试验,在验证数值计算模型有效的基础上,开展了多种速度冲击复合板数值仿真,研究多种能量下复合板及其界面的冲击力学响应。结果表明,在小能量冲击条件下,波纹复合板正面出现塑性扩孔破坏,背板产生隆起且在隆起处有裂纹;波纹界面层结合紧密、整体下凹;将靶板沿冲击中心切开观察,截面没有出现裂纹、分层开裂等损伤,这与纤维增强复合材料层合板不同,当冲击表面出现目视勉强可见损伤后一般内部会有明显分层;在数值模拟中波纹复合板在冲击下的内聚力界面损伤区域少于平面界面复合板;小能量冲击时波纹板对子弹动能的吸收主要以整体变形吸能为主,波纹界面钛/钢复合板损伤较小;在多种能量冲击下波纹界面复合板相较于平面界面复合板界面结合更紧密,结构完整性更好,更不容易被破坏。

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曹勇,男,1987年生,河南郸城人,副教授;主要研究方向为复合材料力学与装甲防护;E-mail:
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梁子睿,男,2000年生,广西柳州人,硕士研究生;主要研究方向为金属复合板冲击动力学行为;E-mail:

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梁子睿,男,2000年生,广西柳州人,硕士研究生;主要研究方向为金属复合板冲击动力学行为;E-mail:

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梁子睿,男,2000年生,广西柳州人,硕士研究生;主要研究方向为金属复合板冲击动力学行为;E-mail:

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2.太原理工大学 先进金属复合材料成形技术与装备教育部工程研究中心,太原 030024
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tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1241400400272740928, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1227999626482147330, articleId=1241394837677732129, language=EN, label=Tab.1, caption=

Constitutive model parameters of TA1 industrial pure titanium

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参数Parameters值Value参数Parameters值Value
ρ/(kg/m3)4 450m1.032
E/GPa114.5 4.64×10-4
μ0.345D1-0.995
Tm/K1 668D21.45
Tg/K298D3-0.1
A285.7D4-0.02
B566.1D50.83
n0.586 6 1.33×10-5
C0.049 4
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TA1工业纯钛的本构模型参数

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参数Parameters值Value参数Parameters值Value
ρ/(kg/m3)4 450m1.032
E/GPa114.5 4.64×10-4
μ0.345D1-0.995
Tm/K1 668D21.45
Tg/K298D3-0.1
A285.7D4-0.02
B566.1D50.83
n0.586 6 1.33×10-5
C0.049 4
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Constitutive model parameters of 304 stainless steel

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参数Parameters值Value参数Parameters值Value
ρ/(kg/m3)7 800m0.81
E/GPa210 6.67×10-4
μ0.3D1-43.408
Tm/K1 800D244.608
Tg/K298D3-0.016
A278D40.014 5
B1 300D50.046
n0.80 8.33×10-4
C0.072
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304不锈钢的本构模型参数

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参数Parameters值Value参数Parameters值Value
ρ/(kg/m3)7 800m0.81
E/GPa210 6.67×10-4
μ0.3D1-43.408
Tm/K1 800D244.608
Tg/K298D3-0.016
A278D40.014 5
B1 300D50.046
n0.80 8.33×10-4
C0.072
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Material parameters of cohesive element

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参数Parameters值Value参数Parameters值Value
ρ/(kg/m3)1 440Es/GPa4.8
55Et/GPa4.8
120GⅠC/(J/m22 200
120GⅡC/(J/m22 400
En/GPa2.2GⅢC/(J/m22 400
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内聚力单元材料参数

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参数Parameters值Value参数Parameters值Value
ρ/(kg/m3)1 440Es/GPa4.8
55Et/GPa4.8
120GⅠC/(J/m22 200
120GⅡC/(J/m22 400
En/GPa2.2GⅢC/(J/m22 400
), ArticleFig(id=1241400400838971986, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1227999626482147330, articleId=1241394837677732129, language=EN, label=Tab.4, caption=

Impact parameters of specimens

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试件编号
Specimen number
开坑直径
Pit diameter/mm
扩孔深度
Reaming depth/ mm
10-26.851.04
10-37.01.16
6-17.161.18
6-26.841.07
6-36.941.11
), ArticleFig(id=1241400400994161236, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1227999626482147330, articleId=1241394837677732129, language=CN, label=表4, caption=

