Article(id=1249045449408193141, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1249024381851058248, issueId=1249045444509246013, articleNumber=null, orderNo=null, doi=10.11823/j.issn.1674-5795.2025.06.12, pmid=null, cstr=null, oa=null, hot=null, price=null, onlineType=0, articleFormat=0, articleType=null, articleTypeStr=null, receivedDate=1763568000000, receivedDateStr=2025-11-20, revisedDate=1764691200000, revisedDateStr=2025-12-03, acceptedDate=null, acceptedDateStr=null, onlineDate=1775725241246, onlineDateStr=2026-04-09, pubDate=1766851200000, pubDateStr=2025-12-28, doiRegisterDate=null, doiRegisterDateStr=null, onlineIssueDate=1775725241246, onlineIssueDateStr=2026-04-09, onlineJustAcceptDate=null, onlineJustAcceptDateStr=null, onlineFirstDate=null, onlineFirstDateStr=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, createTime=1775725241246, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1775725241246, updator=13701087609, issue=Issue{id=1249045444509246013, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1249024381851058248, year='2025', volume='45', issue='6', pageStart='10', pageEnd='160', issueExtLink='null', onlineDate='null', pubDate='null', beforeIssueId=null, nextIssueId=null, price=null, status=1, issueComplete=1, articleOrder=1, issueType=1, specialIssue=null, createTime=1775725240111, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1775726845897, updator=13701087609, preIssue=null, nextIssue=null, ext={EN=IssueExt(id=1249052179722609030, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1249024381851058248, issueId=1249045444509246013, language=EN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=), CN=IssueExt(id=1249052179722609031, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1249024381851058248, issueId=1249045444509246013, language=CN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=)}, issueFiles=null}, startPage=141, endPage=152, ext={EN=ArticleExt(id=1249045449747931780, articleId=1249045449408193141, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1249024381851058248, language=EN, title=Calibration of convective heat flux using a dual⁃plate transient method, columnId=1249045447231349319, journalTitle=Metrology & Measurement Technology, columnName=Metrology,Measurement and Calibration, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

Accurate heat flux measurement is essential for developing hypersonic vehicles and their thermal protection systems. The intense aerodynamic heating generated during high⁃speed flight of aerospace vehicles is primarily dominated by convective heat transfer. However, existing heat flux gauges struggle to accurately measure surface thermal loads under extreme high-temperature and high⁃speed conditions, resulting in low measurement accuracy and significantly constraining the performance evaluation of thermal protection systems and material development. To address the lack of reliable calibration methods for heat flux sensors under high⁃temperature and high⁃speed conditions, this study introduces a dual⁃plate transient calibration method. This method adopts a highly accurate thin⁃film platinum resistance sensor as a reference, installs a Gardon gauge to be calibrated with the sensor together on a displacement ejection mechanism, and simulates the high⁃speed flight scenario of the aircraft in the wind tunnel to achieve the calibration to the Gardon heat flux gauge under airflow conditions. Calibration experiments were conducted at a flight Mach number of 0.3 and temperatures from 100 °C to 300 °C for the developed convective heat flux measurement device. The results demonstrate that the relative expanded uncertainty is 4.2% (k = 2), and this method can effectively obtain the convective heat flux sensitivity coefficient of the Gardon heat flux meter. The dual plate transient calibration method proposed in this paper provides new ideas and approaches for high⁃temperature and high⁃speed convective heat flux calibration, significantly improving the reliability of convective heat flux measurement data and providing strong technical support for the development of hypersonic aircraft and accurate measurement of thermal loads in thermal protection systems.

, correspAuthors=Jian ZHAO, authorNote=null, correspAuthorsNote=null, copyrightStatement=null, copyrightOwner=null, extLink=null, articleAbsUrl=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, pdfUrl=null, pdf=null, pdfFileSize=null, pdfExtLink=null, richHtmlUrl=null, mobilePdfUrl=null, reviewReport=null, pdfFirstPage=null, abstractGraph=null, abstractGraphContent=null, abstractVideo=null, citation=null, cebUrl=null, magXmlContent=null, mapNumber=null, authorCompany=null, fund=null, authors=null, authorsList=Jianhua ZHENG, Jian ZHAO, Xiaolu WANG, Lintao HU, Xiangxue KONG, Yijun ZHAO), CN=ArticleExt(id=1249045456446235477, articleId=1249045449408193141, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1249024381851058248, language=CN, title=基于双平板瞬态法的对流热流校准技术研究, columnId=1249045447445258826, journalTitle=计测技术, columnName=计量、测试与校准, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

高超声速飞行器的研制及高温热防护技术均需准确的热流测量作为支撑,飞行器高速飞行时产生的剧烈气动加热以空气对流换热为主导,然而现有热流计在高温、高速极端服役环境下难以准确测量表面热载荷,导致测量准确度低,严重制约了热防护系统性能评估与材料研发。针对当前高温高速条件下热流计校准方法缺失这一问题,提出一种双平板瞬态校准方法。采用准确度更高的薄膜铂电阻传感器作为参考标准,将待校准的戈登热流计与之共同安装在位移弹射机构上,实现在气流条件下对戈登热流计的校准。基于研制的对流热流计量标准装置,在飞行马赫数0.3、100 ~ 300 ℃内开展校准试验。结果表明:该校准结果的相对扩展不确定度为4.2%(k = 2),且该方法能有效获得戈登热流计的对流热流灵敏系数。本文提出的双平板瞬态校准方法为高温高速的对流热流校准提供了新思路与新途径,显著提升了对流热流测量数据的可靠性,为高超声速飞行器研制及热防护系统热载荷的准确测量提供了有力技术支撑。

