Article(id=1233907186863231106, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, issueId=1233907180928299124, articleNumber=null, orderNo=null, doi=10.12284/hyxb2021119, pmid=null, cstr=null, oa=null, hot=null, price=null, onlineType=0, articleFormat=0, articleType=null, articleTypeStr=research-article, receivedDate=1609344000000, receivedDateStr=2020-12-31, revisedDate=1619452800000, revisedDateStr=2021-04-27, acceptedDate=null, acceptedDateStr=null, onlineDate=1772115998234, onlineDateStr=2026-02-26, pubDate=1627142400000, pubDateStr=2021-07-25, doiRegisterDate=null, doiRegisterDateStr=null, onlineIssueDate=1772115998234, onlineIssueDateStr=2026-02-26, onlineJustAcceptDate=null, onlineJustAcceptDateStr=null, onlineFirstDate=null, onlineFirstDateStr=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, createTime=1772115998234, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1772115998234, updator=13701087609, issue=Issue{id=1233907180928299124, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, year='2021', volume='43', issue='7', pageStart='1', pageEnd='206', issueExtLink='null', onlineDate='null', pubDate='null', beforeIssueId=null, nextIssueId=null, price=null, status=1, issueComplete=1, articleOrder=1, issueType=-1, specialIssue=null, createTime=1772115996820, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1772115996820, updator=13701087609, preIssue=null, nextIssue=null, ext=null, issueFiles=null}, startPage=1, endPage=10, ext={EN=ArticleExt(id=1233907187219746959, articleId=1233907186863231106, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, language=EN, title=A review of the researches on the record low Antarctic sea ice in 2016 and its formation mechanisms, columnId=1233907181909766263, journalTitle=Haiyang Xuebao, columnName=Polar sea ice and climate change, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

Along with the global warming, the sea ice in the Arctic decreased rapidly, however the sea ice in the Antarctic has experienced a weak expansion. While many researchers are studying the mechanisms for this paradox in the Antarctic, the sea ice extent (SIE) began a rapid decline in 2016 and reached a record low in austral spring 2016. A rapid decrease of SIE anomaly occurred in December, with a 20.5% (2.13$ \times $106 km2) reduction compared with the long-term (1981−2010) mean (10.41$ \times $106 km2). It attracted a lot of attentions and scientists have investigated the causes of its occurrence from various aspects, such as the atmosphere circulations, the thermal state of the ocean, the polynya and so on. Their main results are summarized in this review. On the atmospheric aspect, the general circulation signals include a zonal height anomalies chain with wave number three during September and October, a Southern Annular Mode anomaly during November and December, and intensified cyclonic activity. The atmospheric zonal wave number three is modulated by the sea surface temperature anomalies in the tropical Pacific and Indian Ocean, and the Southern Annular Mode anomaly is mainly a result of downward weakening stratospheric polar vortex. On the ocean aspect, the upper ocean temperature is warmer than normal, and there is a large polynya in the Weddell Sea, which has the greatest area in the period of 1976−2016. However, it is difficult to identify the relative contributions of the external forcings of the climate system, the internal variability of the climate system, or their collaborative roles. We hope the summary can be useful to improve the understanding of the changes of Antarctic sea ice and its origins.

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近几十年来,在全球变暖背景下,北极海冰不断减少,但南极海冰却在小幅增加。正当人们试图解释南极海冰这一“变暖悖论”时,2016年末南极海冰范围却突然跌破纪录,达到历史最低。其中,12月海冰减少范围最大,达到2.13$ \times $106 km2,相对于1981–2010年的30年平均海冰范围减少了20.5%。这立即引起了科学界的极大关注,人们从大气环流、物理海洋和冰间湖等诸多方面,对其成因进行了大量研究,本文对这些工作进行了归纳总结。结果显示:在大气方面,主要的异常信号包括9–10月的纬向3波异常和11–12月的负位相南半球环状模以及气旋活动增加等,纬向3波大气环流受到热带太平洋和印度洋海温异常的调制,而南半球环状模异常主要是平流层极涡减弱下传导致;海洋方面,南大洋海温较常年偏暖,威德尔海出现了自1976年以来最大的冰间湖,对海冰减少起着不可忽视的作用。然而,当前的研究难以说明这一极端事件是由全球变暖或其他外部强迫主导,还是由气候系统内部变率产生,亦或者是两者的共同作用。对这些问题的回答直接关系到未来南极海冰趋势的预估,是亟待解决的科学问题和潜在的研究热点。

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李双林(1966—),湖北省孝感市人,研究员,主要从事热带外海气相互作用研究。E-mail:shuanglin.li@mail.iap.ac.cn

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李双林(1966—),湖北省孝感市人,研究员,主要从事热带外海气相互作用研究。E-mail:shuanglin.li@mail.iap.ac.cn

