Article(id=1233907184678007007, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, issueId=1233907180928299124, articleNumber=null, orderNo=null, doi=10.12284/hyxb2021153, pmid=null, cstr=null, oa=null, hot=null, price=null, onlineType=0, articleFormat=0, articleType=null, articleTypeStr=research-article, receivedDate=1612281600000, receivedDateStr=2021-02-03, revisedDate=1624636800000, revisedDateStr=2021-06-26, acceptedDate=null, acceptedDateStr=null, onlineDate=1772115997713, onlineDateStr=2026-02-26, pubDate=1627142400000, pubDateStr=2021-07-25, doiRegisterDate=null, doiRegisterDateStr=null, onlineIssueDate=1772115997713, onlineIssueDateStr=2026-02-26, onlineJustAcceptDate=null, onlineJustAcceptDateStr=null, onlineFirstDate=null, onlineFirstDateStr=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, createTime=1772115997713, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1772115997713, updator=13701087609, issue=Issue{id=1233907180928299124, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, year='2021', volume='43', issue='7', pageStart='1', pageEnd='206', issueExtLink='null', onlineDate='null', pubDate='null', beforeIssueId=null, nextIssueId=null, price=null, status=1, issueComplete=1, articleOrder=1, issueType=-1, specialIssue=null, createTime=1772115996820, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1772115996820, updator=13701087609, preIssue=null, nextIssue=null, ext=null, issueFiles=null}, startPage=138, endPage=151, ext={EN=ArticleExt(id=1233907186380894460, articleId=1233907184678007007, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, language=EN, title=Physical and optical properties of the first-year ice in the Amundsen Gulf of the Arctic, columnId=1233907181909766263, journalTitle=Haiyang Xuebao, columnName=Polar sea ice and climate change, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

In the Canadian Circumpolar Flaw Lead System Study, the physical and optical properties of first-year ice during the freezing season were observed at the Amundsen Gulf from November 24th, 2007 to January 26th, 2008. The results show that the thickness of sea ice during this period ranged from 27 cm to 108 cm, while the snow depth varied between 0 cm and 6 cm. The changes of temperature, salinity and density in the interior of sea ice are respectively: temperature within the sea ice rose monotonically along with the increasing of depth, reaching a maximum of −2.2℃ at the surface and a minimum of −22.4℃ at the bottom; the salinity ranged from 3.30 to 11.70 with a C-shaped pattern in its vertical section, which means that the salinity of upper surface and bottom layer is larger than that in the middle part; the average density of the sea ice was slightly larger, which is (0.91±0.03) g/cm3. With the special designing of artificial light source and in-situ instrumentation, an obvious two-peek structure at 490 nm and 589 nm was found in the spectral distribution of the transmitted radiation through the first-year ice. The two-peak structure weakens as the thickness of sea ice increases, indicating the spectrum dependence of the attenuation. In the visible band, the spectral absorbance of both bare ice and snow-covered ice reaches its minimum at 490 nm, and rises as the wavelength moves towards 443 nm or 683 nm. However, for snow-covered ice, the variation of absorption rate is little enough to present a spectral independence. In addition, the spectral distribution of the attenuation coefficient was U-shaped in the visible band, with a minimum of 1.7 m−1 at 589 nm. The integral diffuse attenuation coefficient of the first-year ice in visible band was about 2.3 m−1, which was slightly higher than 1.5 m−1, the diffuse attenuation coefficient of multi-year floe ice. The difference of the optical properties between first-year ice in the Amundsen Gulf and multi-year ice in the north of Canada Basin is mainly attributed to various components of the sea ice inclusions caused by the input of terrestrial materials with different absorption and scattering properties.

, correspAuthors=Tao Li, authorNote=null, correspAuthorsNote=null, copyrightStatement=Copyright © 2021 Pratacultural Science. All rights reserved., copyrightOwner=null, extLink=null, articleAbsUrl=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, pdfUrl=null, pdf=null, pdfFileSize=null, pdfExtLink=null, richHtmlUrl=null, mobilePdfUrl=null, reviewReport=null, pdfFirstPage=null, abstractGraph=null, abstractGraphContent=null, abstractVideo=null, citation=null, cebUrl=null, magXmlContent=null, mapNumber=null, authorCompany=null, fund=null, authors=null, authorsList=Jingwei Zhang, Jialiang Zhu, Yubin Yao, Shujiang Li, Xiang Li, Tao Li), CN=ArticleExt(id=1233907188431909278, articleId=1233907184678007007, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, language=CN, title=北极阿蒙森湾一年冰物理和光学性质的观测研究, columnId=1233907182194978940, journalTitle=海洋学报, columnName=极地海冰与气候研究, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

利用加拿大环极冰间水道系统研究项目,作者对2007年11月24日至2008年1月26日北极群岛阿蒙森湾海域秋冬季节一年冰的物理和光学性质进行了观测研究。结果显示,观测期间的海冰厚度整体在27~108 cm范围内变化,积雪厚度仅为0~6 cm。海冰温度、盐度和密度在冰内的分布特征为:海冰表层最低温度为–22.4℃,底层最高温度为–2.2℃,冰内温度随深度单调增大;盐度变化范围为3.30~11.70,冰内盐度剖面呈现“C”形,即表层和底层盐度较大,而中间层盐度较小;海冰的平均密度略大,为(0.91±0.03)g/cm3。通过观测人造光源在海冰中的透射辐射谱分布,发现一年冰的光谱透射辐射在490 nm和589 nm处呈明显的双峰结构,但随着海冰厚度的增加,双峰结构逐渐减弱,体现了海冰对于不同谱段辐射能衰减作用的差异。在可见光范围内,裸冰和雪覆冰的吸收率最小值出现在490 nm,在443~490 nm范围内二者的吸收率随波长增大而降低,在490~683 nm范围内二者的吸收率随波长增大而升高,但雪覆冰的吸收率在可见光范围内基本保持不变,体现了雪覆冰吸收率的光谱独立性。一年冰的谱衰减系数随波长呈“U”字形分布,紫光和红光谱段的衰减系数较大,中间谱段的衰减系数较小,589 nm波长的衰减系数最小,为1.7 m–1。将谱衰减系数在可见光范围内积分,得到一年冰的积分漫射衰减系数约为2.3 m–1,略高于多年浮冰的漫射衰减系数1.5 m–1。阿蒙森湾一年冰与加拿大海盆北部多年浮冰辐射光学性质的差异,主要源于陆源物质输入引起的海冰内含物组分的改变,而不同组分对光谱的吸收和散射性质不同,进一步导致了光学性质的整体变化。