, correspAuthors=赵俭, authorNote=null, correspAuthorsNote=
赵俭
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郑建华(2002-),男,硕士研究生,主要研究方向为动态温度测量校准。

赵俭(1973-),男,研究员,博士生导师,集团一级专家,研究院特级专家,计量所专业总师、研究室主任,一级注册计量师,中国空天动力联合会试验测试与检测技术专委会委员,从事气流温度测量校准技术研究,主持科研项目20余项,获省部级、一级学会科技进步奖15项,发表论文70余篇,主持出版专著1部,主持编写标准规范6项,获授权发明专利18项。

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郑建华(2002-),男,硕士研究生,主要研究方向为动态温度测量校准。

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郑建华(2002-),男,硕士研究生,主要研究方向为动态温度测量校准。

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赵俭(1973-),男,研究员,博士生导师,集团一级专家,研究院特级专家,计量所专业总师、研究室主任,一级注册计量师,中国空天动力联合会试验测试与检测技术专委会委员,从事气流温度测量校准技术研究,主持科研项目20余项,获省部级、一级学会科技进步奖15项,发表论文70余篇,主持出版专著1部,主持编写标准规范6项,获授权发明专利18项。

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赵俭(1973-),男,研究员,博士生导师,集团一级专家,研究院特级专家,计量所专业总师、研究室主任,一级注册计量师,中国空天动力联合会试验测试与检测技术专委会委员,从事气流温度测量校准技术研究,主持科研项目20余项,获省部级、一级学会科技进步奖15项,发表论文70余篇,主持出版专著1部,主持编写标准规范6项,获授权发明专利18项。

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Calibration test result of heat flux

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
序号马赫数

气流温度

/ ℃

参考平板

总热流 /

(W / cm2)

参考平板

辐射热流 /

(W / cm2)

参考平板对流热流 /

(W / cm2)

戈登热流计电压 /

mV

校准平板辐射热流对应电压 / mV校准平板对流热流对应电压 / mV

热流计

灵敏系数 /

[mV / (W / cm2)]

10.3104.83.940.033.911.290.041.250.319
20.3105.44.020.033.991.300.041.260.315
30.3106.54.110.034.071.330.041.290.316
40.3198.513.330.1613.172.940.242.700.205
50.3199.613.610.1613.452.990.242.750.204
60.3199.713.870.1613.713.020.242.780.202
70.3301.723.370.4022.974.580.593.990.173
80.3302.324.300.4023.904.600.604.000.167
90.3302.524.410.4223.994.660.634.030.167
100.4302.332.170.3931.786.040.585.460.171
110.4302.633.560.3933.176.130.585.550.167
120.4303.533.750.3933.366.160.585.580.167
), ArticleFig(id=1249046223878038415, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1249024381851058248, articleId=1249045449408193141, language=CN, label=表1, caption=

热流校准试验结果

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
序号马赫数

气流温度

/ ℃

参考平板

总热流 /

(W / cm2)

参考平板

辐射热流 /

(W / cm2)

参考平板对流热流 /

(W / cm2)

戈登热流计电压 /

mV

校准平板辐射热流对应电压 / mV校准平板对流热流对应电压 / mV

热流计

灵敏系数 /

[mV / (W / cm2)]

10.3104.83.940.033.911.290.041.250.319
20.3105.44.020.033.991.300.041.260.315
30.3106.54.110.034.071.330.041.290.316
40.3198.513.330.1613.172.940.242.700.205
50.3199.613.610.1613.452.990.242.750.204
60.3199.713.870.1613.713.020.242.780.202
70.3301.723.370.4022.974.580.593.990.173
80.3302.324.300.4023.904.600.604.000.167
90.3302.524.410.4223.994.660.634.030.167
100.4302.332.170.3931.786.040.585.460.171
110.4302.633.560.3933.176.130.585.550.167
120.4303.533.750.3933.366.160.585.580.167
), ArticleFig(id=1249046223974507410, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1249024381851058248, articleId=1249045449408193141, language=EN, label=Tab.2, caption=

Uncertainty evaluation results

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序号引入类型数值 / %
1参考平板集总参数引入不确定度ur11.2
2参考平板表面温升率引入不确定度ur20.29
3辐射盘辐射热流引入的不确定度ur30.9
4相对合成标准不确定度ur2.1
5相对扩展不确定度Ur4.2
), ArticleFig(id=1249046224070976407, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1249024381851058248, articleId=1249045449408193141, language=CN, label=表2, caption=

不确定度评定结果

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
序号引入类型数值 / %
1参考平板集总参数引入不确定度ur11.2
2参考平板表面温升率引入不确定度ur20.29
3辐射盘辐射热流引入的不确定度ur30.9
4相对合成标准不确定度ur2.1
5相对扩展不确定度Ur4.2
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基于双平板瞬态法的对流热流校准技术研究
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郑建华 , 赵俭 1 , 王筱庐 , 胡林陶 , 孔祥雪 , 赵乂鋆
计测技术 | 计量、测试与校准 2025,45(6): 141-152
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计测技术 | 计量、测试与校准 2025, 45(6): 141-152
基于双平板瞬态法的对流热流校准技术研究
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郑建华, 赵俭1, 王筱庐, 胡林陶, 孔祥雪, 赵乂鋆
作者信息
  • 中国航空工业集团公司北京长城计量测试技术研究所,北京100095
  • 郑建华(2002-),男,硕士研究生,主要研究方向为动态温度测量校准。