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李双林(1966—),湖北省孝感市人,研究员,主要从事热带外海气相互作用研究。E-mail:shuanglin.li@mail.iap.ac.cn

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Scientific Reports, 2017, 7(1): 12619., articleTitle=null, refAbstract=null)], funds=null, companyList=[AuthorCompany(id=1234047112766354055, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, articleId=1233907186863231106, xref=1, ext=[AuthorCompanyExt(id=1234047112774742666, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, articleId=1233907186863231106, companyId=1234047112766354055, language=EN, country=null, province=null, city=null, postcode=null, companyName=null, departmentName=null, remark=1Department of Atmospheric Science, China University of Geosciences, Wuhan 430074, China), AuthorCompanyExt(id=1234047112783131274, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, articleId=1233907186863231106, companyId=1234047112766354055, language=CN, country=null, province=null, city=null, postcode=null, companyName=null, departmentName=null, remark=1中国地质大学(武汉) 大气科学系,湖北 武汉 430074)]), AuthorCompany(id=1234047112892183181, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, articleId=1233907186863231106, xref=2, ext=[AuthorCompanyExt(id=1234047112900571790, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, articleId=1233907186863231106, companyId=1234047112892183181, language=EN, country=null, province=null, city=null, postcode=null, companyName=null, departmentName=null, remark=2Institute of Atmospheric Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100029, China), AuthorCompanyExt(id=1234047112904766096, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, articleId=1233907186863231106, companyId=1234047112892183181, language=CN, country=null, province=null, city=null, postcode=null, companyName=null, departmentName=null, remark=2中国科学院大气物理研究所,北京 100029)])], figs=[ArticleFig(id=1234047117539472219, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, articleId=1233907186863231106, language=EN, label=Fig. 1, caption=The evolution of monthly mean sea ice extent anomalies from January 1979 to November 2020

The data is from the National Snow and Ice Data Center[11]. The green, red and black dashed lines indicate the long-term trend for 1979–2015, 1979–2016 and 1979–2020, and grey shading indicates the ±2 standard deviations. It was reproduced based on Fig 6 of Schlosser et al.[10], but with the data through January 2018 to November 2020 added

, figureFileSmall=DHhP7HMCRRS9/gfURP2voA==, figureFileBig=iJ5AngECj81PNxloJouM4Q==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1234047117656912736, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, articleId=1233907186863231106, language=CN, label=图1, caption=1979年1月至2020年11月南极逐月海冰范围异常

数据来自美国国家冰雪数据中心[11]。绿色虚线、红色虚线和黑色虚线分别代表1979–2015年,1979–2016年和1979–2020年的线性趋势,灰色阴影代表±2倍标准差区间。此图基于Schlosser等[10] 的图6重画,增补了2018年1月至2020年11月海冰范围异常指数

, figureFileSmall=DHhP7HMCRRS9/gfURP2voA==, figureFileBig=iJ5AngECj81PNxloJouM4Q==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1234047117807907690, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, articleId=1233907186863231106, language=EN, label=Fig. 2, caption=Distributions of sea ice concentration anomaly in January–December 2016 together with the differences between the sea ice concentration anomaly in 2016 and in 2015 (–15% and 15% contours)

Green and brown solid lines indicate 15% and –15%, respectively. Sea ice concentration dataset is obtained from the UK Met Office Hadley Centre[16]

, figureFileSmall=VZ+QnD6+2ALjVzUhbdeFAQ==, figureFileBig=8757QK0EAeJaZngRajhT3A==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1234047117979874162, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, articleId=1233907186863231106, language=CN, label=图2, caption=2016年逐月海冰密集度异常分布及其与2015年的差值(–15%和15%两条等值线)分布

棕色和绿色实线分别表示–15%和15%等值线。海冰密集度数据来自英国气象局哈德利中心(UK Met Office Hadley Centre)[16]

, figureFileSmall=VZ+QnD6+2ALjVzUhbdeFAQ==, figureFileBig=8757QK0EAeJaZngRajhT3A==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1234047118080537466, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, articleId=1233907186863231106, language=EN, label=Fig. 3, caption=Factors lead to the decrease of Antarctic sea ice

a. September to October; b. November to December

, figureFileSmall=+4FbE4BV8oJ5tW0yopYPgw==, figureFileBig=L+ssYfAhh9NODfUSsmosXQ==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1234047118181200768, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, articleId=1233907186863231106, language=CN, label=图3, caption=导致南极海冰减少的因素

a. 9–10月; b. 11–12月

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2016年南极海冰破纪录减少及其成因的研究综述
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李双林 1, 2 , 韩哲 2 , 刘娜 2 , 张超 1 , 蔡慧 1
海洋学报 | 极地海冰与气候研究 2021,43(7): 1-10
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海洋学报 | 极地海冰与气候研究 2021, 43(7): 1-10
2016年南极海冰破纪录减少及其成因的研究综述
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李双林1, 2 , 韩哲2, 刘娜2, 张超1, 蔡慧1
作者信息
  • 1中国地质大学(武汉) 大气科学系,湖北 武汉 430074
  • 2中国科学院大气物理研究所,北京 100029
  • 李双林(1966—),湖北省孝感市人,研究员,主要从事热带外海气相互作用研究。E-mail:shuanglin.li@mail.iap.ac.cn