, correspAuthors=李涛, authorNote=null, correspAuthorsNote=
李涛,副教授,主要从事北极海冰与上层海洋光热物理学过程研究。E-mail:
, copyrightStatement=版权所有©《海洋学报》编辑部 2021, copyrightOwner=null, extLink=null, articleAbsUrl=null, sourceXml=RONDbPar87myE4Mw6oGzfg==, magXml=+U7dPNO2chh+7uePzm7ChQ==, pdfUrl=null, pdf=l9hOsqH3N+BpBEq7fMVJJg==, pdfFileSize=1556287, pdfExtLink=null, richHtmlUrl=null, mobilePdfUrl=null, reviewReport=null, pdfFirstPage=null, abstractGraph=38Z2epvYUZhjnQm8knN+nQ==, abstractGraphContent=null, abstractVideo=null, citation=null, cebUrl=null, magXmlContent=1lGWzHpg6/l1baPHKO1dpw==, mapNumber=null, authorCompany=null, fund=null, authors=

张经纬(1998-),男,山东省济南市人,主要从事北极海冰光学过程研究。E-mail:

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张经纬(1998-),男,山东省济南市人,主要从事北极海冰光学过程研究。E-mail:

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张经纬(1998-),男,山东省济南市人,主要从事北极海冰光学过程研究。E-mail:

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The red dots are observing sites, the red curve in b is the Mackenzie River and the green arrow represents one of the three branches of Pacific

inflow—Alaska Coastal Current as the purple and blue arrows represent the another two branches

, figureFileSmall=r0LOgIpH03Wpe9LjbhM3BQ==, figureFileBig=0tx/PxsHqakzEI7CTa7TTw==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1234047112946709138, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, articleId=1233907184678007007, language=CN, label=图1, caption=研究区域和观测站点在北极阿蒙森湾的分布

红色圆点为观测站位,b图中红色曲线表示麦肯锡河流经区域,绿色箭头曲线代表太平洋水进入北冰洋的3条分支之一——阿拉斯加沿岸流,紫色和蓝色箭头曲线代表另外两条分支

, figureFileSmall=r0LOgIpH03Wpe9LjbhM3BQ==, figureFileBig=0tx/PxsHqakzEI7CTa7TTw==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1234047113068343961, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, articleId=1233907184678007007, language=EN, label=Fig. 2, caption=Sketch of the transmitted radiation measurement through sea ice with the artificial lamp, figureFileSmall=E+ZlFOqtZtwKt+MdMwL9CQ==, figureFileBig=aqGVJCtbnSZ0r03Djr38xQ==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1234047113148035745, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, articleId=1233907184678007007, language=CN, label=图2, caption=基于人造光源的海冰透射辐射现场观测示意图, figureFileSmall=E+ZlFOqtZtwKt+MdMwL9CQ==, figureFileBig=aqGVJCtbnSZ0r03Djr38xQ==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1234047113257087656, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, articleId=1233907184678007007, language=EN, label=Fig. 3, caption=Profiles of ice temperature, salinity and density at the typical stations

a. Station 013; b. station 015; c. station 030; d. station 037; e. station 040; f. station 042

, figureFileSmall=v3dz+NUh6FHF8anncHPWEg==, figureFileBig=QRlpxQYsZ8GVbK9wgMU1ag==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1234047113370333873, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, articleId=1233907184678007007, language=CN, label=图3, caption=观测站位典型冰层温度、盐度和密度剖面

各图表示的站位分别为:a. 013;b. 015;c. 030;d. 037;e. 040;f. 042

, figureFileSmall=v3dz+NUh6FHF8anncHPWEg==, figureFileBig=QRlpxQYsZ8GVbK9wgMU1ag==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1234047113462608569, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, articleId=1233907184678007007, language=EN, label=Fig. 4, caption=Average temperature,salinity, density and standard deviation of the sea ice at the typical stations, figureFileSmall=ZdVKzmjoyXbu+C00szSb3g==, figureFileBig=9fzPgw3DbXZbHZPFKhONbg==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1234047113563271874, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, articleId=1233907184678007007, language=CN, label=图4, caption=典型观测站位的海冰平均温度,平均盐度,平均密度和相应的标准差, figureFileSmall=ZdVKzmjoyXbu+C00szSb3g==, figureFileBig=9fzPgw3DbXZbHZPFKhONbg==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1234047113672323786, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, articleId=1233907184678007007, language=EN, label=Fig. 5, caption=Incident and transmitted radiation spectra of the bare ice (a) and snow-covered ice (b), figureFileSmall=3RLAC4kfcUiVlCvpBy2mAA==, figureFileBig=HH497oQByXkpVxitvoJz+w==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1234047113793958609, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, articleId=1233907184678007007, language=CN, label=图5, caption=裸冰条件下(a)与雪覆冰条件下(b)入射与透射辐射谱分布, figureFileSmall=3RLAC4kfcUiVlCvpBy2mAA==, figureFileBig=HH497oQByXkpVxitvoJz+w==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1234047113928176342, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, articleId=1233907184678007007, language=EN, label=Fig. 6, caption=Spectral distribution of absorptance of the bare ice (a) and snow-covered ice (b), figureFileSmall=DjcpFNqFM7DQI5LDn/sMkQ==, figureFileBig=1R1EGqvlHxJlDypfpi6Gfw==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1234047114041422556, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, articleId=1233907184678007007, language=CN, label=图6, caption=观测站位在裸冰条件下(a)和雪覆冰条件下(b)吸收率的谱分布, figureFileSmall=DjcpFNqFM7DQI5LDn/sMkQ==, figureFileBig=1R1EGqvlHxJlDypfpi6Gfw==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1234047114112725731, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, articleId=1233907184678007007, language=EN, label=Fig. 7, caption=Variations of the integral absorptance with thickness of the bare ice (solid line) and snow-covered ice (dashed line), figureFileSmall=yT4FM4/dAsZRdubQdXHs0g==, figureFileBig=hU0pZUXB5Tlz/yDChvFYBg==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1234047114209194734, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, articleId=1233907184678007007, language=CN, label=图7, caption=裸冰(实线)和雪覆冰(虚线)条件下积分吸收率随海冰厚度的变化, figureFileSmall=yT4FM4/dAsZRdubQdXHs0g==, figureFileBig=hU0pZUXB5Tlz/yDChvFYBg==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1234047114322440950, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, articleId=1233907184678007007, language=EN, label=Fig. 8, caption=Spectral attenuation coefficients for various types of ice

a. Surface granular layer of multi-year white ice[12]; b. first-year ice in present study; c. interior of of multi-year white ice[12]; d. melting ice in July 2011[21]; e. melting ice in June 2010[21]

, figureFileSmall=ul4xH5mWaCALevTE7J/tUQ==, figureFileBig=rfgB4x/X4UKMNOW6x1nLYQ==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1234047114406327038, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, articleId=1233907184678007007, language=CN, label=图8, caption=不同类型海冰的衰减系数谱分布

a. 多年冰表面粒状层[12];b. 一年冰;c. 多年冰内部[12];d. 2011年夏季融化冰[21];e. 2010年夏季融化冰[21]