试件冲击参数

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
试件编号
Specimen number
开坑直径
Pit diameter/mm
扩孔深度
Reaming depth/ mm
10-26.851.04
10-37.01.16
6-17.161.18
6-26.841.07
6-36.941.11
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波纹界面钛/钢复合板抗冲击行为研究
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梁子睿 1 , 任路泽 1 , 曹勇 1 , 王涛 1, 2, 3
机械强度 | 实验研究·测试技术 2025,47(5): 119-130
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机械强度 | 实验研究·测试技术 2025, 47(5): 119-130
波纹界面钛/钢复合板抗冲击行为研究
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梁子睿1 , 任路泽1, 曹勇1 , 王涛1, 2, 3
作者信息
  • 1.太原理工大学 机械与运载工程学院 应用力学研究所,太原 030024
  • 2.太原理工大学 先进金属复合材料成形技术与装备教育部工程研究中心,太原 030024
  • 3.太原理工大学 中澳联合研究中心,太原 030024
  • 梁子睿,男,2000年生,广西柳州人,硕士研究生;主要研究方向为金属复合板冲击动力学行为;E-mail:

通讯作者:

曹勇,男,1987年生,河南郸城人,副教授;主要研究方向为复合材料力学与装甲防护;E-mail:
Research on impact resistance behavior of titanium/steel composite plates with the ripple interface
Zirui LIANG1 , Luze REN1, Yong CAO1 , Tao WANG1, 2, 3
Affiliations
  • 1.Institute of Applied Mechanics, College of Mechanical and Vehicle Engineering, Taiyuan University of Technology,Taiyuan 030024, China
  • 2.Engineering Research Center of Advanced Metal Composites Forming Technology and Equipment Ministry of Education,Taiyuan University of Technology, Taiyuan 030024, China
  • 3.China-Australia Joint Research Center, Taiyuan University of Technology, Taiyuan 030024, China
出版时间: 2025-05-15 doi: 10.16579/j.issn.1001.9669.2025.05.014
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为了明晰在冲击载荷下钛/钢波纹复合板及界面的动态响应、损伤情况以及失效模式,使用空气炮对钛/钢波纹复合板开展小能量(53 J)冲击试验,在验证数值计算模型有效的基础上,开展了多种速度冲击复合板数值仿真,研究多种能量下复合板及其界面的冲击力学响应。结果表明,在小能量冲击条件下,波纹复合板正面出现塑性扩孔破坏,背板产生隆起且在隆起处有裂纹;波纹界面层结合紧密、整体下凹;将靶板沿冲击中心切开观察,截面没有出现裂纹、分层开裂等损伤,这与纤维增强复合材料层合板不同,当冲击表面出现目视勉强可见损伤后一般内部会有明显分层;在数值模拟中波纹复合板在冲击下的内聚力界面损伤区域少于平面界面复合板;小能量冲击时波纹板对子弹动能的吸收主要以整体变形吸能为主,波纹界面钛/钢复合板损伤较小;在多种能量冲击下波纹界面复合板相较于平面界面复合板界面结合更紧密,结构完整性更好,更不容易被破坏。

小能量冲击  /  波纹界面钛/钢复合板  /  损伤分析  /  数值模拟  /  内聚力单元

In order to clarify the dynamic response, damage situation, and failure mode of titanium/steel corrugated composite plates and interfaces under impact loads, small energy (53 J)impact experiments were conducted on titanium/steel corrugated composite plates using a light air cannon. On the basis of verifying the effectiveness of the numerical calculation model, numerical simulations were conducted on composite plates under various velocities to study the impact mechanical response of composite plates and their interfaces under various energies. The results show that, under low energy impact conditions, the front of the corrugated composite plate shows plastic expansion damage, and the back plate has protrusions with cracks at the raised areas. The corrugated interface layer is tightly bonded and overall concave; cut the target plate along the impact center and observe that there are no cracks, delamination, or other damages on the cross-section. This is different from fiber reinforced composite laminates. There will generally be obvious delamination inside when there is barely visible damage on the impact surface. In numerical simulation, the cohesive force interface damage area of the corrugated composite plate under impact is less than that of the planar interface composite plate. When subjected to low energy impact, the absorption of bullet kinetic energy by the corrugated plate is mainly dominated by overall deformation energy absorption, and the damage to the titanium/steel composite plate at the corrugated interface is relatively small. Under various energy impacts,corrugated interface composite plates have tighter interface bonding, better structural integrity, and are less prone to damage compared to planar interface composite plates.

