Article(id=1246840126245065391, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, issueId=1246840121887187126, articleNumber=null, orderNo=null, doi=10.3969/j.issn.0253-4193.2019.09.011, pmid=null, cstr=null, oa=null, hot=null, price=null, onlineType=0, articleFormat=0, articleType=null, articleTypeStr=research-article, receivedDate=1538236800000, receivedDateStr=2018-09-30, revisedDate=1543075200000, revisedDateStr=2018-11-25, acceptedDate=null, acceptedDateStr=null, onlineDate=1775199451266, onlineDateStr=2026-04-03, pubDate=1569340800000, pubDateStr=2019-09-25, doiRegisterDate=null, doiRegisterDateStr=null, onlineIssueDate=1775199451266, onlineIssueDateStr=2026-04-03, onlineJustAcceptDate=null, onlineJustAcceptDateStr=null, onlineFirstDate=null, onlineFirstDateStr=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, createTime=1775199451266, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1775199451266, updator=13701087609, issue=Issue{id=1246840121887187126, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, year='2019', volume='41', issue='9', pageStart='1', pageEnd='190', issueExtLink='null', onlineDate='null', pubDate='null', beforeIssueId=null, nextIssueId=null, price=null, status=1, issueComplete=1, articleOrder=1, issueType=-1, specialIssue=null, createTime=1775199450227, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1775200621889, updator=13701087609, preIssue=null, nextIssue=null, ext={EN=IssueExt(id=1246845036290265802, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, issueId=1246840121887187126, language=EN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=), CN=IssueExt(id=1246845036290265803, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, issueId=1246840121887187126, language=CN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=)}, issueFiles=null}, startPage=114, endPage=125, ext={EN=ArticleExt(id=1246840126748381881, articleId=1246840126245065391, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, language=EN, title=The winter-to-winter recurrence in the North Pacific air-sea system: IPCC-AR4 model evaluation, columnId=1243867131083862618, journalTitle=Haiyang Xuebao, columnName=Physical Oceanography, Marine Meteorology and Marine Physics, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

Winter-to-winter recurrence (WWR) is an important persistence characteristic of large-scale sea surface temperature anomalies (SSTAs) in middle-high latitude, which is a unique phenomenon of the extratropical ocean. Its influence on extratropical climate change can not be ignored. WWR also exist in the atmosphere in the North Pacific Ocean, which could induce SSTAs WWR. In this paper, the WWRs of the air-sea system in the North Pacific are evaluated using the model output of 23 coupled models of CMIP in IPCC 4th assessment. Observational results show that, SSTAs WWR occurs over most of the basin of North Pacific, but the recurrence timing is in winter in the central and in fall in other regions. The atmospheric WWR is mainly located in central North Pacific, which is essential for the occurrence of the SSTAs WWR. Most of models can simulate the basinwide SSTAs WWR, but they can’t reproduce the geographical distribution of recurrence timing well. Compared with the SSTAs, little skill is shown in the WWR of the atmospheric circulation in most models. Moreover, the possible effect of the atmospheric WWR on the SSTAs WWR is not reflected in these coupled models. The coupling model has yet to be improved for simulating the atmospheric WWR in the North Pacific.

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冬季重现(再现)是中高纬度大尺度海表温度重要的持续性特征,是热带外海洋特有的现象。北太平洋大气环流也存在这一现象,它可能会强迫产生这一海域海温的冬季重现。本文利用IPCC 20C3M耦合模式资料,评估了耦合模式模拟北太平洋海–气系统冬季重现的能力。北太平洋海温冬季重现的空间范围是海盆尺度的,中部重现时间比其周围晚。大气环流场的冬季重现主要是在北太平洋中部,它与海温冬季重现关系密切。大多数IPCC耦合模式基本上可以模拟出太平洋海温大范围的冬季重现现象。与重现范围的模拟相比,耦合模式对重现时间地理差异的模拟都比较差。各模式对大气环流冬季重现时空分布特征的模拟较差,大部分模式未能模拟出大气环流场中主要的重现区域。而且,大气环流冬季重现对海温重现的可能影响并没有体现在这些耦合模式中。耦合模式对北太平洋大气冬季重现的模拟还有待改善。

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赵霞(1981—),河南省偃师县人,副研究员,主要从事大尺度海气相互作用及数值模拟研究。E-mail:

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赵霞(1981—),河南省偃师县人,副研究员,主要从事大尺度海气相互作用及数值模拟研究。E-mail:

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赵霞(1981—),河南省偃师县人,副研究员,主要从事大尺度海气相互作用及数值模拟研究。E-mail:

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winter-to-winter recurrence in the North Pacific Ocean for the starting month of February

The shading is the winter-to-winter recurrence timing, dark (light) shading indicates the recurrence timing is in winter (fall)

, figureFileSmall=LlicYBjGrNk51z4s4nYKlg==, figureFileBig=gksWzkAwIZgdwwFol5nsRw==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1254506250436272450, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, articleId=1246840126245065391, language=CN, label=图1, caption=北太平洋海温冬季重现的时空分布(起始月为2月)

图中的阴影表示重现时间,浅色为秋季(10–12月),深色为冬季(1–3月)