A review of the researches on the record low Antarctic sea ice in 2016 and its formation mechanisms
Shuanglin Li1, 2 , Zhe Han2, Na Liu2, Chao Zhang1, Hui Cai1
Affiliations
  • 1Department of Atmospheric Science, China University of Geosciences, Wuhan 430074, China
  • 2Institute of Atmospheric Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100029, China
出版时间: 2021-07-25 doi: 10.12284/hyxb2021119
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近几十年来,在全球变暖背景下,北极海冰不断减少,但南极海冰却在小幅增加。正当人们试图解释南极海冰这一“变暖悖论”时,2016年末南极海冰范围却突然跌破纪录,达到历史最低。其中,12月海冰减少范围最大,达到2.13$ \times $106 km2,相对于1981–2010年的30年平均海冰范围减少了20.5%。这立即引起了科学界的极大关注,人们从大气环流、物理海洋和冰间湖等诸多方面,对其成因进行了大量研究,本文对这些工作进行了归纳总结。结果显示:在大气方面,主要的异常信号包括9–10月的纬向3波异常和11–12月的负位相南半球环状模以及气旋活动增加等,纬向3波大气环流受到热带太平洋和印度洋海温异常的调制,而南半球环状模异常主要是平流层极涡减弱下传导致;海洋方面,南大洋海温较常年偏暖,威德尔海出现了自1976年以来最大的冰间湖,对海冰减少起着不可忽视的作用。然而,当前的研究难以说明这一极端事件是由全球变暖或其他外部强迫主导,还是由气候系统内部变率产生,亦或者是两者的共同作用。对这些问题的回答直接关系到未来南极海冰趋势的预估,是亟待解决的科学问题和潜在的研究热点。

南极  /  海冰减少  /  2016年  /  破纪录低值  /  物理成因

Along with the global warming, the sea ice in the Arctic decreased rapidly, however the sea ice in the Antarctic has experienced a weak expansion. While many researchers are studying the mechanisms for this paradox in the Antarctic, the sea ice extent (SIE) began a rapid decline in 2016 and reached a record low in austral spring 2016. A rapid decrease of SIE anomaly occurred in December, with a 20.5% (2.13$ \times $106 km2) reduction compared with the long-term (1981−2010) mean (10.41$ \times $106 km2). It attracted a lot of attentions and scientists have investigated the causes of its occurrence from various aspects, such as the atmosphere circulations, the thermal state of the ocean, the polynya and so on. Their main results are summarized in this review. On the atmospheric aspect, the general circulation signals include a zonal height anomalies chain with wave number three during September and October, a Southern Annular Mode anomaly during November and December, and intensified cyclonic activity. The atmospheric zonal wave number three is modulated by the sea surface temperature anomalies in the tropical Pacific and Indian Ocean, and the Southern Annular Mode anomaly is mainly a result of downward weakening stratospheric polar vortex. On the ocean aspect, the upper ocean temperature is warmer than normal, and there is a large polynya in the Weddell Sea, which has the greatest area in the period of 1976−2016. However, it is difficult to identify the relative contributions of the external forcings of the climate system, the internal variability of the climate system, or their collaborative roles. We hope the summary can be useful to improve the understanding of the changes of Antarctic sea ice and its origins.