    赵俭(1973-),男,研究员,博士生导师,集团一级专家,研究院特级专家,计量所专业总师、研究室主任,一级注册计量师,中国空天动力联合会试验测试与检测技术专委会委员,从事气流温度测量校准技术研究,主持科研项目20余项,获省部级、一级学会科技进步奖15项,发表论文70余篇,主持出版专著1部,主持编写标准规范6项,获授权发明专利18项。

通讯作者:

赵俭
Calibration of convective heat flux using a dual⁃plate transient method
Jianhua ZHENG, Jian ZHAO1, Xiaolu WANG, Lintao HU, Xiangxue KONG, Yijun ZHAO
Affiliations
  • AVIC Changcheng Institute of Metrology Measurement, Beijing100095, China
出版时间: 2025-12-28 doi: 10.11823/j.issn.1674-5795.2025.06.12
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高超声速飞行器的研制及高温热防护技术均需准确的热流测量作为支撑,飞行器高速飞行时产生的剧烈气动加热以空气对流换热为主导,然而现有热流计在高温、高速极端服役环境下难以准确测量表面热载荷,导致测量准确度低,严重制约了热防护系统性能评估与材料研发。针对当前高温高速条件下热流计校准方法缺失这一问题,提出一种双平板瞬态校准方法。采用准确度更高的薄膜铂电阻传感器作为参考标准,将待校准的戈登热流计与之共同安装在位移弹射机构上,实现在气流条件下对戈登热流计的校准。基于研制的对流热流计量标准装置,在飞行马赫数0.3、100 ~ 300 ℃内开展校准试验。结果表明:该校准结果的相对扩展不确定度为4.2%(k = 2),且该方法能有效获得戈登热流计的对流热流灵敏系数。本文提出的双平板瞬态校准方法为高温高速的对流热流校准提供了新思路与新途径,显著提升了对流热流测量数据的可靠性,为高超声速飞行器研制及热防护系统热载荷的准确测量提供了有力技术支撑。

对流热流测量  /  热防护  /  热流校准  /  戈登热流计  /  双平板  /  风洞试验  /  瞬态热流  /  薄膜传感器

Accurate heat flux measurement is essential for developing hypersonic vehicles and their thermal protection systems. The intense aerodynamic heating generated during high⁃speed flight of aerospace vehicles is primarily dominated by convective heat transfer. However, existing heat flux gauges struggle to accurately measure surface thermal loads under extreme high-temperature and high⁃speed conditions, resulting in low measurement accuracy and significantly constraining the performance evaluation of thermal protection systems and material development. To address the lack of reliable calibration methods for heat flux sensors under high⁃temperature and high⁃speed conditions, this study introduces a dual⁃plate transient calibration method. This method adopts a highly accurate thin⁃film platinum resistance sensor as a reference, installs a Gardon gauge to be calibrated with the sensor together on a displacement ejection mechanism, and simulates the high⁃speed flight scenario of the aircraft in the wind tunnel to achieve the calibration to the Gardon heat flux gauge under airflow conditions. Calibration experiments were conducted at a flight Mach number of 0.3 and temperatures from 100 °C to 300 °C for the developed convective heat flux measurement device. The results demonstrate that the relative expanded uncertainty is 4.2% (k = 2), and this method can effectively obtain the convective heat flux sensitivity coefficient of the Gardon heat flux meter. The dual plate transient calibration method proposed in this paper provides new ideas and approaches for high⁃temperature and high⁃speed convective heat flux calibration, significantly improving the reliability of convective heat flux measurement data and providing strong technical support for the development of hypersonic aircraft and accurate measurement of thermal loads in thermal protection systems.