, figureFileSmall=LlicYBjGrNk51z4s4nYKlg==, figureFileBig=gksWzkAwIZgdwwFol5nsRw==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1254506250742456646, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, articleId=1246840126245065391, language=EN, label=Fig. 2, caption=Lag correlations of the sea surface temperature anomalies of three locations in the North Pacific Ocean for the starting month of February

The thin solid line indicates the 95% confidence level

, figureFileSmall=fmdNbijQ/Z8WWrHBGlTUhg==, figureFileBig=cYnhJhfwU77yOyip+v+nDA==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1254506252688613709, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, articleId=1246840126245065391, language=CN, label=图2, caption=北太平洋3个格点海温异常滞后相关曲线(2月为起始月)

图中的直线表示95%置信水平

, figureFileSmall=fmdNbijQ/Z8WWrHBGlTUhg==, figureFileBig=cYnhJhfwU77yOyip+v+nDA==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1254506252961243472, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, articleId=1246840126245065391, language=EN, label=Fig. 3, caption=Spatiotemporal distribution of the winter-to-winter recurrence of atmospheric circulation anomalies in the North Pacific Ocean

a. Sea level pressure anomalies; b. 500 hPa geopotential height anomalies; c. 200 hPa geopotential height anomalies. The shading is the winter-to-winter recurrence timing, dark (light) shading indicates the recurrence timing is winter (fall)

, figureFileSmall=wtOTOz7VRYMFL7ca68XMEg==, figureFileBig=kGt+Mm6jGvZSV/z9FqkHHA==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1254506253145792852, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, articleId=1246840126245065391, language=CN, label=图3, caption=北太平洋大气环流冬季重现的时空分布

a. 海平面气压异常场; b. 500 hPa位势高度异常场; c. 200 hPa位势高度异常场。图中的阴影表示重现时间,浅色为秋季,深色为冬季

, figureFileSmall=wtOTOz7VRYMFL7ca68XMEg==, figureFileBig=kGt+Mm6jGvZSV/z9FqkHHA==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1254506253519085912, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, articleId=1246840126245065391, language=EN, label=Fig. 4, caption=Correlation coefficient between the sea level pressure anomalies in the central North Pacific Ocean and the sea surface temperature anomalies in the North Pacific Ocean in winter

The light (dark) shading indicates negative (positive) correlation coefficient values with a confidence level higher than 95%

, figureFileSmall=GihOZySXsUC67MWA128PaA==, figureFileBig=ihrQkdtJHz6enABY3B7L1A==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1254506253741384028, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, articleId=1246840126245065391, language=CN, label=图4, caption=冬季北太平洋中部海平面气压与北太平洋海温的相关

浅(深)色阴影表示负(正)相关系数大于95%置信水平

, figureFileSmall=GihOZySXsUC67MWA128PaA==, figureFileBig=ihrQkdtJHz6enABY3B7L1A==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1254506253942710623, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, articleId=1246840126245065391, language=EN, label=Fig. 5, caption=Spatiotemporal distribution of the sea surface temperature anomalies winter-to-winter recurrence in the North Pacific Ocean based on the observation data and 23 climate models, figureFileSmall=7YisqPSq7OctIdC6wx9cMg==, figureFileBig=+aENXakgX0okD4o7wZAkpA==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1254506254223728995, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, articleId=1246840126245065391, language=CN, label=图5, caption=观测与23个模式模拟的北太平洋海温冬季重现的时空分布, figureFileSmall=7YisqPSq7OctIdC6wx9cMg==, figureFileBig=+aENXakgX0okD4o7wZAkpA==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1254506254597022054, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, articleId=1246840126245065391, language=EN, label=Fig. 6, caption=Persisitence of the sea surface temperature anomalies in the central North Pacific Ocean based on the observation data and 23 climate models, figureFileSmall=XBCeipjjL0sJO2Z14m67fg==, figureFileBig=VwZs+eob6LkyMw4LOHE/SQ==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1254506254781571433, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, articleId=1246840126245065391, language=CN, label=图6, caption=观测与23个模式模拟的北太平洋中部海温的持续性特征, figureFileSmall=XBCeipjjL0sJO2Z14m67fg==, figureFileBig=VwZs+eob6LkyMw4LOHE/SQ==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1254506254949343596, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, articleId=1246840126245065391, language=EN, label=Fig. 7, caption=Spatiotemporal distribution of the sea level pressure anomalies winter-to-winter recurrence of in the North Pacific Ocean based on the observation data and 23 climate models, figureFileSmall=q8Y0DAgKVu9m5W3Cy85wHw==, figureFileBig=siBUp2/00oU1BFNWCWsJ2w==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1254506255108727151, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, articleId=1246840126245065391, language=CN, label=图7, caption=观测与23个模式模拟的海平面气压场冬季重现的时空分布, figureFileSmall=q8Y0DAgKVu9m5W3Cy85wHw==, figureFileBig=siBUp2/00oU1BFNWCWsJ2w==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1254506255205196145, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, articleId=1246840126245065391, language=EN, label=Fig. 8, caption=Correlation coefficient between the sea level pressure anomalies in the central North Pacific Ocean and the sea surface temperature anomalies in the North Pacific Ocean in winter based on the observation data and 23 climate models, figureFileSmall=SRyD9hGal6om8M4Km3JXkg==, figureFileBig=oo62QCzCTOmTsZ1qpju8SQ==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1254506255339413876, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, articleId=1246840126245065391, language=CN, label=图8, caption=观测与23个模式模拟的冬季北太平洋中部海平面气压异常与北太平洋海温异常的相关, figureFileSmall=SRyD9hGal6om8M4Km3JXkg==, figureFileBig=oo62QCzCTOmTsZ1qpju8SQ==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1254506257021329785, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, articleId=1246840126245065391, language=EN, label=Table 1, caption=