Low energy impact  /  Corrugated interface titanium/steel composite plate  /  Damage analysis  /  Numerical simulation  /  Cohesive element
梁子睿, 任路泽, 曹勇, 王涛. 波纹界面钛/钢复合板抗冲击行为研究. 机械强度, 2025 , 47 (5) : 119 -130 . DOI: 10.16579/j.issn.1001.9669.2025.05.014
Zirui LIANG, Luze REN, Yong CAO, Tao WANG. Research on impact resistance behavior of titanium/steel composite plates with the ripple interface[J]. Journal of Mechanical Strength, 2025 , 47 (5) : 119 -130 . DOI: 10.16579/j.issn.1001.9669.2025.05.014
综合了多种金属优点的金属复合板渐渐成为新兴的关注对象[1],以满足复杂使用环境下的应用需求。采用新型波平轧工艺制备的波纹界面钛/钢复合板[2-4],能够在异质材料结合层间形成波纹状界面[5-6],有助于增加金属复合板的变形协调能力,减弱残余应力使得界面结合更强[7]。并且钛/钢复合板兼具了钛密度低、耐腐蚀[8]与钢结构性好[9]、成本低的优点,广泛应用于机械、航空航天、石油化工、海洋工业、国防科技等领域,例如管壳式换热器[10]、烟囱防腐内筒[11]、海洋土木防腐蚀材料[12-13],也是轻型装甲车、水陆两栖装甲车的潜力金属装甲材料[14]
钛/钢复合板在应用过程中不可避免地会遇到冲击问题,在冲击时其界面通常是复合板中薄弱的区域[15-16],研究其抗冲击行为对提升钛/钢复合板的力学性能有重要参考意义。在抗冲击性能方面,马桢等[17]采用数值仿真的方法开展了弹道冲击下钛/钢复合波纹板的界面力学性能研究,该仿真表明,波纹板对子弹动能的吸收要强于平面复合板,且波纹界面的损伤少于平面界面。针对铝/钛/钢平面复合板,许婉韵等[18]开展了其在复合状态与夹层状态下对冲击的动力学响应理论与仿真研究,得到了模型材料参数与几何参数对复合板的冲击性能影响规律;张晓琼等[19]开展了使用波纹辊轧制工艺制备的镁/铝波纹复合板的抗冲击性能试验研究,结果表明,冲击速度低于弹道极限速度时,波纹板抗冲击性能优于平面复合板;高于弹道极限速度时,两种复合板的抗冲击性能与耗能程度相当。目前,对该波纹界面钛/钢复合板的冲击性能有待进一步开展研究,特别是在试验表征其抗冲击行为方面。
为了明晰冲击荷载下钛/钢波纹复合板界面的动态响应、损伤情况以及失效模式,本文使用轻型空气炮对钛/钢波纹复合板开展了小能量中速冲击试验,力求在不对整板造成较大损伤的情况下能够单独分析界面的损伤。并且使用有限元软件进行仿真模拟,研究复合板及界面的冲击力学响应,以揭示其冲击损伤机制。
钛/钢复合板基板采用3 mm厚304不锈钢板材,覆板采用2 mm厚TA1工业纯钛板材,长宽尺寸为195 mm×65 mm,轧制之后复合板的厚度为2.65 mm。使用线切割机将轧后的钛/钢复合板切割为65 mm×65 mm×2.65 mm的标准冲击试件。
使用图1所示轻型空气炮冲击试验系统对波纹轧钛/钢复合板进行中速冲击试验,其中所使用子弹为10 mm直径的钢珠,初始速度约为160 m/s。炮管内径为12.5 mm,将钢珠放置在使用3D打印机制备出的树脂弹托内,使用加压氮气对弹托进行加速至指定速度,当弹托与钢珠到达炮口时,炮口处安装的钢制脱弹器能够将弹托卡住约束在脱弹器内,但其开的小孔能够使钢珠顺利射出炮口冲击靶板。将试件置于图1所示的铝合金夹具中,夹具内部有凹槽能放置靶板,在凹槽与靶板之间的缝隙内填充冲击硬化材料来保证其在冲击过程中四周受力均匀。夹具前后放置的红外光幕靶能够测量钢珠冲击靶板前后的入射与剩余速度。为与钛/钢复合板的真实应用情况相符,即钛作为防腐蚀材料暴露在表面,选择钛面为冲击面接受钢珠冲击,钢面为背面。
采用有限元软件Abaqus显示动力学求解器对钛/钢波纹复合板的中速冲击进行有限元仿真计算。其中,波纹面曲线能够根据辊型参数、波纹波长、波峰波谷的长度按式(1)所给出的正弦函数拟合。