, figureFileSmall=ul4xH5mWaCALevTE7J/tUQ==, figureFileBig=rfgB4x/X4UKMNOW6x1nLYQ==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1234047114502796040, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, articleId=1233907184678007007, language=EN, label=Fig. 9, caption=Variations of the transmitted radiation with thickness of the bare ice

Dots represent the observation values in the field and solid curve is the exponential fitting with the dots

, figureFileSmall=MQOzlUNTzUZ1XJ5/A7TAVQ==, figureFileBig=aTquhYq/iQhqSYtd5aXnYQ==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1234047114611847953, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, articleId=1233907184678007007, language=CN, label=图9, caption=透射辐射随海冰厚度的变化

圆点为观测值,实线是根据公式(5)给出的拟合结果

, figureFileSmall=MQOzlUNTzUZ1XJ5/A7TAVQ==, figureFileBig=aTquhYq/iQhqSYtd5aXnYQ==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1234047116125991700, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, articleId=1233907184678007007, language=EN, label=Table 1, caption=

Summary of the observation stations and major properties of the sea ice and snow in the Amundsen Gulf of the Arctic

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
序号站名观测日期位置冰厚/cm雪厚/cm气温/℃
10112007年11月24日73°45.744'N, 126°50.004'W271–19.2
20132007年11月28日70°25.925'N, 126°28.127'W525–15.9
30142007年11月29日71°08.877'N, 123°55.631'W555–17.6
40152007年11月29日71°08.877'N, 123°55.631'W695–22.4
50212007年12月4日71°25.030'N, 124°55.419'W270–20.6
60222007年12月5日71°18.690'N, 124°46.580'W421–16.5
70232007年12月5日71°18.690'N, 124°46.580'W392–16.5
80242007年12月5日71°18.690'N, 124°46.580'W442–16.5
90292007年12月10日71°15.952'N, 125°15.543'W772–21.7
100302007年12月10日71°15.952'N, 125°15.543'W752–21.7
110322007年12月14日71°25.715'N, 125°53.402'W802–18.9
120332007年12月14日71°25.715'N, 125°53.402'W824–18.9
130342007年12月15日71°25.715'N, 125°53.402'W843–21.7
140352007年12月17日71°47.689'N, 125°52.848'W536–19.6
150362007年12月17日71°47.689'N, 125°52.848'W586–19.6
160372007年12月25日71°16.22'N, 124°25.29'W291–21.0
170382007年12月26日71°13.003'N, 124°26.511'W831–21.0
180392007年12月29日71°22.8'N, 125°04.1'W702–17.6
190402008年1月1日70°58.812'N, 123°29.413W983–24.9
200412008年1月3日71°14.395'N, 124°29.437'W1063–23.3
210422008年1月7日71°31.9'N, 125°34.8'W1082.5–24.9
220442008年1月15日71°30.5'N, 124°55.3'W452–26.1
230452008年1月16日71°30.6'N, 124°55.5'W701–25.8
240472008年1月17日71°31.8'N, 124°58.7'W941.5–24.7
250482008年1月17日71°31.8'N, 124°58.7'W944.5–24.7
260492008年1月18日71°32.8'N, 125°00.6'W703.5–24.6
270512008年1月19日71°32.9'N, 124°59.9'W981–25.4
280522008年1月19日71°32.9'N, 124°59.9'W1084–25.4
290532008年1月20日71°35.2'N, 125°07.3'W553–14.8
300542008年1月22日71°36.2'N, 125°09.4'W564–12.7
310572008年1月26日71°07.4'N, 124°57.5'W933.5–29.1
320582008年1月26日71°07.4'N, 124°57.5'W933–29.1
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北极阿蒙森湾海冰光学观测站位信息

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序号站名观测日期位置冰厚/cm雪厚/cm气温/℃
10112007年11月24日73°45.744'N, 126°50.004'W271–19.2
20132007年11月28日70°25.925'N, 126°28.127'W525–15.9
30142007年11月29日71°08.877'N, 123°55.631'W555–17.6
40152007年11月29日71°08.877'N, 123°55.631'W695–22.4
50212007年12月4日71°25.030'N, 124°55.419'W270–20.6
60222007年12月5日71°18.690'N, 124°46.580'W421–16.5
70232007年12月5日71°18.690'N, 124°46.580'W392–16.5
80242007年12月5日71°18.690'N, 124°46.580'W442–16.5
90292007年12月10日71°15.952'N, 125°15.543'W772–21.7
100302007年12月10日71°15.952'N, 125°15.543'W752–21.7
110322007年12月14日71°25.715'N, 125°53.402'W802–18.9
120332007年12月14日71°25.715'N, 125°53.402'W824–18.9
130342007年12月15日71°25.715'N, 125°53.402'W843–21.7
140352007年12月17日71°47.689'N, 125°52.848'W536–19.6
150362007年12月17日71°47.689'N, 125°52.848'W586–19.6
160372007年12月25日71°16.22'N, 124°25.29'W291–21.0
170382007年12月26日71°13.003'N, 124°26.511'W831–21.0
180392007年12月29日71°22.8'N, 125°04.1'W702–17.6
190402008年1月1日70°58.812'N, 123°29.413W983–24.9
200412008年1月3日71°14.395'N, 124°29.437'W1063–23.3
210422008年1月7日71°31.9'N, 125°34.8'W1082.5–24.9
220442008年1月15日71°30.5'N, 124°55.3'W452–26.1
230452008年1月16日71°30.6'N, 124°55.5'W701–25.8
240472008年1月17日71°31.8'N, 124°58.7'W941.5–24.7
250482008年1月17日71°31.8'N, 124°58.7'W944.5–24.7
260492008年1月18日71°32.8'N, 125°00.6'W703.5–24.6
270512008年1月19日71°32.9'N, 124°59.9'W981–25.4
280522008年1月19日71°32.9'N, 124°59.9'W1084–25.4
290532008年1月20日71°35.2'N, 125°07.3'W553–14.8
300542008年1月22日71°36.2'N, 125°09.4'W564–12.7
310572008年1月26日71°07.4'N, 124°57.5'W933.5–29.1
320582008年1月26日71°07.4'N, 124°57.5'W933–29.1
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北极阿蒙森湾一年冰物理和光学性质的观测研究
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张经纬 1 , 朱嘉良 1 , 姚宇斌 1 , 李淑江 2 , 李翔 3 , 李涛 1, *
海洋学报 | 极地海冰与气候研究 2021,43(7): 138-151
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海洋学报 | 极地海冰与气候研究 2021, 43(7): 138-151
北极阿蒙森湾一年冰物理和光学性质的观测研究
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张经纬1 , 朱嘉良1, 姚宇斌1, 李淑江2, 李翔3, 李涛1, *
作者信息
  • 1中国海洋大学 海洋与大气学院,山东 青岛 266100
  • 2自然资源部第一海洋研究所,山东 青岛 266061
  • 3中国科学院海洋研究所,山东 青岛 266071
  • 张经纬(1998-),男,山东省济南市人,主要从事北极海冰光学过程研究。E-mail:

通讯作者:

李涛,副教授,主要从事北极海冰与上层海洋光热物理学过程研究。E-mail:
Physical and optical properties of the first-year ice in the Amundsen Gulf of the Arctic
Jingwei Zhang1 , Jialiang Zhu1, Yubin Yao1, Shujiang Li2, Xiang Li3, Tao Li1, *
Affiliations
  • 1College of Oceanic and Atmospheric Sciences, Ocean University of China, Qingdao 266100, China
  • 2First Institute of Oceanography, Ministry of Natural Resources, Qingdao 266061, China
  • 3Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao 266071, China
出版时间: 2021-07-25 doi: 10.12284/hyxb2021153
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利用加拿大环极冰间水道系统研究项目,作者对2007年11月24日至2008年1月26日北极群岛阿蒙森湾海域秋冬季节一年冰的物理和光学性质进行了观测研究。结果显示,观测期间的海冰厚度整体在27~108 cm范围内变化,积雪厚度仅为0~6 cm。海冰温度、盐度和密度在冰内的分布特征为:海冰表层最低温度为–22.4℃,底层最高温度为–2.2℃,冰内温度随深度单调增大;盐度变化范围为3.30~11.70,冰内盐度剖面呈现“C”形,即表层和底层盐度较大,而中间层盐度较小;海冰的平均密度略大,为(0.91±0.03)g/cm3。通过观测人造光源在海冰中的透射辐射谱分布,发现一年冰的光谱透射辐射在490 nm和589 nm处呈明显的双峰结构,但随着海冰厚度的增加,双峰结构逐渐减弱,体现了海冰对于不同谱段辐射能衰减作用的差异。在可见光范围内,裸冰和雪覆冰的吸收率最小值出现在490 nm,在443~490 nm范围内二者的吸收率随波长增大而降低,在490~683 nm范围内二者的吸收率随波长增大而升高,但雪覆冰的吸收率在可见光范围内基本保持不变,体现了雪覆冰吸收率的光谱独立性。一年冰的谱衰减系数随波长呈“U”字形分布,紫光和红光谱段的衰减系数较大,中间谱段的衰减系数较小,589 nm波长的衰减系数最小,为1.7 m–1。将谱衰减系数在可见光范围内积分,得到一年冰的积分漫射衰减系数约为2.3 m–1,略高于多年浮冰的漫射衰减系数1.5 m–1。阿蒙森湾一年冰与加拿大海盆北部多年浮冰辐射光学性质的差异,主要源于陆源物质输入引起的海冰内含物组分的改变,而不同组分对光谱的吸收和散射性质不同,进一步导致了光学性质的整体变化。

北极  /  一年冰  /  物理性质  /  光学性质  /  衰减系数

In the Canadian Circumpolar Flaw Lead System Study, the physical and optical properties of first-year ice during the freezing season were observed at the Amundsen Gulf from November 24th, 2007 to January 26th, 2008. The results show that the thickness of sea ice during this period ranged from 27 cm to 108 cm, while the snow depth varied between 0 cm and 6 cm. The changes of temperature, salinity and density in the interior of sea ice are respectively: temperature within the sea ice rose monotonically along with the increasing of depth, reaching a maximum of −2.2℃ at the surface and a minimum of −22.4℃ at the bottom; the salinity ranged from 3.30 to 11.70 with a C-shaped pattern in its vertical section, which means that the salinity of upper surface and bottom layer is larger than that in the middle part; the average density of the sea ice was slightly larger, which is (0.91±0.03) g/cm3. With the special designing of artificial light source and in-situ instrumentation, an obvious two-peek structure at 490 nm and 589 nm was found in the spectral distribution of the transmitted radiation through the first-year ice. The two-peak structure weakens as the thickness of sea ice increases, indicating the spectrum dependence of the attenuation. In the visible band, the spectral absorbance of both bare ice and snow-covered ice reaches its minimum at 490 nm, and rises as the wavelength moves towards 443 nm or 683 nm. However, for snow-covered ice, the variation of absorption rate is little enough to present a spectral independence. In addition, the spectral distribution of the attenuation coefficient was U-shaped in the visible band, with a minimum of 1.7 m−1 at 589 nm. The integral diffuse attenuation coefficient of the first-year ice in visible band was about 2.3 m−1, which was slightly higher than 1.5 m−1, the diffuse attenuation coefficient of multi-year floe ice. The difference of the optical properties between first-year ice in the Amundsen Gulf and multi-year ice in the north of Canada Basin is mainly attributed to various components of the sea ice inclusions caused by the input of terrestrial materials with different absorption and scattering properties.