Descriptions of 23 models in the IPCC AR4 20C3M archives

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
所属单位 国家 耦合模式
皮叶克尼斯气候研究中心 挪威 BCCR-BCM2.0
美国国家大气研究中心 美国 CCSM3
气候模拟与分析中心 加拿大 CGCM3.1-T47
气候模拟与分析中心 加拿大 CGCM3.1-T63
国家气象中心 法国 CNRM-CM3
联邦科学与工业研究组织 澳大利亚 CSIRO-Mk3.0
马普气象研究所 德国 ECHAM5/MPI-OM
波恩大学气象研究所/韩国气象局 德国/韩国 ECHO-G
大气物理研究所 中国 FGOALS-g1.0
国家大气海洋局地球物理流体力 学实验室 美国 GFDL-CM2.0
国家大气海洋局地球物理流体力 学实验室 美国 GFDL-CM2.1
国家航空航天局/戈达德空间研究所 美国 GISS-AOM
国家航空航天局/戈达德空间研究所 美国 GISS-EH
国家航空航天局/戈达德空间研究所 美国 GISS-ER
地球和火山科学研究所 意大利 INGV-SXG
数值数学研究所 俄罗斯 INM-CM3.0
皮埃尔西蒙拉普拉斯研究所 法国 IPSL-CM4
国家研究所气候系统研究中心 日本 MIROC3.2-hires
国家研究所气候系统研究中心 日本 MIROC3.2-medres
气象研究所 日本 MRI-CGCM2.3.2
国家大气研究中心 美国 PCM
哈德莱气候预测与研究中心 英国 UKMO-HadCM3
哈德莱气候预测与研究中心 英国 UKMO-HadGEM1
), ArticleFig(id=1254506257138770298, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, articleId=1246840126245065391, language=CN, label=表1, caption=

参加IPCC AR4 20C3M的23个耦合模式的基本情况

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
所属单位 国家 耦合模式
皮叶克尼斯气候研究中心 挪威 BCCR-BCM2.0
美国国家大气研究中心 美国 CCSM3
气候模拟与分析中心 加拿大 CGCM3.1-T47
气候模拟与分析中心 加拿大 CGCM3.1-T63
国家气象中心 法国 CNRM-CM3
联邦科学与工业研究组织 澳大利亚 CSIRO-Mk3.0
马普气象研究所 德国 ECHAM5/MPI-OM
波恩大学气象研究所/韩国气象局 德国/韩国 ECHO-G
大气物理研究所 中国 FGOALS-g1.0
国家大气海洋局地球物理流体力 学实验室 美国 GFDL-CM2.0
国家大气海洋局地球物理流体力 学实验室 美国 GFDL-CM2.1
国家航空航天局/戈达德空间研究所 美国 GISS-AOM
国家航空航天局/戈达德空间研究所 美国 GISS-EH
国家航空航天局/戈达德空间研究所 美国 GISS-ER
地球和火山科学研究所 意大利 INGV-SXG
数值数学研究所 俄罗斯 INM-CM3.0
皮埃尔西蒙拉普拉斯研究所 法国 IPSL-CM4
国家研究所气候系统研究中心 日本 MIROC3.2-hires
国家研究所气候系统研究中心 日本 MIROC3.2-medres
气象研究所 日本 MRI-CGCM2.3.2
国家大气研究中心 美国 PCM
哈德莱气候预测与研究中心 英国 UKMO-HadCM3
哈德莱气候预测与研究中心 英国 UKMO-HadGEM1
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IPCC耦合模式对北太平洋海–气系统冬季重现的模拟
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赵霞 1, 3, 5 , 杨光 2, 4
海洋学报 | 物理海洋、海洋气象、海洋物理 2019,41(9): 114-125
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海洋学报 | 物理海洋、海洋气象、海洋物理 2019, 41(9): 114-125
IPCC耦合模式对北太平洋海–气系统冬季重现的模拟
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赵霞1, 3, 5 , 杨光2, 4
作者信息
  • 1 中国科学院海洋研究所 中国科学院海洋环流与波动重点实验,山东 青岛 266071
  • 2 自然资源部第一海洋研究所 海洋与气候研究中心,山东 青岛 266061
  • 3 青岛海洋科学与技术试点国家实验室 海洋动力过程与气候功能实验室,山东 青岛 266237
  • 4 青岛海洋科学与技术试点国家实验室 区域海洋动力学与数值模拟功能实验室,山东 青岛 266237
  • 5 中国科学院海洋大科学研究中心,山东 青岛 266071
  • 赵霞(1981—),河南省偃师县人,副研究员,主要从事大尺度海气相互作用及数值模拟研究。E-mail:

The winter-to-winter recurrence in the North Pacific air-sea system: IPCC-AR4 model evaluation
Xia Zhao1, 3, 5 , Guang Yang2, 4
Affiliations
  • 1 Key Laboratory of Ocean Circulation and Waves, Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao 266071, China
  • 2 Center for Ocean and Climate Research, First Institute of Oceanography, Ministry of Natural Resources, Qingdao 266061, China
  • 3 Marine Dynamics Process and Climate Function Laboratory, Pilot National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology (Qingdao), Qingdao 266237, China
  • 4 Laboratory for Regional Oceanography and Numerical Modeling, Pilot National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology (Qingdao), Qingdao 266237, China
  • 5 Center for Ocean Mega-Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao 266071, China
出版时间: 2019-09-25 doi: 10.3969/j.issn.0253-4193.2019.09.011
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冬季重现(再现)是中高纬度大尺度海表温度重要的持续性特征,是热带外海洋特有的现象。北太平洋大气环流也存在这一现象,它可能会强迫产生这一海域海温的冬季重现。本文利用IPCC 20C3M耦合模式资料,评估了耦合模式模拟北太平洋海–气系统冬季重现的能力。北太平洋海温冬季重现的空间范围是海盆尺度的,中部重现时间比其周围晚。大气环流场的冬季重现主要是在北太平洋中部,它与海温冬季重现关系密切。大多数IPCC耦合模式基本上可以模拟出太平洋海温大范围的冬季重现现象。与重现范围的模拟相比,耦合模式对重现时间地理差异的模拟都比较差。各模式对大气环流冬季重现时空分布特征的模拟较差,大部分模式未能模拟出大气环流场中主要的重现区域。而且,大气环流冬季重现对海温重现的可能影响并没有体现在这些耦合模式中。耦合模式对北太平洋大气冬季重现的模拟还有待改善。

北太平洋  /  海–气系统  /  持续性  /  冬季重现(再现)  /  IPCC模式评估

Winter-to-winter recurrence (WWR) is an important persistence characteristic of large-scale sea surface temperature anomalies (SSTAs) in middle-high latitude, which is a unique phenomenon of the extratropical ocean. Its influence on extratropical climate change can not be ignored. WWR also exist in the atmosphere in the North Pacific Ocean, which could induce SSTAs WWR. In this paper, the WWRs of the air-sea system in the North Pacific are evaluated using the model output of 23 coupled models of CMIP in IPCC 4th assessment. Observational results show that, SSTAs WWR occurs over most of the basin of North Pacific, but the recurrence timing is in winter in the central and in fall in other regions. The atmospheric WWR is mainly located in central North Pacific, which is essential for the occurrence of the SSTAs WWR. Most of models can simulate the basinwide SSTAs WWR, but they can’t reproduce the geographical distribution of recurrence timing well. Compared with the SSTAs, little skill is shown in the WWR of the atmospheric circulation in most models. Moreover, the possible effect of the atmospheric WWR on the SSTAs WWR is not reflected in these coupled models. The coupling model has yet to be improved for simulating the atmospheric WWR in the North Pacific.