Antarctic  /  sea ice decrease  /  2016  /  record low  /  physical mechanisms
李双林, 韩哲, 刘娜, 张超, 蔡慧. 2016年南极海冰破纪录减少及其成因的研究综述. 海洋学报, 2021 , 43 (7) : 1 -10 . DOI: 10.12284/hyxb2021119
Shuanglin Li, Zhe Han, Na Liu, Chao Zhang, Hui Cai. A review of the researches on the record low Antarctic sea ice in 2016 and its formation mechanisms[J]. Haiyang Xuebao, 2021 , 43 (7) : 1 -10 . DOI: 10.12284/hyxb2021119
南极作为气候系统的重要冷源之一,在全球气候变化中占有重要份额[1-2],是预估未来全球气候变化的重要区域之一[3]。海冰作为极地特有的介质,影响着全球的热量和质量交换过程,例如海冰反照率高,可以减少海表对太阳短波的吸收,降低海洋与大气之间的热量和水分交换,从而改变海洋表面的能量平衡。海冰融化或冻结会导致局地海水盐度降低或增加,改变海洋层结稳定度,影响到南极底层水和南极中层水,最后影响海洋翻转环流[4]
近些年,南极海冰覆盖范围发生了明显变化[5]。在全球变暖背景之下,北极海冰快速消融,而南极海冰覆盖范围在2015年之前显示出明显的增长趋势[6],特别是2012–2014年海冰范围连续增大,不断刷新纪录[7]。这一现象与通常所认为的—全球快速增暖海冰融化—不一致,遂引起了国内外学者的广泛关注,被称为“变暖悖论”。基于工业革命前耦合气候模式试验,有研究认为这种增长趋势是由气候系统自然波动引起[8]。然而当人们正忙于探索南极海冰增加的成因时,在2016年南半球的春末夏初,南极海冰范围跌破历史记录,成为有卫星观测记录以来的最低值[9-15]。之后,南极海冰范围略有恢复,但仍维持在较低水平。
关于这次事件,最为关键的一个问题是:它是长期趋势的突变或者年代际尺度的转折信号,还是一次气候系统内部的年际波动?弄清这一问题对认识未来南极海冰变化具有重要意义。对此,国内外很多学者围绕南极海冰减少的成因进行了大量研究,从多个角度提出了非常有意义的物理解释。诸多结果显示,导致这一极端减少事件的因素并不是单一的,而是大气和海洋的多个过程共同作用下形成的。本文总结了最近几年来国内外学者的研究成果,从大气和海洋两个方面进行了梳理,并对有待解决的科学问题进行了讨论。希望本综述对认识南极海冰变化成因有所启发。本文中的季节除特殊申明外,是就南半球而言,例如冬季是指南半球冬季(即6−8月份)。
自1979年以来,南极海冰范围(SIE)呈微弱增加的趋势。从年平均看,SIE异常在2014年达到最大,为1.14$ \times $106 km2,随后快速减小(图1)。从1979 年1月至2015年12月共37年间,年平均值线性趋势为0.24$ \times $106 km2/(10 a)[10]。与之相比,从1979 年1月至2017年12月的39年,线性趋势为0.15$ \times $106 km2/(10 a),减小了37.5%,这说明2016年海冰的急剧减少对趋势的减小有重要贡献。2016年年平均SIE异常为–0.41$ \times $106 km2,是自1979年以来减小最大的年份。其中,春季和夏季是减小最明显的季节,SIE异常由9月份的–0.34$ \times $106 km2,减小至12月份的–2.13$ \times $106 km2。此外,11月和12月是有卫星观测记录以来同期SIE最小的两个月份,分别为14.22$ \times $106 km2和8.28×106 km2,与气候态(即1981–2010年的平均,依次为15.90$ \times $106 km2和10.41$ \times $106 km2)相比,分别减小了10.5%和20.5%。以上分析结果与Schlosser等[10]的研究结果一致。
图2是2016年逐月的海冰密集度(SIC)异常及其与2015年SIC异常之间的差异。从图中可以看出,2016年,无论是SIC异常本身还是其与2015年的差异,均存在明显的季节性。在1–3月,SIC异常减小主要出现在罗斯海东部和阿蒙森海(图2a图2c)。与气候态相比,大部分海域SIC异常减小20%以上,阿蒙森海的部分海域减小超过了60%。尽管威德尔海海冰相对常年偏多,但与2015年相比SIC异常减小了40%以上。其中2月和3月的减小更为明显,部分区域甚至减小了80%以上(图2b图2c)。此外,罗斯海和阿蒙森海SIC异常较2015年也明显减小,大约减小了20%~60%。