Arctic  /  first-year ice  /  physical properties  /  optical properties  /  attenuation coefficient
张经纬, 朱嘉良, 姚宇斌, 李淑江, 李翔, 李涛. 北极阿蒙森湾一年冰物理和光学性质的观测研究. 海洋学报, 2021 , 43 (7) : 138 -151 . DOI: 10.12284/hyxb2021153
Jingwei Zhang, Jialiang Zhu, Yubin Yao, Shujiang Li, Xiang Li, Tao Li. Physical and optical properties of the first-year ice in the Amundsen Gulf of the Arctic[J]. Haiyang Xuebao, 2021 , 43 (7) : 138 -151 . DOI: 10.12284/hyxb2021153
近年来,北极气候和环境处于快速变化之中[1],北极海冰的变化主要体现为海冰面积减小[2-4],多年冰厚度减薄[5-7]和多年冰向一年冰的转变[8-10]。由于海冰的反照率远大于海水[11],海冰的减少导致北冰洋整体反照率降低,更多的太阳辐射能储存在深色大洋中,海洋吸收更多的热量造成海冰加速融化,海冰面积进一步减小,此即反照率正反馈机制。除此之外,海冰的吸收率、透射率和衰减系数等光学性质从本质上决定了海冰对太阳辐射的吸收,从而进一步改变海冰的体积和质量。
海冰反照率与海冰表面类型密切相关,Grenfell和Maykut[12]最早将海冰表面划分为不同类型,计算了各类型海冰的反照率,并对这些系数与海冰厚度的关系进行了深入的讨论。海冰表面类型及其内部结构的季节性变化决定了海冰反照率的季节变化特征。在海冰冻结期,反照率随着海冰厚度的增加逐渐增大,较短波长的谱反照率变化更为显著[13]。而从春季海冰融化初期开始,反照率的变化过程可以被划分为7个阶段:冷雪期、融雪期、融池形成期、融池排水期、融池发展期、融池融透期和冻结期。冷雪期的反照率可达0.85,进入融雪期后的1周内反照率降低至0.60,随着融池的形成反照率继续降低至0.32。因融池排水,反照率会略微回升至0.54,随着融池发展,反照率下降至0.20,接下来因为海冰的迅速融化形成开阔水域,反照率在1天内可下降至0.07,当进入冻结期后海冰反照率又会逐渐增大到0.85[14]。除此之外,夏季海冰反照率还存在明显的空间差异性[15]。在7月末,因为海冰的融化,区域内的反照率在白色裸冰的0.65和较深融池的0.10之间变化,平均值为0.40[16]。Peng等[17]通过分析1982–2015年夏季整个北极地区和8个分区海冰反照率的空间变化得出,北极海冰区的平均反照率为0.44,高反照率区主要集中在北冰洋中部地区和格陵兰岛附近,且反照率与海冰密集度和海冰面积呈正相关。
由于海冰透射辐射的观测难度较大,因此,国际上针对海冰透射辐射和衰减性质的现场观测研究较少。北冰洋表面热收支项目(SHEBA)期间的观测显示,被冰雪吸收和透过海冰的透射辐射分别占入射辐射总量的24%和8%,吸收和透射的能量随太阳辐照度的增加和海冰融化逐渐增大,8月下旬时的融池和冰间水道的面积达到最大,此时向海洋输送的能量达到最大值,其中大部分能量通过冰间水道输送[18]。从4月中旬到9月中旬,北冰洋海盆区海冰底部融化的2/3能量来源于透过海冰进入海洋的太阳辐射能[19]。在海冰冻结期,到达冰面的太阳短波辐射大部分被冰雪表面反射,只有1/5左右的辐射被海冰吸收,少量穿过海冰进入海水,其中490 nm的光透射能力最强,较长波长的光在穿透海冰时受到很大的削弱[20]。而在融化期间,一年冰的透射率取决于冰的厚度和冰内部散射系数的大小,海冰表面散射层与排水层的存在导致其透射率低[21]。近几年水下技术的发展为人们观测冰下光场提供了更多机会。借助水下机器人(ROV/NUI)对冰下光场空间特征的观测研究表明,一年冰的透射率(0.11)是多年冰的透射率(0.04)的3倍,且一年冰吸收的能量比多年冰高50%左右[22]。海冰的表面状态对小尺度(<1 000 m2)冰下光场的空间分布起主导作用,而海冰厚度则在大尺度冰下光场的空间分布上成为主导因素[23]。基于对海冰透射率的研究,人们计算出了不同类型海冰的衰减系数,其中多年冰、浮冰和沿岸固定冰的衰减系数分别为1.5 m−1,1.1 m−1和2.2 m−1[24-25]。研究结果还表明海冰衰减系数具有较强的波长依赖性,红光的衰减系数大于蓝绿光的衰减系数[26],海冰光谱衰减系数在500 nm附近出现最小值,在500~600 nm之间逐渐增大,在近红外波长处有明显增加[11, 27]。此外,海冰只衰减特定强度的辐射,衰减量与入射辐射光谱分布以及辐射的强度无关[28]
由于海冰的光学性质与其物理性质有密切的关系[12, 27, 29-30],因此在海冰光学的研究过程中,人们对海冰的物理性质及其结构也做了很多定量的分析[21, 31-32]。一般而言,当海水温度低于–1.9 ℃时开始结冰,由于盐分和空气不会融入冰晶,海冰生成时盐分析出,部分盐分和空气来不及排出被夹杂在冰晶之间形成卤水和气泡,海冰的盐度由其冻结速率决定[33]。海冰温度的升高、卤水体积的增加和内含物的减少都会减小海冰的衰减系数[12]。王庆凯[34]通过分析2008–2016年融冰期的北冰洋冰层,发现海冰温度的变化范围为–2.7~–0.3℃,盐度和密度的变化范围分别为0.40~3.00和0.60~0.90 g/cm3,并且在此期间冰层平均温度逐年增加。Cao等[35]在2018年北极海冰融化期间分析了海冰的温度、盐度、密度和结构,结果表明海冰的融化导致了其物理性质的分层,海冰温度在–0.8~0℃之间,平均盐度和平均密度分别为1.30、0.83 g/cm3
由于北极严酷的自然环境和现场考察的局限性,前人的工作主要聚焦在研究北冰洋多年冰的光学性质,对于秋冬季节一年冰的物理和相应的辐射光学特性观测极其稀少,导致人们对秋冬季节一年冰的冻结过程与太阳辐射的相互作用关系知之甚少。并且,北极秋冬季节的日照时间逐渐减少,尤其是到了冬季极夜期间,一年冰与太阳辐射相互作用的现场观测工作无法开展,极大地限制了人们对其光学特性的认识。通过参加第四次国际极地年期间最大的北极越冬科学考察计划——环极冰间水道系统研究项目,作者在极夜期间利用人造光源对一年冰的光学辐射性质进行了现场观测,结合一年冰的物理性质,系统研究了秋冬季节海冰的谱光学特征。