convective heat flux measurement  /  thermal protection  /  heat flow calibration  /  Gordon heat flux meter  /  double⁃plate structure  /  wind tunnel test  /  transient heat flux  /  thin⁃film sensor
郑建华, 赵俭, 王筱庐, 胡林陶, 孔祥雪, 赵乂鋆. 基于双平板瞬态法的对流热流校准技术研究. 计测技术, 2025 , 45 (6) : 141 -152 . DOI: 10.11823/j.issn.1674-5795.2025.06.12
Jianhua ZHENG, Jian ZHAO, Xiaolu WANG, Lintao HU, Xiangxue KONG, Yijun ZHAO. Calibration of convective heat flux using a dual⁃plate transient method[J]. Metrology & Measurement Technology, 2025 , 45 (6) : 141 -152 . DOI: 10.11823/j.issn.1674-5795.2025.06.12
准确的对流热流测量是飞行器热防护系统性能评估的基础,直接关系到高超声速飞行器的安全运行与关键装备的寿命预测1-2
在对流传热占主导的气动加热环境中,表面热流密度是表征加热强度核心的物理参数之一,准确的表面热流密度具有三方面的重要作用:其一是地面风洞试验中验证气动热力学模型与数值模拟准确度的基础数据来源;其二是飞行试验中实时监测结构热状态、评估热防护系统性能、触发主动安全控制机制的直接输入;其三是进行热防护材料筛选与结构设计时,热载荷边界条件设定的核心依据。
目前,戈登热流计、薄膜电阻热流计、同轴热电偶等传感器是气动热环境测量的主要手段。然而,这些传感器的量值溯源或校准过程,通常依赖于在均匀流场或理想化辐射热源条件下建立的传递关系,这与飞行器表面真实的极端气动热环境存在显著差异,其中,最突出的特征是飞行器表面存在强烈停滞流,这种流态下产生的热流分布特性及与传感器的耦合作用,难以通过传统的简化校准方法真实、充分地反映出来,进而成为对流热流测量误差的重要来源3-10。因此,建立覆盖飞行器表面的典型极端流动形态(停滞流)、贴近真实服役环境的对流热流传感器高准确度校准方法与评价体系,是提升热流测量数据可靠性、支撑高超声速飞行器研制的关键环节。
对流热流校准对于高超声速飞行器尤为关键。由于高速飞行引发的剧烈气动加热效应,表面热流密度的准确获取不仅直接影响飞行器的整体性能,更是热防护系统安全性与可靠性的根本保障。热流测量的微小误差,在高速飞行的累积效应下极易引发热防护系统失效、结构烧蚀变形等灾难性后果。目前,对流热流校准应用较广泛的方法是比较鉴别法,其原理为:将标准薄膜传感器与戈登热流计共同安装在铜板上,将铜板固定在风洞喷口处,进行测量与对比。该方法仅适用于低温流场测量,因为戈登热流计与薄膜传感器在高温高速流场中时间过久易损坏元器件。虽然该方法能在一定程度上实现标定,但其校准场景往往难以准确复现真实飞行器表面的复杂流⁃固⁃热耦合边界特征。
针对我国在对流热流计量校准能力方面存在的短板,尤其是复杂流态下传感器响应的校准技术不足,导致高超声速飞行器等前沿领域的热流计难以获得有效的量值保障的现状11-14,提出一种基于双平板瞬态法的对流热流校准技术。其核心在于通过同步使用参考平板和校准平板,在瞬态热冲击过程中实现热流量的直接对比和量值传递,凭借独特的双平板协同设计、瞬态热流分离技术和真实环境模拟能力,实现热流计在更贴近真实服役环境下的校准。
在校准戈登热流计时,需要风洞为被校戈登热流计提供一个可在一定工况范围内连续调节的均匀、稳定的热流场。纯净的空气介质经过电磁加热器升温后,经过扩压段扩压减速,在稳定段整流、在收缩段进行加速,再进入试验段,并达到试验要求的指定马赫数和指定温度的稳定气流。通过位移弹射机构固定参考平板和校准平板,利用风洞模拟真实气动加热环境,通过精确控制平板插入时序,使参考平板与校准平板进入以及离开风场的速度达到毫秒级,实现对戈登热流计的对流热流校准。
基于半无限大物体的假设,通过测量平板表面薄膜铂电阻传感器的温度变化来获得热流,但是实际上绝对的半无限大物体并不存在。将1块初始温度均匀的有限厚度平板在初始阶段视为半无限大物体,其物理本质在于:当平板一侧表面突然受到热扰动(加热或冷却)时,在扰动发生的初始阶段,热渗透深度仅局限在表面附近的薄层内,尚未波及平板的另一侧(背面)。此时,平板背面的存在对当前关注的表面附近的热过程没有影响,因此可以忽略平板的有限厚度,将其等效为向内部无限延伸的半无限大物体。
判断半无限大模型是否适用于有限厚度平板,主要依据2个核心判据:傅里叶数判据与热渗透深度判据。
傅里叶数判据是最常用和最严格的判据,傅里叶数定义为
F=ατδ2
式中:F为表征非稳态导热过程进行深度的无量纲数,α为材料的热扩散系数,τ为时间,δ为平板的半厚度。
F 0.06,可以认为平板中心面(x = δ)的温度变化尚不显著(变化小于5%),此时应用半无限大模型是合理的。
热渗透深度判据是热扰动从表面向内部传播的深度,热渗透深度可近似估算为4ατ4ατ。当热渗透深度小于平板厚度δ,即二者比值大小β远小于1时,平板背面的边界条件对表面附近的热过程影响可忽略,可采用半无限大平板模型。