4–6月,SIC异常有4个中心(图2d图2f)。两个负异常中心分别位于阿蒙森海和哈康七世海,大部分海域SIC异常减小20%~80%。两个正中心分别位于别林斯高晋海–威德尔海中西部(增多10%~50%)和南极的印度洋–西南太平洋区域(增多10%~40%)。与2015年相比,除了别林斯高晋海的小部分海域出现微弱的增长外,罗斯海、阿蒙森海、威德尔海和哈康七世海的SIC异常均减小,最多超过80%。
7–9月,SIC异常的分布与4–6月类似,但略微北移(图2g图2i)。较强的两个SIC正异常中心分别位于威德尔海中东部和印度洋东部–太平洋中西部,大部分海域增长20%~60%。SIC负异常主要位于阿蒙森海和哈康七世海–印度洋,相对于正异常要弱一些。与2015年相比,阿蒙森海和别林斯高晋海是SIC异常减小最显著的海域,大部分海域减小40%以上,最大达到80%。此外,哈康七世海也出现减少的情况,但强度较弱。与1–3月和4–6月不同,7–9月部分海域出现了海冰增长的情况,例如威德尔海东部、澳大利亚以南的海域以及罗斯海东部–阿蒙森海西部。
值得注意的是,10–12月是海冰减少最显著的季节(图2j图2l)。从SIC异常分布来看,除罗斯海东部和阿蒙森海西部出现较明显增加外,其余海域均显著减少,且幅度明显强于其他3个季节。与2015年相比,10–12月均出现海冰急剧减少的情况。除罗斯海东部–阿蒙森海西部出现增长外,其余区域均明显减少。减少最显著的区域主要位于西半球,大部分区域减少20%以上,其中罗斯海、别林斯高晋海和威德尔海的部分区域甚至减少60%以上。
综上,2016年10–12月是海冰减少最显著的月份[10]。就夏季而言,2016年是有卫星观测记录以来海冰最少的一年。此外,海冰减少存在明显的地域性和季节性差异,西南极是减少最显著的区域,10–12月减少最多。
2016年的海冰破纪录减少是从前几年的偏多状态急转而来,这种急剧变化可能是由较强的大气内部变率引起。已有研究表明,2016年春夏的大气环流型的确出现了一些非常强的异常,包括纬向3波模态异常、南半球环状模异常和南极气旋活动异常等。
南半球纬向3波模(ZW3)最早由van Loon和Jenne[17]提出。Raphael[18]对其与南极海冰的关系进行了研究,发现与ZW3相联系的经向风异常通过动力输运以及改变海气之间热通量,影响海冰变化。2016年5–10月,南半球大气环流表现出非常强的ZW3异常结构[10],相关的经向环流有利于海冰减少。并且,由于海冰–反照率的正反馈,海冰偏少状态会在后期维持或进一步加剧。正位相ZW3导致的海冰减少主要出现在罗斯海西部、别林斯高晋海、阿蒙森海和威德尔海西部。在东印度洋区域,由于9–10月非常强的经向热输送,海冰的减少与热力作用似乎更密切,模拟结果证实了这一点[19]。此外,热带海温对ZW3异常有一定的贡献[14]。在11–12月即海冰破纪录减少的时候,ZW3并没有显著的正位相异常,说明 ZW3可能为11–12月海冰破纪录减少提供了有利的前期条件。
基于Marshall[20]的南半球环状模(SAM)指数,2016年11月份为有卫星观测记录以来的第二低值[10]。这一负位相SAM导致向南的埃克曼输送,有利于海冰减少。但该负位相SAM异常发生在拉尼娜的背景之下,是非常罕见的,因为拉尼娜往往有利于正位相SAM异常的发生。那么,SAM负位相异常是如何发生的呢?可能与极地平流层信号下传和大气季节内振荡(MJO)有关[14]。人们早已认识到,在春季背景风表现为弱西风时,平流层极涡信号下传可以影响到对流层SAM[21-22]。2016年初春,存在从对流层顶向平流层的行星波上传,到达平流层上部时减弱了极涡。然后,这一信号到达平流层顶后被反射向下传播,使得SAM出现负位相异常,进而减弱了11–12月的近地面绕极西风。这一结果在历史观测资料和模式试验中均存在。尽管SAM的环流异常在中上层是纬向的,但是在近地面并不是纬向的,故其对海冰的影响并不是纬向对称的,西南极[8]和印度洋区域[23]更易受其影响。这就解释了2016年11月初SAM异常建立之后,为什么海冰在印度洋、太平洋区域以及威德尔海会进一步地减少。
负位相SAM异常还可以通过影响埃克曼抽吸,引起南大洋低层暖水向上层输送[13]。暖水从混合层夹卷进入表层,这经常发生在夏季末。夹卷进入表层的相对暖的海水有利于上层海洋变暖,进而导致海冰减少。这一影响在年代际时间尺度上更为显著。
在2016年9月9日,70°~80°S, 60°W~0°的区域生成了历史上最强之一的低压系统,最低气压为913 hPa。在其北部存在一高压,两者共同作用使得威德尔海出现特别强的西风异常,通过埃克曼输送将海冰向东北方向输送,造成威德尔海西北部的海冰减少,这是威德尔海海冰整体上减少的原因之一。威德尔海海冰的急剧减少出现在12月,也与气旋活动异常有关。在12月11–15日,有一深厚低压系统控制该区域[24],这在夏季比较罕见[25]。尤其是12日,低压系统中心气压低于968 hPa,是历史上能到达75°S以南的最强低压系统之一(总数的3%)。强气旋东部的偏北风向威德尔海输送大量暖空气,有利于海冰减少。从观测记录(再分析资料)来看,相对于其他年份,2016年12月的强气旋活动对海冰的影响是最强的,主要原因是其他年份中气旋所影响区域内的海冰已经非常少。此外,气旋活动的增加使得威德尔海的开阔海域面积增大,海水吸收到更多的太阳辐射,上层海温进一步增暖,形成正反馈,有利于海冰进一步地减少。