本文的数据来源是2007年11月至2008年2月期间加拿大环极冰间水道系统研究(Circumpolar Flaw Lead System Study,CFL)科学考察计划现场观测的海冰物理和光学数据。在此期间,加拿大破冰船“阿蒙森号”停靠在加拿大北极群岛——班克斯岛南部的阿蒙森湾内,开展为期1年的多学科越冬考察任务。麦肯锡河位于阿蒙森湾的西侧,其流量为3.3×1011 m3/a,是波弗特海的主要淡水来源,径流携带的大量悬浮物和营养物质在阿拉斯加沿岸流的作用下注入到阿蒙森湾[36-37]图1),显著影响了湾内的水文生态环境。本文开展的人造光源辐射观测实验在阿蒙森湾内32个不同冰雪厚度的站点进行,各个观测站位的海冰类型相同,都为当年新冰和新雪。整个观测期间,海冰的厚度范围为27~108 cm,雪的厚度范围为0~6 cm,气温的变化范围为–29.1~–12.7℃,如表1所示。除此之外,在013、015、030、037、040和042站测量了不同深度冰雪的温度和海冰的盐度,并在037、040、042站测量了一年冰不同深度下的密度。
美国BSI公司生产的多光谱剖面反射辐射计PRR系统包含一个水下剖面仪PRR-800和一个表面参考辐射计PRR-810,该系统主要用于测量光谱辐照度,还可测量仪器倾斜度、水温和压力等参数。该设备的采样频率均为5 Hz,带宽为10 nm,可测量的光谱范围为305~875 nm,共计18个波段。本次实验中的有效谱段为443 nm,465 nm,490 nm,510 nm,532 nm,555 nm,565 nm,589 nm,625 nm,665 nm和683 nm。
由于极夜期间没有太阳辐射,因此采用人造光源进行海冰的光学辐射观测。尽管人造光源的光谱能量分布状态和自然光源存在差别,但二者的可见光谱段完全重合[38],对于研究海冰的光谱学性质方面完全满足要求。同时,在观测过程中需遵循一定的操作流程来消除人造光源的不稳定性和能量在空气中的衰减损失。具体观测方案如图2所示:首先选择一处开阔的区域作为试验场地,在海冰中钻一个直径为25 cm的孔,用于测量海冰厚度和雪厚,同时开启人造光源将其平铺在冰雪层上,向冰内照射。然后将光学探头PRR-800放置在冰下,与人造光源中心的正下方对齐,待人造光源稳定后测量穿过海冰进入海水的辐射。最后将人造光源竖立在冰面上,待人造光源稳定后用光学探头PRR-810测量入射辐射谱,此时光学探头与人造光源的距离需要和海冰的厚度一致。实验先是在有积雪的条件下进行测量,此时的光穿透海冰和积雪,用来计算光在冰雪层中的衰减特性,然后去掉积雪,在裸冰的条件下重复测量,此时的光只穿过冰层,通过光学探头测量的数据可以计算光在冰层中的透射和衰减。在使用人造光源时,部分光线从人造光源进入海冰发生多次散射后会再次返回人造光源面板,但这部分光会被人造光源的背板和前板多次反射进入海冰,因此本文忽略反射辐射的影响。
海冰温度的测量方法是现场钻取1根冰芯,并立即用手电钻以间距5 cm在冰芯上钻孔至其内部;随后将热敏电阻温度计的探针插入孔中,待示数稳定后记录冰芯温度。海冰盐度的测量是将冰芯用手锯分割成长度为5 cm的冰芯段,并装入洁净的容器密封保存,待冰芯段完全融化后用盐度计测量融冰水的盐度。海冰密度测量采用质量/体积法,即选取一根完整的冰芯,以10 cm间距将其切割成冰芯段,并将此段冰芯在冷室条件下制成标准的长方体,用电子天平和游标卡尺测量冰芯段的质量和尺寸,计算冰芯段的密度。
海冰的表观光学参数主要包括海冰反照率、透射率、吸收率和漫射衰减系数。由于使用多光谱仪器进行观测,因此可以获得以上参数的谱分布,利用谱分布的积分,可以近似获得海冰的积分光学参数。
海冰的谱透射率被定义为[39]
$T(z,\lambda )=\frac{{F}_{\rm{d}}(z,\lambda )}{{F}_{\rm{d}}(0,\lambda )}, $
式中,${F_{\rm{d}}}(0,\lambda )$是平面向下辐照度,即入射辐照度;0代表海冰表面;${F_{\rm{d}}}(z,\lambda )$$z$深度上的平面向下辐照度,相应的积分透射率为
${T_{t}}(z) = \frac{{\int {T(z,\lambda ){F_{\rm{d}}}(0,\lambda ){\rm{d}}\lambda } }}{{\int {{F_{\rm{d}}}(0,\lambda ){\rm{d}}\lambda } }}.$
对于厚度为$z$的海冰而言,海冰反射的能量、透射的能量以及吸收的能量之和应该等于到达海冰表面的能量,但本次实验中我们假设海冰的反射辐射可以忽略不计,入射辐射为透射辐射和吸收辐射之和,即
${F_{\rm{d}}}(0,\lambda ) = {F_{\rm{d}}}(z,\lambda ) + {F_{\rm{a}}}(z,\lambda ),$
式中,${F_{\rm{a}}}(z,\lambda )$是厚度为$z$的海冰吸收的能量。等式两边同时除以入射辐射${F_{\rm{d}}}(0,\lambda )$,得
${\rm{1}} = T(z,\lambda ) + A(z,\lambda ),$
式中,$A(z,\lambda )$是厚度为$z$的海冰谱吸收率。
根据平面平行介质辐射传输方程,在不考虑海冰内部散射的条件下,$z$深度处的海冰辐照度${F_{\rm{d}}}(z,\lambda )$满足朗伯定律[39]
${F_{\rm{d}}}(z,\lambda ) = {F_{\rm{d}}}(0,\lambda ){{\rm{e}}^{ - \kappa z}},$
式中,$\kappa $是海冰的漫射衰减系数。该式说明透射辐射随着海冰深度的增加而呈指数下降,下降速度取决于衰减系数。实际计算中,将不同海冰厚度处的透射辐射进行离散化指数拟合就可以得到海冰衰减系数。
由于观测站点位于阿蒙森湾内的不同位置,各个站位得到的入射和透射辐射各不相同,为了能对入射和透射辐射进行比较分析,需要对数据进行归一化处理。参考Mueller[40]的数据处理方法,假设实际测量时站点A的入射辐射为${F_{\rm{1}}}$,站点B的入射和透射辐射分别为${F_{\rm{2}}}$${F_{\rm{3}}}$,则站点B在站点A的入射辐射条件下时,其透射辐射${F_{\rm{3}}}^{'}$应为
${F_3}^{'} = \frac{{{F_1}}}{{{F_2}}} \times {F_3}.$
本文中,以037站位的入射辐射为标准,利用公式(6)对其余31个站点的透射辐射数据进行归一化处理。