North Pacific  /  air-sea system  /  persistence  /  winter recurrence  /  IPCC model evaluation
赵霞, 杨光. IPCC耦合模式对北太平洋海–气系统冬季重现的模拟. 海洋学报, 2019 , 41 (9) : 114 -125 . DOI: 10.3969/j.issn.0253-4193.2019.09.011
Xia Zhao, Guang Yang. The winter-to-winter recurrence in the North Pacific air-sea system: IPCC-AR4 model evaluation[J]. Haiyang Xuebao, 2019 , 41 (9) : 114 -125 . DOI: 10.3969/j.issn.0253-4193.2019.09.011
海洋是气候系统的一个重要组成部分。在气候系统中,海洋的作用主要通过与大气之间的相互作用来实现。海洋可以通过热力效应对大气环流产生影响,因此在气候变化理论探究和气候预测业务中具有重要的意义。海洋和大气的相互作用在地球气候中扮演着重要角色,是地球气候系统中最重要的圈层相互作用之一。近几十年来,海–气相互作用研究已成为海洋科学和大气科学共同关注的研究领域[1-21]。这些研究表明,大尺度的海–气相互作用在全球气候变化中扮演着非常重要的角色,是理解和预报气候变率的关键问题。由于海水温度的增加或是减少均发生在海洋表面,所以作为表征海水热状况的重要物理量海表温度(SST)就成为了解释全球范围海–气相互作用的重要因素之一[22]。相对大气来说,海洋有较大的热容量,这使海表温度的变化具有明显持续性。这种持续性特征使得海洋较之大气拥有较长期的记忆能力,从而在气候系统变化中承担重要的调节角色。同时,这种持续性还预示着系统的潜在可预报性,可以使气候系统的可预报性得以增强[23-28]。因此,正确认识海表温度异常的持续性问题对理解海–气相互作用过程、全球气候状态及预测未来气候变化都有重要的理论意义和现实价值。
冬季–冬季重现(再现)是中高纬度大尺度海表温度重要的持续性特征,是热带外海洋特有的现象。Namias和Born[29-30]最先在中纬度海表温度中发现了这一冬季–冬季重现的特征。它指的是冬季海表温度的滞后相关存在显著的季节循环:夏季较小,冬季较大,因此海表温度会在前后两个冬季重现而在期间的夏季不具有持续性[29-32]。这一现象表明冬季海温的记忆可以持续超过1年,这种持续性记忆对气候预测具有重要意义。因此,冬季–冬季重现已成为国际上气候学和气候动力学研究领域中的重要课题。已有的研究表明,海表温度冬季–冬季重现会对热带外大气环流产生不可忽略的影响[33-34];它在热带外海–气相互作用中扮演着重要角色[35];冬季–冬季重现还是热带外海温异常在年际–年代际尺度上得以维持的物理机制之一[35-37]。此外,海表温度冬季–冬季重现还会引起欧亚大陆冬季持续性低温事件,造成持续性的大范围低温雨雪天气,对国家经济和社会造成了重大影响[38-39]。因此,研究中高纬度海表温度冬季–冬季重现的特征及其物理成因对理解热带外海–气相互作用及多时间尺度上的气候变化都有着重要的意义。
关于海表温度冬季–冬季重现的机制研究,最早Namias和Born[29-30]指出海温持续性的季节依赖与海洋混合层的季节变化密切相关。冬季,在大气强迫和海洋放热的共同作用下形成了海表温度异常,通过混合过程使得海表温度异常下传至较深的次表层;春夏季,海洋混合层变浅使得保留在次表层的海表温度异常信号被封存在季节性温跃层之下;秋冬季,随着海洋混合层再次加深,海水的混合和卷夹作用使被封存在次表层的海表温度异常信号再次出现在表层。这样,海表温度异常在前后两个冬季重现而在期间的夏季不具有持续性。Alexander和Deser[31]把这一机制命名为“冬季重现机制”。
冬季重现不仅仅存在于海洋中。中高纬大气环流异常的持续性也存在这一特征。在前人对海温冬季重现研究工作的基础上[31],我们对整个北半球海–气系统持续性特征进行了系统分析[32]。针对北太平洋,我们发现大气环流异常也存在显著的冬季重现。而且,北太平洋中部大气环流与海温的冬季重现存在着密切的关系:如果大气环流存在冬季–冬季的重现,它可能会强迫产生海温冬季–冬季的重现[32, 40-41]。如前所述,过去对海温冬季重现机制的研究主要围绕着海洋内部过程(重现机制)。我们则是从大尺度海–气相互作用的角度,提出了北太平洋海温冬季重现的新机制。因此,对大气环流冬季重现现象的探索不仅为我们提供了一个全新的角度来考察海温冬季重现,乃至冬季重现现象这一科学问题;也为我们提出了一个新的观点来审视大尺度大气环流异常的持续性特征及其相关机制。
由于气候变化的模拟和预测的唯一定量工具就是气候模式,而就目前的水平,模式尚有不确定性,模拟本身误差较大,且模式间的差异也较大。因此,检验模式的模拟水平并不断完善其模拟效果是一项重要的科学任务。近年来,耦合气候系统模式在很多方面得到了提高,这些模式对海–气系统持续性特征的模拟能力如何?耦合模式能否将北太平洋海–气系统冬季重现的时空分布特征模拟出来?各个模式之间又有何差异?这些问题都有待评估。而政府间气候变化委员会第四次评估报告(Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Fourth Assessment Report, IPCC AR4)[42]试验结果为这一工作提供了契机。共有10个国家24个耦合系统模式参加了IPCC AR4,并向PCMDI(Program for Climate Model Diagnosis and Intercomparison)提交了各项试验的模式结果。它们基本能反映当前国际气候系统模式的水平。根据IPCC AR4的要求,所有的耦合模式都按照统一的要求进行了多组积分试验,这些试验包括模拟当前气候、20世纪气候以及设想不同未来温室气体排放情景下21/22世纪的气候模拟。其中,20世纪气候模拟试验(Climate of the Twentieth Century Experiment, 20C3M)的目的,是利用实际的外强迫来驱动耦合模式,模拟20世纪气候的实际演变过程,考察耦合模式的模拟能力,以此作为评估这些耦合模式所预估的未来气候变化情景的可信度。所使用的外强迫因子既包括温室气体和硫酸盐气溶胶等人为排放因子,也包括火山喷发气溶胶、臭氧和太阳辐射等自然变化因子。