MJO是热带大气季节内变率的支配模态[26-27],其不仅对局地天气、气候产生重要影响,还可以通过影响热带对流活动,并激发大气遥相关波列影响中高纬天气、气候。人们很早就注意到MJO和南半球大气环流存在联系。在南半球冬季,当印度洋MJO活动增强后,60°S附近的西风会出现增强[28]。所以,MJO活动异常完全有可能通过影响南半球的大气环流异常,进而影响南极海冰异常[29]
在2016年11月,出现了一次非常强的MJO事件。MJO在11月初处于第5位相,到11月中旬位于第8位相,而在11月底转变为第3位相。随着MJO的东传,其抑制了由印度洋偶极子(IOD)引起的热带对流活动异常,因此由IOD激发的ZW3型环流异常减弱。相应地,与ZW3型环流有关的经向输送也减弱了,这为负位相SAM的建立提供了基础[14]
过去的研究表明,热带太平洋[30-32]、印度洋[33]和大西洋[34-35]海表温度异常,均与南极海冰变化有着密切联系。在2016年 9–12月及之前,热带和热带外海温都发生了显著异常。首先,2015/2016年发生了超级厄尔尼诺(El Niño)事件,其在夏季(2015年12月至2016年2月)达到峰值,之后衰减消亡。2016年7月之后,出现了中等强度的拉尼娜事件。其次,热带印度洋海温异常在2016年9–10月呈现西冷东暖的偶极型分布,为自1980年以来最强的负IOD事件[36],偶极子指数(Dipole Mode Index, DMI)在9月达到历史最小值[37]。已有研究认为IOD可能是海冰异常偏少的重要因素。下面将分别阐述。
厄尔尼诺−南方涛动(El Niño-Southern Oscillation,ENSO)作为热带海洋最强的年际信号,通过大气桥影响着南极海冰的变化[38-40]。一方面,ENSO可以在南半球中高纬激发一个被称为太平洋–南美遥相关型(PSA)的罗斯贝(Rossby)波列[41-42],该波列具有准正压结构,构成该波列的一个中心位于阿蒙森低压上空附近[43],先影响阿蒙森低压的强度,再通过热力和动力过程改变海冰的分布状态。另一方面, ENSO也可通过改变南大西洋和南太平洋的大尺度经圈环流强度,引起向极的热量输送异常,造成海冰的北进或南退[44]。此外,ENSO也可通过影响秘鲁寒流等海洋过程,进而影响南极海冰分布。
2016年9–12月热带中东太平洋呈现冷异常,处于拉尼娜的发展和成熟位相,但南半球高纬的海温海冰异常并没有表现出典型拉尼娜发展年的情形(如1998年和1983年),而是相反地,呈现类似厄尔尼诺年的南极偶极型分布,即东罗斯海和阿蒙森海海温偏暖、海冰偏少,别林斯高晋海海温偏冷、海冰偏多。Stuecker等[12]分析认为原因可能有两个:其一,2015/2016年夏季发生的超强厄尔尼诺对高纬海温海冰的影响具有准静止、持续性特征;其二,2016/2017年夏季发生的拉尼娜强度偏弱。具体来说,受前期超强厄尔尼诺激发的正PSA波列影响,2015/2016年夏季西南极的偶极型海温分布可以一直持续至第二年的11–12月,海温–海冰正反馈使得东罗斯海至阿蒙森海的海冰减少持续较长时间。由于弱拉尼娜引起的海冰增加分量不足以抵消前期海冰减少的惯性,所以2016年11–12月海冰异常与同为强厄尔尼诺衰减年的1983年和1998年相反。Stuecker等[12]的结论是基于理想ENSO循环强迫试验得到的,还存在一定的不确定性。Purich和England[45]基于真实海温强迫下大气环流–平板混合层海洋耦合模式的试验结果,显示前期夏季热带中东太平洋的暖海温异常引起的东罗斯海至阿蒙森海的暖异常不能一直维持,而是从2016年5月起开始减弱,在9–10月几乎消失。因此,前期超强ENSO事件对南极海冰的影响是否具有特殊性并不十分清楚,还需要更多的模式模拟来验证。
热带印度洋海温也是影响南极海冰的重要因子[33],其影响在2016年比太平洋更重要[14, 45]。观测结果显示,早春负位相的IOD,引起了热带东印度洋至西太平洋的强对流活动,然后分别在澳大利亚以西和以东激发两支向极地传播的罗斯贝波列[13-14, 45]。平板混合层海洋−大气耦合模式的模拟结果表明,热带东印度洋的热源激发了澳大利亚西侧的波列,而从西太平洋热源出发的罗斯贝波列,实际上是印度洋和太平洋两大海盆协同作用造成的[45]。两支波列到达极地后合并,调制了ZW3环流异常[13-14]
11月之后,受MJO东传影响,负位相IOD及伴随的热带对流减弱[14],印度洋–南极的遥相关也就随之减弱。所以,11–12月印度洋海温对海冰的遥影响并不清楚,有待于进一步的探讨。就像上一节提到的,11–12月南极海冰异常偏少的一个重要原因是负位相的SAM。尽管SAM在很大程度上是源自大气自身内部变率,但它也受到热带海温和平流层臭氧异常等外强迫的影响[14, 46]。平板耦合模式的试验结果也表明,印度洋的海温可能对春季负SAM的发生起一定作用[45]