海冰的光学性质主要由海冰内部的物理结构决定,而物理结构与海冰的温度、盐度和密度等物理参数密不可分[41]。一般而言,融冰期海冰内部温度随深度增大而逐渐降低,还可能由于气温的变化在表层出现逆温结构[34-35],但在秋季冻结期冰层温度的垂向变化则完全相反。通过分析不同站位的温度剖面,我们发现雪层表面温度约为测量当天的空气温度,从雪层表面至海冰底部温度单调增大,并未出现逆温结构,由于数据的测量并不是在同一天进行,测量期间的空气温度在–24.9℃到–15.9℃范围内变化,海冰表层最低温度为–22.4℃,海冰底层最高温度为–2.2℃,如图3所示。通过计算温度梯度,我们发现温度随深度的增加趋势并不稳定,具体表现在雪气界面至海冰表层5 cm深的范围内随深度增加而快速上升,增速达到1.1℃/cm,当深度继续增大时,温度上升的趋势变缓且上升速度比较稳定,增速为0.2℃/cm,直至到达冰底接近冰水混合物的温度。由于秋季一年冰的积雪厚度较小,大约在0~6 cm之间变化,各个站点间积雪深度差异并不明显。由图还可以看出,在013、015、030和037站位,当深度到达裸冰表层5 cm时,冰内温度明显上升,达到了冰底温度与空气温度的平均值,而在040和042站位,温度剖面在裸冰表层深度5 cm以上部分也有变化。考虑到裸冰厚度比冰表面的积雪厚度高出一个量级,该结果说明表面积雪及裸冰表层5 cm对热量的传输有很大影响。如图4所示,随着季节变化,冰层的平均温度逐渐降低,从11月底的–7.1℃逐渐降低至1月初的–12.1℃,冰层平均温度的降低率在11月底最高,12月中旬最低,分别为2.1℃/d和0.1℃/d。从11月28日至1月7日,冰层平均温度的降低率约为–0.2℃/d。
在海冰冻结阶段,阿蒙森湾内的海冰盐度变化范围是3.30~11.70,盐度最小值3.30出现在015站,盐度最大值11.70出现在037站,如图3所示。各站的海冰盐度平均值分别为4.80、5.25、6.11、9.52、5.95、5.47,如图4所示,远大于融冰期的海冰平均盐度1.36[34-35],由于042站接近冰底的盐度数据缺失,如图3f所示,盐度在接近冰底的位置没有上升,导致该站的冰层盐度平均值的计算结果偏小。在融冰期间,由于海冰温度升高,海冰内部卤水通道增加,重力排盐作用加强,导致海冰盐度随深度略有增大,但冻结期海冰盐度的垂向变化呈现出“C”形,即表层海冰盐度随深度迅速减小,递减率为0.14 cm−1。随着深度增加盐度整体呈现缓慢的下降趋势,但在接近海冰底部时由于海水的影响导致盐度迅速上升,平均增速达到0.35 cm−1。在海冰形成时,海水的迅速冻结在海冰表层形成粒状层,这些不规则的粒状冰将卤水封锁在海冰表面,使海冰表面盐度较高[34]。同时,由于表层不规则的粒状冰与卤水泡的存在,海冰表面对光有很强的散射效应。此外,013,015,030,040和042站点的海冰平均盐度差距不大,这5个站的海冰平均盐度为 5.52±0.52。而在037站的海冰平均盐度最大,比这5个站的平均盐度高出42%。原因是037站位的海冰厚度小,冻结时间较短,海冰冻结过程中的卤水排出量少且盐度受到海水影响较大所致。从12月份进入1月后,海冰厚度逐渐增加,其生长速率降低,卤水有更多机会从冰晶缝隙间排出,海冰的平均盐度也因此降低。
海冰密度是通过测量冰芯的质量和体积确定的,冰芯的密度如图3d图3f所示。在结冰期间,海冰密度在0.86~0.96 g/cm3范围内波动,如图3图4所示。037站、040站和042站的冰层平均密度约为0.91 g/cm3,明显大于融冰期的冰层平均密度0.83 g/cm3,但无论是在融冰期还是冻结期,冰层下半部分平均密度都要大于上半部分平均密度[35],在冻结期上半部分冰层的平均密度约为0.90 g/cm3,其下半部分冰层的平均密度约为0.91 g/cm3。Timco和Frederking[42]整理并总结了前人对海冰密度的研究,提出一年冰密度略大于多年冰密度,水面以下海冰密度大于水面之上海冰密度,且一年冰密度范围为0.75~0.94 g/cm3,平均值为0.91 g/cm3。作者在040和042站观测到的海冰密度平均值略大于Timco和Frederking[42]给出的一年冰密度平均值,主要原因是本文的观测站位离岸距离较近,海冰内部陆缘性物质较多,导致其密度偏大[43-44]。另一个可能的原因是在海冰冻结初期,海冰冻结速度较快,部分卤水来不及排出就被冻结在海冰中,较多的卤水含量使海冰密度平均值偏大。海冰密度除了与冰内杂质和卤水含量有密切关系之外,冻结时内部残留气泡所占的体积也极大的影响海冰密度,密度随空气体积的增加而降低[34, 42]。因此,研究海冰密度的变化必须同时考虑以上影响因素,不同的因素在不同海域和不同冻结条件下所发挥的作用不同,最终的密度变化不能以某一种因素作为衡量标准。由于无法掌握观测区域海冰的微结构特征,即无法量化卤水、气泡和内含物在海冰中的分配,因此,对于本次考察中不同站位海冰密度的变化情况不能给出确定的原因,但通过与前人的研究进行对比,考虑了陆缘物质的影响之后,其总体的变化规律得到了很好的呈现。
加拿大北极群岛一年冰的物理和光学观测完全在极夜条件下进行,观测站位的具体信息如表1所示。由于每个站点海冰厚度各不相同,此处选取了32个站点中海冰厚度具有明显差异的6个站点的表观光学特征进行研究,其中最小的裸冰厚度为27 cm,最大裸冰厚度为108 cm。分析发现,由于人造光源本身的光谱特征,穿过裸冰和雪覆冰的入射辐射和透射辐射在490 nm和589 nm波长具有明显的双峰结构,且在589 nm处的峰值更高,达到1.1~1.2 μW/(cm2·nm),如图5所示。尽管不同厚度海冰的透射辐射也存在双峰结构,但在二者谱段的峰值差距减小,说明海冰对于589 nm波长的光具有更强的吸收作用。对于积雪覆盖的海冰而言,在海冰入射辐射差异较小的情况下,透射辐射的能量减少更多,说明积雪对于辐射能的衰减更为明显。尤其是在积雪厚度超过2 cm之后,透射辐射的能量明显小于相同厚度的海冰导致的辐射衰减,进一步说明了积雪在海冰光学衰减性质中的重要性。另外,随着海冰厚度的增加,积雪覆盖海冰的透射辐射随着波长的变化逐渐减小,双峰结构不再明显,465~625 nm范围内的透射辐射基本保持常量。一方面说明不同谱段的辐射能在海冰和积雪中的衰减效果不同,另一方面也显示雪覆冰的厚度达到一定程度后,透射辐射的光谱依赖性明显减弱。