本文的主要目的是利用IPCC AR4的20C3M试验结果,对当前国际上主要气候系统模式对北太平洋海–气系统持续性的模拟能力进行较为全面的评估。所分析的内容,涉及海–气系统冬季重现的基本特征。我们希望通过模式与观测、模式与模式间的比较,为模式的未来改进工作提供依据;同时,亦为学术界利用IPCC AR4的耦合模式结果,开展与海–气系统持续性相关的气候变率研究,提供一个基本的模式性能参考。
本文使用的海温资料是NOAA提供的Smiths和Reynolds[43]改进扩展重建的逐月海表温度(Improved Extended Reconstruction Sea SurfaceTemperature, IERSST),分辨率为2°×2°;所用时段都为1950–2004年。大气资料是由美国环境预报中心/美国大气资料中心(National Center for Environmental Prediction-National Center for Atmospheric Research, NCEP-NCAR)提供的月平均再分析资料[44],水平分辨率为2.5°×2.5°。异常场是通过减去各月平均使原始资料去掉年循环的结果。
本文用到了参加IPCC AR4中20世纪气候模拟的23个耦合模式的模拟结果,这些模式分别来自10个国家的17个不同的研究机构,基本能反映当前国际气候系统模式的水平。表1列出了采用的23个耦合模式所属的研究组、国家以及模式的简称,其他更为详细的模式说明可以在IPCC的网址(http://www-pcmdi.llnl.gov/ipcc/about_ipcc.php)上获得。需要说明的是,虽然这23个模式是相互独立的,但个别模式之间仍然存在一定关联,例如,耦合模式GFDL-CM2.0与GFDL-CM2.1的唯一区别,在于大气模式使用了不同的动力框架;日本的MIROC-hires与MIROC-medres、加拿大的CGCM3.1-T63与CGCM3.1-T47区别都仅在于分辨率。
本文根据滞后相关来定义持续性。滞后相关则是起始月份为m的时间序列与滞后其k个月的时间序列的相关。例如,如果起始月m为2月,滞后时间k为10个月,那么计算得到的就是2月和12月这两个时间序列的相关。过去在研究海温冬季重现时,一般采用人为的办法选择区域,或是针对EOF分析得到的主要模态。但是de Goëtlogon和Frankignoul[35]指出海温的重现现象依赖于所选区域的位置和大小。Timlin等[45]也指出EOF分析的结果对于区域边界十分敏感,当选择区域不同时可能会导致计算结果的不同。因此,为了客观有效地判断重现现象,避免计算结果对人为事先选区或是特殊空间模态的依赖,我们将直接对空间每一个格点上的变量计算其滞后相关,并通过定量化的方法判定每个格点的海温和大气是否存在重现以及重现发生的具体时间。
图1给出了北太平洋海温冬季重现的时空分布。我们的研究都以2月作为参考月,因为2–3月北半球海温冬季重现的空间范围最大。对于北太平洋,海温冬季重现的空间范围基本上是海盆尺度的。但是,重现时间在北太平洋存在显著的地理差异。对于北太平洋,其中部、西北和东北部重现时间较晚,发生在冬季;而其他区域重现时间较早,发生在秋季。
为了进一步说明北太平洋海温重现的特征,我们在北太平洋沿40°N选出东、中、西部3个格点(40°N,160°E;40°N,170°W;40°N,150°W),分别给出它们的滞后相关曲线(图2)。可以看出,这3个区域海表温度异常的持续性都表现出显著的冬季重现特征,即海温会在相邻冬季之间重现,而在介于其间的夏季不具有持续性。冬季海温的滞后相关在第二年冬季再次显著增加之前有一个最小值,一般出现在夏季(6–9月)。滞后相关再次显著增加达到最大值的时间有早有晚。在北太平洋,中部的重现时间比东部和西部的晚大约3~4个月。
图3给出了北太平洋大气环流冬季重现的时空分布特征。很明显,各层大气环流场都存在冬季重现。对于海平面气压场,冬季重现主要位于北太平洋中部和西部。而且北太平洋中部的重现在高空500 hPa和200 hPa也是存在的,只是位置稍微向西移动。对于北太平洋中部,大气环流重现时间是在秋季,早于海温的重现时间。由于热带外中纬度地区的海气相互作用,主要表现为大气对海洋的强迫,特别是在冬季。所以,大气环流的冬季重现可能是产生海温冬季重现的机制之一[32, 40]
北太平洋中部大气环流冬季重现的时间早于海温。我们把这个区域设置为:北太平洋中部(40°~50°N,170°E~170°W)。图4给出了这个区域冬季海平面气压异常与北太平洋海温异常的相关。可以看出,这个重现区域的海平面气压都与北太平洋海温的变化密切相关。在北太平洋中部呈显著正相关,而在北太平洋东部呈显著负相关。与海温冬季重现时空分布特征(图1)比较可以看出,显著相关区域的海温大多存在冬季重现。北太平洋大气和海洋重现区域这种显著的相关表明,大气环流冬季重现和海温的冬季重现存在密切的联系。如果大气环流存在冬季–冬季的重现,它可能会强迫产生海温冬季–冬季的重现。