假设存在一个半无限大固体,如图1所示。除x方向外,其他方向可以无限延伸。当表面温度条件发生变化,固体内部将发生瞬态一维导热。
假设半无限大固体初始均匀温度为T0,如果从x = 0处输入阶跃热流q,则半无限大固体在x = 0时的温度开始变化,其内部传热过程可以用一维瞬态热传递方程来描述,如式(2)和式(3)所示。
Tt=α2Tx2
α=kρcp
设其边界条件为
t=0, T(x,  0)=0
x=0, q(0,  t)=-kTx
式中:Tx,0)为初始时刻x位置的温度,q(0,t)为t时刻表面输入热流,T为半无限大固体表面温度,α为热扩散系数,ρ为传热介质的密度,cp为平板材料的比热容,k为传热介质的导热系数。
T(x,  t)=1πρcpk0tq(0,  τ)t-τexp[-x2(4k / ρcP)(t-τ)]dτ
相应地,在x = 0位置,壁面温度T(0,t)和热流q(0,t)分别为
T(0,  t)=1πρcpk0tq(0,  τ)t-τdτ
q(0,  t)=ρcpkπ0tdT(0,  t)dt1t-τdτ
为简化计算过程,将式(8)进行变换,得到
q(0,  t)=ρcpkπT(t)t+120tT(t)-T(τ)(t-τ)32dτ
但是在实际试验中,当Tt)为简单的特殊函数时,式(9)才可用于半无限大试验。由于实际得到的Tt)为传感器信号输出的离散数据点,要在极小等时间间隔内利用分段线性函数逼近原始的温度⁃时间曲线。为便于编程计算,可以通过式(10)进行处理。
q(tn)=2ρcpkπi=1nTi-Ti-1tn-ti+tn-ti-1
式中:t为薄膜铂电阻换热时间,τ为任意时刻时间,Tt)为t时刻平板表面温度。
可利用表面的温度响应数据计算出平板表面的瞬态热流密度,其数值稳定性决定了计算过程中误差(测量噪声、 舍入误差)是否会被放大,直接对离散的温度数据求导会剧烈放大数据中的高频噪声,导致热流计算结果严重失真甚至发散,式(10)中的Ti - Ti⁃1为差分项,其包含了噪声。该表达式本质为对全部历史差分的加权求和,权重部分随着i接近n而增大,意味着近期的温度变化对当前热流影响更大,而早期噪声的影响被“平均”和“稀释”了。这种结构比直接差分法更稳定,若温度测量数据Ti的信噪比极低、噪声非常显著时,计算结果仍会出现波动,因此需要对原始温度数据进行适当的平滑滤波预处理。
式(10)的截断误差主要来自每个时间区间[ti - ti-1]中用直线段来近似真实的温度变化曲线Tt)。当时间步长Δt减半时,整体计算误差也会减半,因此时间步长Δt越小,计算结果越精确,更小的Δt意味着更密集的离散点,使得分段线性近似更接近真实的光滑温度曲线。当步长过大时,线性近似误差很大,无法捕捉温度的快速变化,精度很低。随着步长减小,精度会迅速提升。对于大多数热传导过程,尤其是在瞬态开始时(表面受到热冲击),温度变化非常迅速,需要足够小的步长以“捕捉”到这种快速变化,相比更粗的步长能显著提高精度,尤其是在温度急剧变化的区域。
直接使用原始采样间隔作为计算步长是最直接、最可靠的方法,因为它最大限度地保留了原始信息,避免了插值引入的额外误差。此外,对于半无限大平板模型,保持一维导热的有效时间很短,0.02 s的步长意味着系统每秒钟能提供50个数据点。将步长缩短至0.01 s后,计算结果与0.02 s步长的差异小于1%,继续减小步长对提升最终结果的精度已经没有实际意义,因此0.02 s的步长是最优选择15-20
热流传递是能量转移的物理过程,主要通过热传导、热对流、热辐射3种方式进行传递。辐射热流密度可以通过校准试验得到,其基本定律由斯特藩⁃玻尔兹曼定律描述,即
E=εσT4
式中:E为物体单位表面积向外发射的辐射出度;ε为物体表面的发射率,是理想黑体的接近程度;σ为斯特藩⁃玻尔兹曼常数,σ = 5.67 × 10⁻⁸ W / (m²·K⁴);T为半无限大固体表面温度。
辐射盘表面单位面积向外发射的辐射能如式(12)所示。
Es=εsσTs4
式中:Es为辐射盘单位表面积向外发射的辐射出度,εs为辐射盘表面的发射率,Ts为辐射盘表面的绝对温度。
然而,辐射源发射的能量并非全部落在参考平板上,从辐射源到参考平板的表面的角系数为Fsw,因此从辐射源单位表面积出发,最终到达参考平板的辐射出度如式(13)所示。
Esw=εsσTs4Fsw
式中:Esw为辐射盘向参考平板发射的辐射出度,Fsw为辐射源到参考平板表面的角系数。
参考平板辐射能量计算方法与式(13),同理,由于角系数具有互易性,可得
AsFsw=AwFws
式中:As为辐射盘表面积,Aw为参考平板表面积,Fws为参考平板到辐射盘表面的角系数。
当参考平板与辐射盘的面积相同时,二者的角系数也相同,可以得到
Ews=εwσTw4Fsw
因此,参考平板接受的净辐射热流如式(16)所示。
qr=σ(εsTs4-εwTw4)Fsw
式中:εw为参考平板表面发射率,Tw为参考平板表面绝对温度。
对于放置在风洞出口处的参考平板,其上热流通过式(10)进行计算求解,可以得到不同时刻的总热流密度q,其中,平板密度ρ、平板比热容cp平板导热系数k可以经过查表获得。由于ρc与温度有关,应用时需根据不同的温度选取。将不同时刻采集到的平板表面温度经滤波处理后进行多项式拟合,形成表面温度对时间的函数Tτ)。在总热流密度q中减去辐射热流密度qr后,可得到对流热流密度qc,如式(17)所示。
qc=q-qr