热带海温的平板耦合模式试验模拟的海冰异常振幅同观测相比明显偏小,而极地大洋变化可能是引起海冰偏少的因素之一[45]。在春夏季,南极边缘海海表至向下600 m深度层,均呈现显著暖异常,有利于海冰减少[13, 47]。从年代际尺度上看,2000年之后负位相太平洋年代际振荡(IPO/PDO)和正位相SAM,有利于形成负的风应力旋度异常,再通过埃克曼抽吸使得下层暖水上翻,然后造成次表层暖海水堆积。在年际尺度上,2016年春末负位相SAM引起向南的埃克曼输送,将中低纬的暖海水输送至高纬,使得极地海温偏暖。少海冰与暖海温的正反馈,使得海冰减少加剧,有利于春季海冰的异常偏少[9]
冰间湖是指在季节性海冰覆盖区域内出现的开阔水域,它在极地海冰气系统中扮演着重要角色。一方面,它可以通过改变海表反照率,影响进入海洋混合层的短波辐射,进而改变海洋和海冰之间的热量平衡。另一方面,冰间湖的形成和闭合过程也影响海水盐度,进而导致海洋层结和洋流的异常。
自1972年至今,卫星记录显示南极地区最大的冰间湖位于东威德尔海莫得山脉(Maud Rise, MR,66°S,3°E)和宇航员海(Cosmonaut Sea)近海区[48-49]。受气旋式涡旋引起的次表层暖盐水上翻,威德尔海西部异常低压带来的西北暖湿气流,以及海底地形上拱导致的温跃层抬升等3方面因素的共同作用[50],2016−2017年期间出现大面积的冰间湖。面积范围为1976年以来的最大值[51]。具体地,2016年7月末冰间湖首次出现,最大面积达到33 000 km2,持续21天后关闭。后于11月初再次出现[24],然后关闭。2017年9月中旬再次出现,至12月1日面积达到最大(约为298 000 km2),持续时间最长。
Turner等[24]的研究认为,MR冰间湖对2016年11–12月的威德尔海海冰异常偏少起了重要作用。一方面,伴随着初期冰间湖的形成,更多的短波辐射进入海洋,混合层加深且温度升高,有利于海冰减少。另一方面,受威德尔海西部异常低压影响,异常西北风出现在MR区域,其带来的暖湿空气有利于冰间湖向西向北扩展。2016/2017年夏季威德尔海地区海洋混合层海水温度达到历史最高值(约0.5℃),冰间湖区域更是高达2.5℃。冰间湖的影响也是2017/2018年春夏季(9–12月)海冰范围异常偏小的一个重要因素[24, 50]
作为地球大气的重要冷源,南极是全球气候与环境变化研究的关键区。在全球变暖背景下,相对于北极海冰的快速消融,南极海冰表现出一些独特的、复杂的变化。在2015年之前,南极海冰表现出小幅的增长趋势,似乎与全球变暖相矛盾。这一“变暖悖论”问题遂成为国际关注的热点。但是,从2015年开始,南极海冰范围急剧减小,并在 2016年11月跌破同期历史纪录,而且这种异常偏少状态一直持续至2020年底之前。针对这一异常现象,国内外学者对其成因开展了大量的科学研究,分别探讨了大气环流、物理海洋和冰间湖异常等诸多因素的影响。本文对这些成因进行了归纳总结,并形成了概略图(图3)。
从大气方面看,9–10月ZW3引起的北风异常有利于同期罗斯海西部、别林斯高晋海、阿蒙森海和威德尔海西部的海冰减少,为随后11–12月海冰范围跌破历史纪录提供了先决条件。在11–12月,大气环流异常表现为负位相SAM,其中11月份的SAM指数为自1979年来的第二低值。11–12月海冰减少是ZW3减弱和负位相SAM建立两者共同作用的结果。其中,ZW3的减弱与MJO的异常活动有关,而负位相SAM建立则与平流层极涡异常信号的下传有关。负位相SAM异常会引起向南的埃克曼输送,有利于整个南极海冰的减少。在11–12月,气旋活动频繁是威德尔海海冰减少的重要原因之一,也对整体南极海冰减少起到了正的贡献。
在海洋方面,继前一年夏季发生的超强厄尔尼诺事件后,出现了中等强度的拉尼娜事件,与其相关的热带对流活动异常通过调制PSA遥相关引起了西南极的偶极型海冰异常,即罗斯海东部和阿蒙森海海冰减少,别林斯高晋海海冰增加。这与历史上发生的典型拉尼娜年海冰状况不太一样,有观点认为是前期超强厄尔尼诺引起的海温异常持续导致,同时后期中等强度的拉尼娜影响偏弱。但是,其结果是基于理想的ENSO循环强迫试验得到,而实际海温异常强迫平板海洋耦合模式的试验表明前期厄尔尼诺作用并不重要。因此,这一结论还需要更多的大气环流模式和海气耦合模式模拟来进一步地验证。除了热带太平洋外,热带印度洋在2016年春季出现非常强的负位相IOD,且IOD为自1980年以来的最强负位相事件,与IOD相关的热带对流活动异常能够在南半球高纬强迫出类似ZW3型的环流异常。除了热带海洋,极地海洋的海温也较常年偏暖,在2016年春季,从海表至600 m深度均呈现暖异常。此外,在2016年夏季,还出现了大面积的冰间湖,并且是1976年以来最大的一次。它能够通过海冰–反照率的正反馈机制维持并扩大,是导致2016年夏季威德尔海冰减少的重要因素之一。