模型尺寸如图2所示,与真实尺寸一致。
靶板尺寸为65 mm×65 mm×2.65 mm,靶板四周设置为固支并且给钢珠施加垂直于靶板面的初始速度,钢珠直径为10 mm,在相互作用模块中将其约束为刚体,但其单元类型仍为八节点线性六面体减缩积分单元C3D8R,靶板大部分单元与钢珠单元类型相同,为了使网格过渡平稳,含有少数六节点三棱柱单元C3D6。在钛/钢界面插入零厚度内聚力单元来分析波纹界面的冲击现象,内聚力单元的单元类型为八节点三维黏结单元COH3D8。
研究表明,在高应变率工况下采用Johnson-Cook(J-C)本构方程的金属模型误差较小,适用于该中速冲击的钛/钢金属模型[20]。在该冲击模型中采用的J-C本构方程表达式以及失效准则表达式分别为
式中,A为屈服应力;B为应变硬化参数;n为应力硬化指数;C为应变率强化参数;为等效塑性变形速率;T*为相对温度;m为温度软化系数。Di(i=1,…,5)为材料参数,R*为三轴性应力。在J-C本构方程中使用单元损伤参数D来描述单元的损伤过程,D越大,单元的刚度就越小,单元的承载能力就越差,当D=1时,单元刚度为0,失去承载能力,将单元删除。钛的J-C材料参数如表1所示[21],钢的J-C材料参数如表2所示[22]表1表2中,ρ为材料密度;E为材料的弹性模量;μ为材料的泊松比;Tm为材料的熔点;Tg为环境温度;为J-C本构塑性方程中的参考应变速率参数;为J-C本构损伤方程中的参考应变速率参数。
在两层材料间插入层间内聚力界面单元是当前模拟材料开裂断裂的一种主流手段[23]。本文使用经典的双线性内聚力本构来模拟钛/钢波纹板的界面力学性能,该本构模型分为2个线性阶段:第1个线性阶段是线弹性阶段,应力与应变的斜率为正,当应力达到最大值i=1,2,3,代表3种分离方向,分别对应Ⅰ、Ⅱ、Ⅲ型层间断裂)时,损伤开始。此时进入第2个线性阶段,即损伤演化阶段,应力随着应变的增长而减小,斜率为负值,当应力减小至0时,代表该单元已损伤至完全失效,将单元删除。单元的损伤初始准则采用最大名义应力准则[24]来描述,其表达式为
式中,ti(i=nst)分别为在3个分离方向上的牵引应力;分别为纯Ⅰ型、Ⅱ型和Ⅲ型裂纹破坏的最大名义应力,只要3个表达式中的最大值达到1,即表示该内聚力单元开始损伤。
在内聚力单元的损伤演化模型中采用了基于能量定义的损伤类型,并且使用了3种断裂能模态混合的Benzeggagh-Kenane(BK)混合模式[25-26]进行损伤演化的判定。BK准则的表达式为
式中,GiC(i=Ⅰ,Ⅱ,Ⅲ)分别代表了纯Ⅰ、Ⅱ、Ⅲ型裂纹破坏的初始断裂能;GS为单元中剪切力做功;GT为单元的牵引力做功;η为幂次参数,依据经验在该仿真中将η取为1.5,且为了保证在内聚力单元的计算中能有较好的收敛性,增设一个值为0.000 1的损伤稳定黏性。由于钛钢波纹界面的力学性能暂不明确,所以在仿真中模拟该界面的内聚力单元材料参数除了断裂能参数以外都是通过参考相关文献推荐值得到的,而断裂能参数通过试验反演得到。内聚力单元的损伤情况能够直接影响单元的承载能力以及单元删除数量,进而影响界面的损伤面积、背板的挠度大小等关键结果,而断裂能参数直接关联着内聚力单元的损伤演化情况,因此断裂能参数对于模拟结果较为敏感。波纹界面的内聚力单元材料参数如表3所示。表3中,EnEsEt分别为内聚力单元在3个方向上的弹性模量。
共进行了5发弹道冲击试验,靶板冲击后宏观形貌如图3所示,靶板的开坑直径以及扩孔深度如表4所示。
图3可以看出,子弹撞击靶板后回弹,靶板在钢珠冲击下正面形成圆形浅坑,背面形成鼓包凸起。在相同速度冲击下靶板的开坑直径以及扩孔深度基本一致,开坑直径平均值为6.96 mm,扩孔深度平均值为1.11 mm,表现出开坑直径大而深度小的特点,这与弹丸几何形状尺寸有关。半径大的球形弹丸在冲击过程中与靶板接触面积更大,能量耗散区域更广,在冲击速度没有明显提升之前难以形成有深度的侵彻。靶板的冲击正面以及背面不管是中心区域还是边缘区域都平整光滑,没有肉眼可见的裂纹缝隙,这说明对于该复合板而言,速度约为160 m/s的钢珠的冲击能量不足,冲击时产生的剪切力不够,对靶板的冲击只能维持在开坑阶段,没有剩余能量进行稳定侵彻,因此不能观察到靶板严重损伤时出现的剪切冲塞以及花瓣状破坏特征。部分靶板背板存在初始裂纹,如图4所示。由图4(a)可以看出,靶板的背板处有两条初始裂纹:有一条经过背凸处,并且该裂纹在背凸区域的宽度在冲击后有明显的上升;而另一条在靶板边缘处。