对流热流与对流换热系数、绝热壁温(气流有效温度)和表面温度的关系为
qc=h(Taw-Tw)
式中:h为平板的对流换热系数;Taw为壁面热流密度为0 kW / m2时的理论壁面温度,即气流有效温度;Tw为参考平板表面绝对温度。
hTw赋值给校准平板,计算校准平板上对流热流的标准值。校准平板采用与戈登热流计相同的材料,其表面发射率已知。由于校准平板与被校戈登热流计的材料相同,可以保证校准平板与被校戈登热流计的表面温度相等,对流热流也相等。根据Tw以及由参考平板赋值过来的hTw,由式(17)计算校准平板上的对流热流,作为参考标准值。
辐射热流对应的电压为
Vr=qrSr
式中:Vr为校准平板上辐射热流所对应的电压,Sr为戈登热流计的辐射热流灵敏系数。
热流计的对流热流灵敏系数如式(20)所示。
Sc=Vtotal-Vrqc
式中:Vtotal为校准平板上总热流所对应的电压,Sc为戈登热流计的对流热流灵敏系数。
对流热流校准装置使用的风洞装置在航空工业北京长城计量测试技术研究所的RD02风洞上进行安装,风洞气流马赫数为0.1 ~ 0.95。RD02风洞外壁表面包裹了一层保温结构,并从电磁加热器之后的部段进行包裹,可以使风洞加热后的气流温度稳定,温度场分布均匀,也可减少通过风洞壁面向环境中的散热,进而降低校准热流计中温度损失对校准结果的影响。图2为对流热流校准风洞稳定段与试验段示意图。
戈登热流计安装在风洞试验段出口的位置上,以位移弹射机构夹持。为使戈登热流计接收的气流流速、温度稳定,在位移弹射机构弹射戈登热流计时,调整位移弹射机构的位置,使其受感部分置于试验段的中轴线上。对流热流校准装置如图3所示。
校准装置由空压机组、干燥器、过滤器、气罐组、调节阀、电加热系统、扩压段、稳定段、喷管、位移弹射机构、平板、消音塔、风洞控制系统、数据采集处理系统等组成。空压机组、干燥器、过滤器、气罐组、调节阀用于提供满足一定流量、压力和品质要求的空气。电加热系统用于为装置中的气流加热,为戈登热流计和参考薄膜铂电阻传感器提供满足要求的热流;扩压段用于扩压减速,将气流的动能恢复为压力能,减少管道内的能量损失;稳定段的作用是保证达到喷管的气流方向平直速度均匀分布,从而保证装置的流场品质,同时稳定段还可以通过增加热容,减小装置的气流温度波动;喷管的作用是将稳定段来的气流加速,并使得在喷管出口得到所需的气流速度;位移弹射机构用于快速移动平板;平板为参考薄膜铂电阻传感器、戈登热流计的载体;消音塔内部装有消声器、导流片和吸声材料,用于大幅降低排气噪声,使其达到环保和安全标准,同时,也是气流的最终排放通道,将实验后的气体安全导向大气;风洞控制系统负责协调和控制整个装置的运行流程,按顺序启停空压机组、精确调节气路的压力和流量阀、设定和控制电加热系统的温度;数据采集处理系统采集来自戈登热流计、参考薄膜铂电阻传感器以及其他所有监控传感器的信号。
戈登热流计型号12⁃60SB⁃38⁃36⁃20841、序列号353752,其辐射热流灵敏度为0.746 4 mV / (W / cm2),量程为0 ~ 60 W / cm2,吸收率为0.92,相对扩展不确定度为3%(k = 2)。
图4为参考平板实物和设计图,图5为校准平板实物和设计图。参考平板以及校准平板表面的薄膜铂电阻传感器均在中国航发北京航空材料研究院镀制。
根据上述校准原理和校准装置,以计算被校戈登热流计的对流热流灵敏系数为需求,设计对流热流校准流程。校准流程第一阶段如图6所示。
1)参考平板总热流的计算
在位移弹射机构上安装参考平板和校准平板,二者分别位于风洞中心中轴线两侧。调节位移弹射机构参考平板使其正对风洞出口,对其进行瞬态热冲击,并计算参考平板的理论总热流。
2)参考平板辐射热流的计算
对设计的可控辐射盘以及参考平板表面电阻进行采集,计算参考平板表面的辐射热流。
3)参考平板对流热流的计算
总热流由辐射热流和对流热流构成,去掉参考平板表面上的辐射热流,可以得到参考平板表面的对流热流。
4)数据的拟合
对不同时刻数据进行拟合,得到参考平板的对流换热系数及恢复壁温。
校准流程第二阶段如图7所示。
1)总热流对应电压的采集
调节位移弹射机构的校准平板,使其正对风洞出口,进行瞬态热冲击,戈登热流计通过数据采集装置可以采集到总热流对应的电压。
2)校准平板辐射热流的计算
采集可控辐射盘及校准平板的表面电阻,计算校准平板表面上的辐射热流。
3)校准平板辐射热流对应电压的计算
将辐射热流与戈登热流计的辐射热流灵敏系数相除,可以得到校准平板表面辐射热流所对应的电压。
4)校准平板对流热流对应电压的计算
校准平板总热流对应的电压减去校准平板辐射热流对应电压,可以得到校准平板对流热流对应的电压。
5)戈登热流计对流热流灵敏系数的计算
校准平板对流热流对应的电压除以参考平板得到的对流热流,可以得到戈登热流计的对流热流灵敏系数。
在对流热流校准试验中,采用瞬态校准方法,通过风洞模拟高超声速飞行器表面的停滞流环境,校准试验现场如图8所示。
试验选取了3个典型温度点(100、200、300 ℃)和2个马赫数Ma(0.3、 0.4),以覆盖高温高速条件下的典型工况。每个温度点下,通过位移弹射机构依次将参考平板和校准平板置于风洞试验段中心轴线,使它们接受稳定气流的瞬态热冲击。数据采集系统实时记录平板表面薄膜铂电阻的温度变化,并基于热平衡模型,通过式(10)计算瞬态热流。
数据处理基于半无限大平板假设,通过温度⁃时间曲线拟合和热流积分计算,分离辐射热流,最终得到参考平板对流热流。