图5给出了观测和23个耦合模式模拟的北太平洋海温冬季重现的时空特征。与观测相比,各模式的模拟结果差异较大,对于北太平洋的冬季重现也具有不同的模拟能力。观测资料中北半球海温冬季重现的空间范围基本上都是海盆尺度的(图1)。耦合模式对北太平洋海温冬季重现空间范围的模拟:23个模式中大部分(18个)都可以模拟出北太平洋大范围的冬季重现现象,包括:BCCR-BCM2.0、CGCM3.1-T63、CNRM-CM3、ECHAM5、ECHO-G、GFDL-CM2.1、GISS-AOM、GISS-EH、GISS-ER、INGV-SXG、INM-CM3.0、MIROC3.2-hires、MIROC-medres、PCM、UKMO-HadCM3、UKMO-HadGEM1、IPSL-CM4、MRI-CGCM2.3.2。而其他5个模式的模拟结果与观测相差较大。CCSM3、CGCM3.1-T47、CSIRO-Mk3.0、FGOALS-g1.0、GFDL-CM2.0的模拟结果与观测相差最大。
耦合模式对于北太平洋海温重现时间的模拟,总体来说,与重现范围的模拟相比,耦合模式对重现时间地理差异的模拟都比较差。当然,个别模式对有些区域还是有一定的模拟能力,如IPSL-CM4、MIROC3.2-medres、UKMO-HadCM3模拟的北太平洋冬季重现的时空特征与观测有一定的相似性。
值得注意的是,日本的2个模式MIROC3.2-hires与MIROC3.2-medres的区别在于模式的分辨率,但模拟的北半球海温冬季重现时空特征却有明显差别,分辨率较高的MIROC3.2-medres模式能够较好地再现北太平洋冬季重现的时空特征。另外一组模式,CGCM3.1-T47和CGCM3.1-T63模式模拟的结果也有类似的特征。这意味着提高大气模式的分辨率可能会改善模式对北太平洋地区海温冬季重现及其时空分布特征的模拟能力。对比GFDL-CM2.0和GFDL-CM2.1模式的模拟结果可知,大气模式虽然使用不同的动力框架,但对模拟的结果改进并不明显。
由于北太平洋中部是海–气系统冬季重现的关键区域,所以我们将进一步分析各耦合模式对其北太平洋中部(35°~47°N,165°E~160°W)的海温持续性特征的模拟能力(图6)。从观测资料(Obser-ERSST)中可以看出,2月北太平洋中部海温的持续性有2个显著特征,第一,持续性会在8–10月显著下降,滞后相关系数低于95%置信水平;第二,在接下来的秋冬季持续性会再次升高,2–4月达到正相关的峰值。这种持续性特征就是Namias和Born[29-30]及Alexander和Deser[31]所说的冬季重现。
与观测相比,各耦合模式对北太平洋中部海温持续性特征的模拟结果差异较大。23个模式中只有8个模式(BCCR-BCM2.0、CGCM3.1-T63、ECHO-G、INGV-SXG、IPSL-CM4、MIROC-medres、UKMO-HadCM3和UKMO-HadGEM1)模拟的持续性整体趋势与观测比较接近。虽说它们对持续性的整体趋势具有一定的模拟能力,但是它们对重现强度的模拟普遍偏弱,对重现时间的模拟也与实际观测有一定的差异。23个模式中只有9个模式(CCSM3、CGCM3.1-T47、CNRM-CM3、CSIRO-Mk3.0、ECHAM5、FGOALS-g1.0、GFDL-CM2.0、GFDL-CM2.1和INM-CM3.0)完全没有模拟出北太平洋中部海温持续的主要特征,因为它们模拟的海温持续性是一直减弱的,在第二年冬季没有出现再次增加的现象。其余的模式GISS-AOM、GISS-EH、GISS-ER、MIROC3.2-hires、MRI-CGCM2.3.2和PCM的模拟结果介于前两类之间。它们的主要问题在于,模式模拟的海温持续性下降的幅度偏小,或是重现的强度偏小,都没有达到显著性水平。说明这些模式对北太平洋海温冬季重现的持续性特征具有一定的模拟能力,但模拟的重现特征并不显著。
另外,对于北太平洋中部,分辨率较高的MIROC3.2-medres模式能够较好地模拟该区域海温冬季重现的强度。但是,另外一组模式CGCM3.1-T47和CGCM3.1-T63模拟的结果差别却不明显,虽然高分辨率的CGCM3.1-T63对整个北半球海温冬季重现时空特征的模拟能力要优于CGCM3.1-T47。
图7给出了观测和23个耦合模式模拟的北半球海平面气压冬季重现的时空特征。与海温相比,各模式对大气环流冬季重现时空分布特征的模拟较差。观测资料(Obser-NCEP)中北太平洋大气环流冬季重现主要位于北太平洋中部和西部。前者重现时间是在秋季,后者是在冬季。而23个模式中只有CSIRO-Mk3.0、GFDL-CM2.1、MIROC3.2-hires、ECHO-G模拟出北太平洋中部的重现区域,但是CSIRO-Mk3.0、GFDL-CM2.1模拟的重现时间却是冬季,比观测晚。对于西部的重现区域,也只有FGOALS-g1.0和GFDL-CM2.1有一定的表现,但是模拟的重现时间却是在秋季,比观测早。这说明,耦合模式对大气环流冬季重现的模拟能力有待提高,对大气环流冬季重现及其物理机制的研究有待加强。
需要说明的是,大气环流冬季重现模拟的好坏程度,并不能决定海温重现时空分布模拟的能力高低。能模拟出北太平洋中部大气环流冬季重现的模式中,ECHO-G模拟的海温重现只是在西太平洋,CSIRO-Mk3.0模拟的海温重现区域偏东时间偏早,GFDL-CM2.1模拟的北太平洋中部海温重现范围较小,MIROC3.2-hires模拟的海温重现区域偏西时间偏早。另一方面,IPSL-CM4、MIROC3.2-medres、UKMO-HadCM3模拟的北太平洋海温冬季重现的时空特征与观测有相似性,但是这些模式并没有模拟出北太平洋大气环流的冬季重现。这说明,模式中决定海温冬季重现模拟能力的并不是大气过程,可能海洋过程模拟的好坏对模拟海温重现更为重要。