分析靶板背凸处裂纹宽度在冲击后增加的原因在于靶板的初始裂纹恰好经过冲击中心、背板隆起处,那么在钢珠的冲击作用下,背板表面的裂纹在拉伸应力作用下会在初始裂纹的基础上向长度、宽度两个方向扩展,形成冲击后所见裂纹。在进行冲击试验前已检测出复合板界面没有损伤,因此虽然背板表面存在初始裂纹,但是仅仅观察到表面的裂纹并不能判断内部损伤情况以及界面层的结合能力,还需观察靶板的冲击截面等内部特征才能得出相应结论。
将靶板沿冲击中心区域使用线切割技术切开得到冲击截面,如图5所示。
图5可以看出,在整个截面上的界面都完整清晰,没有发现界面的分层开裂或裂纹扩展。界面的变形与表面的变形基本一致,在冲击区域界面曲线已经趋近于抛物线。这说明速度大约为160 m/s的直径为10 mm钢珠冲击并不能对整块靶板最薄弱的界面区域产生明显损伤,例如分层、开裂,也没能在截面上发现目视可见的裂纹,在冲击下界面更多的是作为一个整体共同变形,冲击能量有一部分被转化成了使得波纹界面形状发生改变的变形能。冲击应力场在达到界面层的损伤初始应力值之前已经先达到了金属的屈服强度。这体现了钛/钢复合板的界面结合强度的优越性,相较于传统的平轧复合板而言,波纹界面钛/钢复合板不但拥有波纹界面啮合来抵抗两块板之间的滑移以及界面位移不协调所导致的界面开裂分层,而且波纹界面的结合面积比平面界面的结合面积大,轧制时界面两种金属原子相互扩散形成的冶金结合界面与机械结合形成的界面的结合强度相比也上升了一个台阶,这是波纹界面复合板比较明显的优点。
此外,观察冲击截面能看出,靶板除了开坑区域有肉眼可见的凹陷变形外,在冲击区域周围也有大面积的盘式凹陷,这是靶板将冲击能量主要转化为靶板整体弯曲变形的显著特征。若是子弹速度提升,在冲击中剪切力占主导地位,则靶板的变形区域只会集中在扩孔区域并且扩孔的深度会有明显的增加,损伤将成为剪切冲塞破坏,那么此时靶板的吸能方式则以剪切变形吸能为主。
由于波纹结合界面的失效特征并不能直观地通过试验观察,为进一步分析靶板的失效过程和失效机制,开展了子弹冲击波纹轧复合板的冲击仿真分析。
将仿真计算出的冲击中心截面形貌与试验冲击截面进行对比,如图6所示。
图6可以看出,仿真计算出的冲击截面形貌与试验冲击的截面形貌在整体上基本一致,开坑孔径d、深度,以及由黄色、蓝色方框标注的开坑区域外的截面弯曲也比较吻合。将仿真的截面背板挠度与试验背板挠度进行对比,如图7所示。
图7看出,试验的背板挠度与仿真的挠度曲线基本一致,这说明了该有限元模型对试验的良好还原度以及准确性。只有在最高点以及最高点右侧有一些差距,但在最高点左侧的曲线基本符合,分析原因可能是弹托与钢珠的相互作用影响了钢珠出射弹道,导致试验的冲击位置与预设的完全轴对称的冲击区域出现了少许偏移,这使得试验的截面背板挠度并不完全对称而呈现曲线整体向右偏移的情况。
界面的最大名义应力损伤初始准则云图和刚度退化云图如图8所示;冲击过程中的接触应力云图历程如图9所示。
图8中由深蓝色到红色代表损伤程度加大。由图8(a)可以看出,在冲击区域附近的一大块区域都开始了损伤演化,除了4个角之外,界面上的绝大部分都已经开始发展成损伤;除了冲击中心区域颜色鲜艳以外,在4条边附近损伤起始值也较大,较为明亮,这是由于四周的固支条件使得边缘区域在冲击过程中会维持较高的应力水平,因此也有明显的损伤。
图8(b)可以看出,刚度退化主要发生在冲击区域,呈现一个由外向内逐渐变大,达到峰值时继续向内退化又减小的趋势。产生该现象的原因是由于钢珠的直径大,并且为球状,在冲击过程中只有在初始阶段与靶板接触面积的投影等于该图中内部不为红色的区域的面积,此时该区域虽然损伤已开始发展,但是由于球体几何形状的约束,想要继续往下冲击则球体与靶板的接触面积就会愈发增大,随后接触应力最大的区域以及受力最大的区域并不是最初的冲击中心区域,而是钢珠继续向下冲击时与靶板新增加的接触面积,此块面积即约为图8(b)中显示为红色的环状区域,该历程如图9所示,除了刚开始0.03 μs时覆盖了中心小块区域,之后的接触应力都存在于环状区域,直到钢珠动能被靶板完全吸收准备回弹时接触应力才重新覆盖到整片区域。那么环状区域实际上是整个冲击过程中作用时间最长、受力最大的区域,而中心的一小块面积虽然作用时间等同于环状区域,但是该区域受到的力与环状区域相比较小,每提升一点开孔深度必须提升非常多的开孔直径,这是由钢球的几何形状决定的,这也解释了开坑的孔径大但是深度小的特点。