根据半无限大平板模型判断依据,半无限大平板模型的有效性依赖于短暂的时间窗口:因为真实平板厚度有限,半无限大平板假设仅在一段较短时间内成立。在参考平板及校准平板的正反两面都布置了多支薄膜铂电阻传感器,当高温高速气流开始冲击参考平板与校准平板时,平板正对气流面的温度开始升高。在平板模型的背面温度不变时,半无限大平板模型成立;当平板模型背面温度开始升高,半无限大平板模型失效。
通过各工况条件下的热流对比图,可以直观展示参考平板与校准平板的热流响应一致性。
图9为100 ℃、Ma= 0.3时参考平板总热流和戈登计总热流对比图。在100 ℃的起始阶段,参考平板的热流响应清晰地体现了以对流为主导的传热机制。参考平板与戈登计的总热流迅速升高,辐射换热的影响微乎其微。根据式(16)计算的参考平板辐射热流仅有0.03 W / cm2左右,在1.0 ~ 1.2 s中,戈登计总热流与参考平板的总热流相对偏差为6.7%,通过试验验证了所述半无限大平板模型在温和、单纯的换热条件下具有良好的适用性,为整个校准方法建立了可靠的初始状态。
图10为200 ℃、Ma = 0.3时参考平板总热流和戈登计总热流对比图。当温度升至200 ℃,可计算出辐射热流为0.16 W / cm2左右,辐射热流的贡献显著增强,其在总热流中的占比提高,在1.0 ~ 1.2 s中,戈登计总热流与参考平板的总热流相对偏差为9.7%,热流曲线的形态更趋复杂,但曲线总体与100 ℃、Ma = 0.3时的趋势相似。
图11为300 ℃、Ma = 0.3时参考平板总热流和戈登计总热流对比图。在300 ℃下,总热流值大幅跃升,反映出强烈的气动加热效应,辐射热流为0.4 W / cm2左右,辐射热流显著增加,其在总热流中的占比提高,表明辐射传热已成为能量传递中不可忽视的重要组成部分。这种变化使得热流曲线的形态更为复杂,也预示着在高温条件下,平板材料的热物性参数随温度的变化,以及对流⁃辐射耦合作用的增强,都可能成为影响模型计算准确性的关键因素。在1.0 ~ 1.2 s中,戈登计总热流与参考平板的总热流相对偏差为11.1%。
图12为300 ℃、Ma = 0.4时参考平板总热流、戈登热流计总热流图。与300 ℃、Ma = 0.3的试验结果不同的是:参考平板总热流密度值跃升至35 W / cm2左右,反映出强烈的气动加热效应,在1.0 ~ 1.2 s,戈登计总热流与参考平板的总热流相对偏差为12.9%,对比Ma = 0.3,相对偏差增大。
表1为热流校准试验结果。随着气流温度从104.8 ℃升高至302.5 ℃,参考平板所承受的总热流从3.94 W / cm²非线性急剧增长至24.41 W / cm²,这直观体现了气动加热效应随温度升高而剧烈增强的特性。同时,辐射热流的绝对值也从0.03 W / cm²增加至0.40 W / cm²左右,其占总热流的比例从不足0.8%上升至约1.7%。这一变化虽小,但符合斯特藩⁃玻尔兹曼定律,表明在高温条件下,精确进行辐射热流分离对于获得纯净的对流热流愈发重要。
参考平板的对流热流(由总热流减去辐射热流得出)构成了校准的标准值,其显著增长是高温高速气流与平板表面强烈对流换热的结果。戈登热流计采用康铜作为敏感栅材料,康铜的导热系数随温度升高会下降,导致相同热流输入下敏感栅的温升响应减弱,直接表现为灵敏系数下降。金属材料的比热容通常随温度升高缓慢增加(康铜的比热容从100 ℃到300 ℃增加约5%),进一步延缓了温升响应速度,加剧了灵敏系数的下降。试验数据显示:戈登热流计的对流热流灵敏系数的数值从100 ℃工况下的0.317 mV / (W / cm²)逐渐下降至300 ℃工况下的0.170 mV / (W / cm²)。这一单调递减趋势具有明确的物理意义,通常与戈登计传感元件材料的导热系数随温度升高而降低的特性有关,导热系数下降会导致传感器对相同热流的温升响应减弱,从而表现为灵敏度的降低。
在300 °C固定温度下,马赫数Ma从0.3增至0.4,参考平板的总热流平均增幅约为37%(从24 W / cm²升至33 W / cm²),结果符合气动加热理论,流速增加导致动能转化为热能,强化了对流换热效应。辐射热流占比仍较低,表明对流主导的传热机制未变,但总热流升高加剧了表面热负荷。马赫数0.4下对流热流占比超过98%,与马赫数0.3一致,马赫数0.4下热流密度显著提升,但灵敏系数趋势一致,校准方法在扩展工况下仍有效,验证了半无限大平板模型在高速条件下同样适用。
在相同马赫数不同温度点与在相同温度点不同马赫数进行的多次试验表明:戈登热流计的对流热流灵敏系数表现出高度的一致性,这充分验证了所提出校准装置和方法的优异重复性与稳定性。
根据上述的对流热流校准装置以及式(7),不确定度的来源包括:参考平板集总参数测量引入的标准不确定度分量;参考平板表面温升率测量误差引入的标准不确定度分量;辐射盘辐射热流引入的标准不确定度分量。
对流热流引入的不确定度如式(21)所示。
u(qc)=u2(q)+u2(qr)
对流热流引入的相对不确定度为
ur(qc)=(qqc)2ur2(q)+(qrqc)2ur2(qr)
f(T)=T(t)t+120tT(t)-T(τ)(t-τ)32dτf(T)=T(t)t+12∫0tT(t)-T(τ)(t-τ)32dτ,结合式(8)可得总热流引入的相对不确定度分量为
ur(q)=14πur2(ρcλ)+1πur2(f(T))
u(f(T))=u2(T(t))t+u2(T(t))+u2(T(τ))4(t-τ)3