综上所述,前人的研究提供了多方面、多角度的解释,但是依然有一些问题并不十分清楚。例如,动力和热力作用对此次海冰减少的相对重要性还不清楚。Wang等[52]的研究表明,大气对海冰的动力作用远大于热力作用。Matear等[53]在研究南极海冰最近30多年的增加时,模拟结果也显示动力作用是主要的。而Kusahara等[19]的研究却认为,大气的热力作用更重要。要解决这一争议,还需要用更多的模式模拟来验证,并深入分析其中的物理过程,这对于理解ZW3和SAM异常对海冰的影响也非常重要。
另外一个值得注意的是,不同时间尺度过程的相对贡献和相互作用尚不清楚。弄清这个问题对认识2016年海冰减少到底是正常的年际波动还是年代际尺度的转折信号很关键。从长期趋势来看,尽管1998–2012年期间出现了全球变暖减缓,但依然处在增暖的状态下[54-55]。在年代际至多年代际时间尺度上,2013年前后IPO发生了位相转换,由负位相转为正位相,全球又回到了快速增暖的状态[32, 56-57]。在年际时间尺度上,热带太平洋依次发生了2014/2015 年厄尔尼诺,2015/2016年超强厄尔尼诺,2016–2018年超长拉尼娜[58-59]。这些不同尺度的过程使得认识2016年末南极海冰异常跌破历史纪录这一问题,变得尤为复杂。定量区分长期趋势、年代际至多年代际以及年际时间尺度物理信号的相对贡献率,无疑很关键,但这方面的研究尚缺乏。
回答不同时间尺度过程的贡献问题,也有助于我们厘清海冰减少是气候系统内部的自然变率还是外部强迫导致的这一疑问。如果是前者,那么2016年海冰的急剧减少是正常的年际波动;如果是后者,那么它可能是年代际尺度或长期趋势的突变。当前研究探讨的影响因素都是气候系统内部的异常,事实上,这些影响因素可能与外部强迫有关。例如,SAM的负位相异常可能与南极臭氧的恢复引起的平流层增暖有关[14]。极地海洋次表层海温的上升与IPO有关,而IPO又与人类活动有关[60]。 2016年9–10月的负IOD可以归因于前期南半球秋冬季的热带印度洋暖异常[61],而印度洋暖异常又可能与人类强迫引起的长期趋势有关[14]。不过,外部强迫在定量上有多大贡献并不清楚。尤其是,南极海冰范围异常在2016年跌破历史纪录后,缓慢向正常状态恢复,并在2020年底转变为较常年偏多的状态(图1)。而基于当前的研究成果,无法判断2020年之后海冰恢复是否终止。总的来讲,我们对南极海冰变化的认识并不完全清楚。未来需要进一步地从观测和模拟两方面加强研究,才能更好地预测南极海冰的未来变化,同时为改进CMIP历史试验模拟提供新的认识。
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2021年第43卷第7期
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doi: 10.12284/hyxb2021119
  • 接收时间:2020-12-31
  • 首发时间:2026-02-26
  • 出版时间:2021-07-25
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  • 收稿日期:2020-12-31
  • 修回日期:2021-04-27
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    1中国地质大学(武汉) 大气科学系,湖北 武汉 430074
    2中国科学院大气物理研究所,北京 100029
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2种不同金属材料的力学参数

Family
属数
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genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of
total species (%)

Genus
种数
Number of
species
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Percentage of total
species (%)
鹅膏菌科Amanitaceae 2 11 5.26 鹅膏菌属 Amanita 10 4.78
小菇科 Mycenaceae 2 12 5.74 丝盖伞属 Inocybe 5 2.39
多孔菌科 Polyporaceae 8 14 6.70 蜡蘑属 Laccaria 5 2.39
红菇科 Russulaceae 3 23 11.00 小皮伞属 Marasmius 6 2.87
小菇属 Mycena 11 5.26
光柄菇属 Pluteus 5 2.39
红菇属 Russula 17 8.13
栓菌属 Trametes 5 2.39
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