图8中能发现损伤云图并没有完全关于中心点对称,这是波纹板导致的结果。在仿真几何模型中波纹曲线的波峰或者波谷位置并不对应在冲击位置上,虽然对于靶板来说整体对称,但是考虑波纹界面后对于界面而言冲击是不对称的,冲击的对应位置在波峰波谷之间,从影响距离来看,对于波峰面的影响会大于对于波谷附近的影响,因此,由图8可以看出,中心点右侧的损伤会大于中心点左侧,左侧即波谷所在区域,右侧即为波峰所在区域。
图10为金属的损伤云图。由图10可以看出,钛板的损伤区域比钢板更大,因为钛板为冲击面,钢板为背面,受到冲击的影响自然比钛板少;对于钛板而言,背面的损伤比正面大很多,这表明冲击过程中钛金属的损伤主要以拉伸产生的损伤为主,而正面的受压损伤仍然比较小。但是,钛板正面受影响区域比背面更大,其多出的区域即为金属初始损伤准则数值大约为0.25的区域。分析认为,这一环状塑性区域的出现是在冲击正面的初始阶段,子弹刚刚接触到靶板时冲击产生的应力波所导致的[27-29]。在冲击初始阶段相互作用的力最大,此时冲击的应力波的幅值是最大的,故而能够在钢珠与靶板的接触面积之外的环状区域形成一个明显的塑性区,但是之后的阶段由于初始阶段靶板对钢珠能量的吸收,钢珠后续产生的应力场不能在背板冲击周围区域附近产生这样的塑性区。由图10也能看出,背板的损伤区域几乎都是钢珠与靶板正面接触区域的投影以及附近的受拉区域,由外围到中心的变化率更大,与正面的损伤现象完全不同。
对于钢板而言,正面的损伤比背面的损伤更大,这是因为钢板距离冲击区域比钛板更远,这时影响距离对损伤占主导地位,距离比受力方式更影响损伤情况,距离越远损伤越小,钢板正面比背面距离冲击更近,损伤更大,但都不能达到钛板的损伤情况,并且还有界面层对冲击的抵抗,因此对钢板的损伤比较小。
由于在试验中未发现波纹界面钛/钢复合板的明显损伤,为了深入研究波纹界面在冲击过程中对损伤扩展以及吸能的情况,开展了不同速度下对波纹界面钛/钢复合板的冲击仿真。由此得到波纹界面钛/钢复合板的临界穿透速度为389 m/s并且选取300 m/s以及560 m/s这2种具有代表性的冲击速度以及3个不同时间节点的波纹界面钛/钢复合板中心截面图进行分析,如图11所示。
基于子弹动能曲线,对于300 m/s的冲击速度选择10、40、60 μs进行分析,对于560 m/s的冲击速度选择5、15、25 μs进行分析,3个时间节点分别对应3个冲击阶段。图11(a)与图11(d)分别对应着不同速度下侵彻的初始阶段,从中可以看出,在该时刻下的冲击主要使得正面板的钛单元、冲击路径上的内聚力单元和部分钢单元受到挤压破坏而删除,背板微微凸起,此时冲击损伤局限于与弹丸接触的部分,其他区域的界面还没有发生分层,因此在初始阶段波纹界面板与平面界面板在动能曲线上表现出了一致性。而由图11(a)~图11(b)和图11(d)~图11(e)可以看出,随着弹丸持续向下冲击,钛板和钢板破坏都增大。在冲击区域钛板穿透直径增大,钢板在冲击下由于单元损失变薄,两板都产生塑性弯曲,背板挠度明显增加,此时波纹界面损伤在拉伸波作用下开始扩展,上、下两板沿着波纹曲线分层,不同之处在于速度越大局部损伤越明显,钛板的塑性弯曲以及界面分层会减小,但背板的损伤会明显增大。在持续侵彻阶段,由于界面分层刚开始扩展,在两板损伤几乎相同的情况下波纹界面与平面界面分层长度又几乎相同,因此在能量曲线中的差值不大。而由图11(b)~图11(c)和图11(e)~图11(f)中可以看出,两块金属板的单元损伤删除情况基本没有变化,损伤形貌已与冲击结果基本一致,而内聚力单元持续损伤导致分层增至最大,持续的分层使得动能损耗主要通过背板的塑性弯曲转移,这是背板挠度增大的主要原因。在该阶段内聚力单元的损伤成为损伤的主要形式,这是弹丸冲击导致界面分层的主要阶段。由图11中的变化能够认为,界面层的存在是导致在该阶段以及最后的冲击结果中复合板与同等面密度单板冲击形貌、损伤结果和能量转移途径不同的主要原因。此时冲击造成了背板的塑性弯曲,界面层相较于金属的薄弱使得破坏路径由仅在冲击区域附近扩展成为背板塑性弯曲沿着界面传递并最终导致整体的变形提升。背板的弯曲导致界面分层,而界面的分层又使得背板的弯曲沿着界面扩展直至将动能损耗为0,这是互相激励的正循环。但与平面界面不同的是,波纹界面增加了上、下两板的接触面积,在横向位移相同距离下波纹界面的分层比平面界面分层损耗更多能量,且波纹形状导致两板出现了类似于齿轮的啮合结构,两板不仅通过界面层连接固定,还通过啮合限制单块板单独活动,这使得两板相较于平面界面板更趋近于整体变形,抑制了背板的单独弯曲,因此波纹界面复合板会比平面界面复合板产生的分层损伤更少,背板的塑性弯曲更小。