u(T(t))=u(T(τ))u(T(t))=u(T(τ)),式(24)可转化为
u(f(T))=u2(T(t))t+u2(T(t))2(t-τ)3       =1t+12(t-τ)3u(T(t))
ur(f(T))=1t+12(t-τ)3u(T(t))f(T)
各不确定度如下:
1)参考平板集总参数综合标定,其误差换算成热流,为± 2%。按均匀分布考虑,则参考平板集总参数引入的不确定度ur1
ur1=2%3=1.2%
2)参考平板表面温升率测量误差为± 0.5%,按均匀分布考虑,则参考平板表面温升率测量误差引入的不确定度ur2
ur2=0.5%3=0.29%
3)辐射盘辐射热流引入标准不确定度为± 1.6%,按均匀分布考虑,则辐射盘辐射热流引入的不确定度ur3
ur3=1.6%3=0.9%
4)计算装置的相对合成标准不确定度。取总热流q = 30 W / cm2,辐射热流qr = 0.4 W / cm2,由于各分量之间不相关,结合式(23)和式(24)计算装置的相对合成标准不确定度ur
ur=(qqc)2ur2(q)+(qrqc)2ur32=2.1%
5)计算装置的相对扩展不确定度。取包含因子k = 2,则装置的相对扩展不确定度Ur
Ur=4.2%
对流热流计量标准装置测量不确定度各因素的评定结果,如表2所示。
不确定度分析结果表明:双平板瞬态校准方法在高温高速环境下具有优异的测量准确度(扩展不确定度4.2%)。
为了解决目前高温高速条件下热流计校准方法的缺失问题,提出一种双平板瞬态校准方法,得到的结论如下:
1)双平板瞬态校准方法通过同步比对参考平板与被校戈登热流计,在模拟停滞流环境下(马赫数0.3 ~ 0.4、温度100 ~ 300 ℃)实现了校准。该方法突破了传统校准技术难以复现真实流⁃固⁃热耦合边界的局限,为复杂流态下的热流计量提供了新途径。
2)实验结果表明:该方法能够准确获得戈登热流计的对流热流灵敏系数,其值随温度升高呈现规律性变化,从100 ℃时的0.317 mV / (W / cm²)降至300 ℃时的0.170 mV / (W / cm²),且各温度点测量重复性良好,校准系统的相对扩展不确定度为4.2%(k = 2)。此不确定度源于半无限大平板传热模型和辐射热流分离算法的优化,证实了该方法在高温高速条件下的鲁棒性,为高超声速飞行器热防护系统的量值溯源提供了可靠支撑。
3)研制的校准装置运行稳定,基于瞬态热平衡理论建立的数学模型能够准确描述停滞流热传递过程。通过半无限大平板假设和辐射热流分离算法的有机结合,实现了对流热流的标准量值复现,为高超声速飞行器热防护系统的热载荷评估提供了有效的计量手段。
4)当前方法在校准效率方面仍存在提升空间,主要体现在热平衡时间较长。后续研究将重点优化加热控制系统和数据处理算法,缩短校准周期;同时拓展该方法在更高马赫数工况下的适用性,并开发自适应辐射热流分离模型,进一步提升校准精度和工程适用性。
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doi: 10.11823/j.issn.1674-5795.2025.06.12
  • 接收时间:2025-11-20
  • 首发时间:2026-04-09
  • 出版时间:2025-12-28
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  • 收稿日期:2025-11-20
  • 修回日期:2025-12-03
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    中国航空工业集团公司北京长城计量测试技术研究所,北京100095

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赵俭
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2种不同金属材料的力学参数

Family
属数
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genus
种数
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占总种数比例
Percentage of
total species (%)

Genus
种数
Number of
species
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Percentage of total
species (%)
鹅膏菌科Amanitaceae 2 11 5.26 鹅膏菌属 Amanita 10 4.78
小菇科 Mycenaceae 2 12 5.74 丝盖伞属 Inocybe 5 2.39
多孔菌科 Polyporaceae 8 14 6.70 蜡蘑属 Laccaria 5 2.39
红菇科 Russulaceae 3 23 11.00 小皮伞属 Marasmius 6 2.87
小菇属 Mycena 11 5.26
光柄菇属 Pluteus 5 2.39
红菇属 Russula 17 8.13
栓菌属 Trametes 5 2.39
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