相比模式对大气环流冬季重现的模拟,各耦合模式对冬季北太平洋中部大气和海温关系的模拟要好一些(图8)。23个模式中6个模式(CNRM-CM3、FGOALS-g1.0、INGV-SXG、MIROC3.2-hires、MRI-CGCM2.3.2、UKMO-HadCM3)模拟的相关分布与观测比较接近。由于海–气系统冬季重现在北太平洋中部关系更为密切,所以我们更关注各模式对北太平洋中部海–气之间正相关关系的模拟。CGCM3.1-T47、CGCM3.1-T63、CNRM-CM3、ECHAM5、GFDL-CM2.0、GFDL-CM2.1、IPSL-CM4、MIROC3.2-medres和PCM可以模拟出中太平洋的正相关关系。但是,GISS-AOM、GISS-EH、INM-CM3.0和UKMO-HadGEM1模拟的正相关区域偏西。BCCR-BCM2.0、CCSM3、CSIRO-Mk3.0、ECHO-G和GISS-ER模拟的中太平洋相关区域却是负相关。但是,模式中大气环流冬季重现与海–气相互作用并没有必然的联系。所以海温冬季重现模拟不好,一方面是大气环流冬季重现的机制和过程几乎没有在模式中体现,另一方面是模式中没有建立大气环流冬季重现与海–气相互作用之间的联系。
本文利用IPCC 20C3M中23个耦合模式资料,对北太平洋海–气系统中冬季重现的模拟进行了评估。
(1)比较了各模式对北太平洋海气系统冬季重现的时空特征的模拟能力。结果表明,大多数模式基本上可以模拟出北太平洋海温大范围的冬季重现现象。但是与重现范围的模拟相比,耦合模式对重现时间地理差异的模拟都比较差。与海温相比,各模式对大气环流冬季重现时空分布特征的模拟较差,大部分模式未能模拟出大气环流场中的主要的重现区域。
(2)评估了耦合模式对北太平洋中部海温持续性特征的模拟。与观测相比,各耦合模式对北太平洋中部海温持续性特征的模拟结果各不相同。23个模式中有8个模式模拟的持续性整体趋势与观测比较接近;9个模式完全没有模拟出北太平洋中部海温持续的主要特征,因为它们模拟的海温持续性是一直减弱的;其余的模式的模拟结果介于前两类之间。另外,分析表明提高模式的分辨率可能会改善模式对北太平洋地区海温持续性的模拟能力。
(3)模式并没有模拟出大气环流冬季重现与海–气相互作用之间必然的联系。大气环流冬季重现对海温重现的可能影响并没有体现在这些耦合模式中。耦合模式对北太平洋大气冬季重现的模拟还有待改善。导致大多数耦合模式对大气环流冬季重现模拟效果不佳的原因是什么?是与物理过程有关还是动力框架决定?这些有待于进一步的研究。事实上,前人并没有注意到大气环流冬季重现这一现象。所以,进一步深入开展大气环流冬季重现研究,评估大气模式对大气环流冬季重现的模拟,揭示海温对大气环流冬季重现的可能影响,是提高模式模拟能力的基础,也是我们今后要开展的工作。
  • 国家自然科学基金(41375094)。
参考文献 引证文献
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2019年第41卷第9期
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doi: 10.3969/j.issn.0253-4193.2019.09.011
  • 接收时间:2018-09-30
  • 首发时间:2026-04-03
  • 出版时间:2019-09-25
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  • 收稿日期:2018-09-30
  • 修回日期:2018-11-25
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国家自然科学基金(41375094)。
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    1 中国科学院海洋研究所 中国科学院海洋环流与波动重点实验,山东 青岛 266071
    2 自然资源部第一海洋研究所 海洋与气候研究中心,山东 青岛 266061
    3 青岛海洋科学与技术试点国家实验室 海洋动力过程与气候功能实验室,山东 青岛 266237
    4 青岛海洋科学与技术试点国家实验室 区域海洋动力学与数值模拟功能实验室,山东 青岛 266237
    5 中国科学院海洋大科学研究中心,山东 青岛 266071
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2种不同金属材料的力学参数

Family
属数
Number of
genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of
total species (%)

Genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of total
species (%)
鹅膏菌科Amanitaceae 2 11 5.26 鹅膏菌属 Amanita 10 4.78
小菇科 Mycenaceae 2 12 5.74 丝盖伞属 Inocybe 5 2.39
多孔菌科 Polyporaceae 8 14 6.70 蜡蘑属 Laccaria 5 2.39
红菇科 Russulaceae 3 23 11.00 小皮伞属 Marasmius 6 2.87
小菇属 Mycena 11 5.26
光柄菇属 Pluteus 5 2.39
红菇属 Russula 17 8.13
栓菌属 Trametes 5 2.39
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