为了丰富仿真模型结果,在原有仿真模型基础上制作了长宽相同、面密度相同的平面界面钛/钢复合板、纯304不锈钢板以及工业纯钛板有限元模型,与波纹板同时进行多种速度下冲击仿真对比,以便更好地反映出波纹界面钛/钢复合板的抗冲击性能。其中纯304不锈钢板的厚度为2.19 mm,工业纯钛板的厚度为3.85 mm,2块板都为整体不设0厚度内聚力单元模拟分层。
波纹界面以及平面界面以速度为389、560 m/s的钢珠冲击后的损伤如图12所示。
图12中颜色由深蓝至红代表着刚度退化值从0~1的增长,在2个速度冲击下界面都发生了明显的损伤破坏,都有界面单元被删除。但是,由图12可以很明显地发现,不管是389 m/s还是560 m/s的速度冲击下波纹界面的破坏区域都少于平面界面,在临界穿透速度下单元删除面积略小于平面界面单元,而在560 m/s冲击下波纹界面单元删除面积则远小于平面界面单元。这能够直接反映出在同一速度冲击下波纹界面钛/钢复合板的界面结合能力大于平面界面钛/钢复合板,整体的结构完整性更好。
平面复合板以及波纹复合板以速度为389、560 m/s的钢珠冲击后截面云图如图13所示。
为了能够直观地看出复合板的分层,将绘图选项设置为显示所有网格。由图13可以看出,在波纹板的临界穿透速度389 m/s下,平面板并未被钢珠穿透而是将钢珠卡在中间,且平面板界面分层比波纹板更严重。这说明平面板的临界穿透速度要大于波纹板,并且其吸能效果也强于波纹板。而当冲击速度达到560 m/s时,两块靶板都被击穿,波纹板界面分层相较于389 m/s的冲击分层减小得不明显但平面板分层相较于389 m/s的冲击分层明显减小,局部损伤增大,但整体损伤以及变形仍比波纹复合板更大。图13表明,在相同的子弹速度冲击下平面界面复合板的损伤和整体变形要大于波纹界面复合板。
图14给出了4块靶板在300、560 m/s速度下子弹动能随时间的变化曲线。
图14(a)可以看出,在300 m/s的速度冲击下4块靶板的吸能情况基本相符,由于子弹都不能穿透靶板,故而吸收的子弹动能几乎为初始动能的100%,还有小部分动能来源于子弹回弹。只有在时间为20~60 μs阶段时曲线有一些差异,表现为钛板曲线下凹比其余3条曲线更多,动能下降率更大。这有可能是因为钛板的冲击损伤更大,在其余3块板只产生扩孔破坏以及整板弯曲变形时,钛板已经被击穿,出现了明显的冲塞块,但子弹并未穿过钛板,同样产生回弹。总体来说,在该速度下的吸能情况没有明显差异。而由图14(b)可以看出,以560 m/s的速度冲击下的4条曲线则有明显不同,平面界面复合板吸能远大于其余3块板,钢板与波纹界面复合板相差不大,钢板略大,而钛板又明显小于波纹板。钛板曲线从头至尾都没有与其余曲线相重合之处,曲线的下降率与其余3条曲线相比更小并且达到平稳阶段时的时间更快,这也能说明钛板与其余3块板相比吸收了更少的动能,使得子弹穿过钛板的时间更短;其余3块板在曲线快速下降阶段基本重合,在曲线过渡阶段开始出现区别,波纹板与钢板曲线到25 μs时已经进入平稳阶段,而平面界面复合板吸收的动能还在持续下降,直到40 μs才进入平稳阶段。对截面图的对比分析可知,多出的动能下降是子弹侵彻至界面层之后,界面的大面积分层开裂和钢板的大范围塑性弯曲所导致的。对于平面界面复合板来说,其受到的损伤比波纹界面复合板受到的更大,多出的这部分损伤吸收的动能能够理解为平面界面复合板吸收的总动能与波纹界面复合板吸能的差值。因此,虽然波纹界面钛/钢复合板在560 m/s的速度冲击下界面损伤比平面界面复合板小,但是,平面界面复合板的分层诱导了更大的钢板全局塑性变形,所以对子弹动能的吸收效果比波纹界面钛/钢复合板更好。
使用轻型气炮对钛/钢波纹复合板进行小能量冲击试验,子弹为直径10 mm的钢珠,并且使用有限元软件Abaqus在对该冲击试验进行对比验证的基础上开展了多种速度、多种靶板下的冲击模型仿真。得到结论如下:
1)靶板受到冲击后产生塑性扩孔以及盘式凹陷,背板产生鼓包隆起;背板存在的初始裂纹若经过冲击区域,则会受到冲击影响而增大尺寸,而处在靶板边缘的初始裂纹因为距离更远,所以受到的冲击影响不足以改变其尺寸,在小能量冲击(53 J)下未能对靶板产生更严重的破坏。
2)将靶板线切割后发现,其界面在冲击后结合仍然紧密,界面在冲击作用下整体下凹,冲击中心区域界面由波纹状曲线变为下凹抛物状曲线,未能观察到钛/钢波纹界面出现可见裂纹、分层以及开裂等损伤。
3)仿真冲击形貌、截面挠度与试验基本符合,验证了该仿真模型的适用性以及准确性。仿真中当钢珠冲击速度小于波纹板临界穿透速度时,波纹板与平面板的耗能程度相当,且波纹界面损伤略小于平面界面;当钢珠冲击速度大于或等于波纹板临界穿透速度时,波纹界面复合板虽然吸能效果逊于平面界面复合板,但是其界面损伤区域明显少于平面界面复合板,其界面结合更为紧密,波纹界面通过增加接触面积以及两板啮合来抑制界面的分层以及背板的整体变形。
  • 国家自然科学基金项目(12002286)
  • 山西省科技创新领军人才团队基金项目(202204051002006)
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2025年第47卷第5期
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doi: 10.16579/j.issn.1001.9669.2025.05.014
  • 接收时间:2024-02-29
  • 首发时间:2026-03-19
  • 出版时间:2025-05-15
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  • 收稿日期:2024-02-29
  • 修回日期:2024-04-09
基金
National Natural Science Foundation of China(12002286)
国家自然科学基金项目(12002286)
Shanxi Province Science and Technology Innovation Leading Talent Team(202204051002006)
山西省科技创新领军人才团队基金项目(202204051002006)
作者信息
    1.太原理工大学 机械与运载工程学院 应用力学研究所,太原 030024
    2.太原理工大学 先进金属复合材料成形技术与装备教育部工程研究中心,太原 030024
    3.太原理工大学 中澳联合研究中心,太原 030024

通讯作者:

曹勇,男,1987年生,河南郸城人,副教授;主要研究方向为复合材料力学与装甲防护;E-mail:
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2种不同金属材料的力学参数

Family
属数
Number of
genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of
total species (%)

Genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of total
species (%)
鹅膏菌科Amanitaceae 2 11 5.26 鹅膏菌属 Amanita 10 4.78
小菇科 Mycenaceae 2 12 5.74 丝盖伞属 Inocybe 5 2.39
多孔菌科 Polyporaceae 8 14 6.70 蜡蘑属 Laccaria 5 2.39
红菇科 Russulaceae 3 23 11.00 小皮伞属 Marasmius 6 2.87
小菇属 Mycena 11 5.26
光柄菇属 Pluteus 5 2.39
红菇属 Russula 17 8.13
栓菌属 Trametes 5 2.39
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