从吸收率的光谱分布上可以看出,裸冰和雪覆冰的吸收率随光谱的变化整体上呈现“勺”型分布,蓝绿光吸收较少,紫光和红光谱段吸收较多,其中490 nm波长的吸收率最小,683 nm波长的吸收率最大,如图6所示。在443~490 nm谱段范围内,吸收率随着波长的增加快速减小,下降速率达到0.007 6 nm−1,而在490~683 nm谱段内,吸收率的增加速率为0.002 7 nm−1。相对于裸冰而言,雪覆冰的吸收率随波长的变化较为平缓,尤其是在490~625 nm的谱段,海冰吸收率基本不随波长发生变化,体现了雪覆冰吸收率的光谱独立性。具体而言,在厚度为29 cm的裸冰上,490 nm波长的吸收率为0.39,此时被厚度为1 cm的积雪覆盖后其吸收率为0.51。在厚度为106 cm的裸冰上,490 nm波长的吸收率为0.81,此时被厚度为3 cm的积雪覆盖后其吸收率为0.91。对于683 nm波长的光而言,当积雪存在时,其吸收率都超过了0.68,而当积雪存在且海冰厚度超过64 cm时,其吸收率超过了0.92,即在红光或者近红外谱段,辐射能几乎在64 cm以内被海冰全部吸收。
通过对光谱进行积分,可以定量讨论裸冰和雪覆冰吸收率的整体变化规律,如图7所示。不同类型海冰的积分吸收率都随着海冰厚度的增加而不断增大,该特征也可以从吸收率公式本身得到。同时,由于积雪的存在,雪覆冰整体的吸收率要大于裸冰的吸收率,但二者的整体变化趋势一致。尽管海冰吸收率与海冰厚度变化成正比,但在不同厚度条件下,吸收率的增长趋势略有不同。裸冰在海冰厚度小于70 cm时,吸收率增长速率较快,为0.007 8 cm−1,而海冰厚度一旦超过70 cm,吸收率的增长趋势放缓,增长速率仅为0.002 4 cm−1,雪覆冰具有类似特征,总厚度小于74 cm时,增长速率为0.008 6 cm−1,总厚度超过该量值后,增长速率仅为0.001 5 cm−1。由此可见,海冰厚度对薄冰的吸收率影响更加明显。
随着北冰洋海冰厚度的不断减薄,多年冰持续减退,一年冰所占比例不断增加,但海冰对太阳辐射的吸收作用并不会等比例减弱,而是更加体现为一年冰的吸收性质。
海冰的吸收率尽管体现了介质对辐射能的吸收作用,但该参数强烈的依赖于海冰厚度,因此,为了准确理解海冰与辐射能的相互作用规律,需要讨论不依赖于海冰厚度的光学参数——衰减系数的变化情况。
根据朗伯比尔定律,我们采用离散的方法计算了不同谱段的衰减系数,如图8中的曲线b所示。在观测波长范围内,衰减系数谱分布的曲线呈“U”字形,紫光和红光波段的衰减系数较大,中间部分谱段的衰减系数较小,这与从图6得到的结论一致,说明了海冰对近紫外和近红外波段的光有很强的吸收作用。对于裸冰而言,589 nm波长的光衰减系数最小,为1.7 m−1,683 nm波长的光衰减系数最大,达到了13.3 m−1。对于谱段在443~465 nm范围内的光而言,裸冰的衰减系数随着波长的增大从6.5 m−1减小至2.3 m−1。谱段在465~625 nm范围内时,裸冰衰减系数较小且保持在(2.0±0.3)m−1范围内变化,当谱段在625~683 nm范围内时,裸冰的衰减系数随着波长增大,从1.8 m−1迅速增大为13.3 m−1。由于针对北极群岛附近一年冰的光谱衰减性质研究极少,我们选取了多年冰和夏季融化冰的光谱衰减系数进行比较,如图8中的曲线a、c、d、e所示,曲线a代表多年冰的表面粒状层,曲线c代表多年冰的内部,曲线d和e分别代表不同年份的夏季融化冰。加拿大北极群岛一年冰的光学衰减系数(图8曲线b)整体位于多年冰粒状层(图8曲线a)和冰内部(图8曲线c)衰减系数之间,并同时高于夏季融化冰的衰减系数(图8曲线d和e)。夏季融化冰由于经过融化过程,海冰内部渗透性增加,气泡含量减少,即海冰的散射性降低导致其衰减系数整体偏小,而多年冰表面粒状层的散射能力极强,引起可见光谱段衰减系数明显高于一年冰和多年冰内部。北极群岛一年冰的光谱衰减性质与其他类型海冰最大的不同来自于波长较短的紫光谱段。产生这种不同的原因主要来自两个方面:黄色物质在紫光谱段的吸收作用[45-46]和该谱段较低的入射辐射量。由于观测站点位于北极群岛西侧阿蒙森湾内,湾内营养物质丰富[47-48],并且靠近班克斯岛,从西部的麦肯锡河入海口注入波弗特海的大量陆缘物质被阿拉斯加流带到阿蒙森湾[49],如图1所示,导致湾内黄色物质较多。而黄色物质对紫光的吸收能力强,是蓝绿光的6倍[45]。在海冰冻结过程中,黄色物质存留在海冰内部,使一年冰的谱衰减系数在443 nm波段超过了多年冰表面粒状层的谱衰减系数,而在683 nm波段处一年冰衰减系数偏大的原因除了黄色物质对红光也有一定吸收能力之外,还与一年冰内部含有较多卤水且卤水对红外光具有较强的吸收能力有关[39],两个因素的共同作用使一年冰在683 nm波长的谱衰减系数最大。
海冰的积分衰减系数可以由冰内积分透射辐射剖面拟合获得,但是,由于海冰是固态物质,无法在不破坏海冰内部结构的条件下测量得到海冰内部不同深度处的辐射能,也就无法直接获得冰内辐射剖面,因此,通过归一化不同厚度海冰的透射辐射值,近似拟合海冰的积分衰减系数,如图9所示。随着海冰厚度的增加,总透射辐射逐渐减小,当海冰厚度为27 cm时,透射辐射为0.5 μW/(cm2·nm);当海冰厚度为108 cm时,透射辐射减小为0.1 μW/(cm2·nm);当海冰厚度超过70 cm时,透过海冰的辐射能量下降程度减弱,透射辐射在0.1~0.3 μW/(cm2·nm)范围内波动,平均值约为0.2 μW/(cm2·nm),说明海冰上层70 cm的厚度吸收了大部分入射辐射能。利用观测到的积分透射辐射,通过公式(5)可以拟合得到本次实验地点的一年冰的衰减系数为2.3 m−1。对于浮冰而言,加拿大海盆北部多年冰的漫射衰减系数为1.5 m−1[24],但对于靠近岸边的一年冰而言,该数值与Thomas[25]给出的沿岸固定冰衰减系数为2.2 m−1的结论相一致。主要原因是该研究海域距离班克斯岛很近,海冰属于陆缘冰,同时受到西侧麦肯锡三角洲的径流影响,较多的陆缘物质进入阿蒙森湾[37],导致海冰密度的增加和衰减系数的增大[25]
由于人造光源相对于自然光源而言存在光照面积小和光谱分布不一致的情况,因此,在利用人造光源进行海冰的光学研究过程中,会不可避免地引入一些误差,导致以此计算的海冰表观光学参数与自然光源条件下的光学参数存在差异。
图2的观测方法中可以看出,人造光源完全平铺在冰面,光线透过海冰到达冰底的光学传感器。光线从光源发出后,在传播过程中会发生散射,多次散射光一部分被海冰吸收,另一部分前向散射光作为透射辐射被冰底传感器接收,后向散射光离开海冰成为反照率的一部分。但是,平铺在冰面的人造光源经过特殊设计,后向散射光离开海冰后会被人造光源的背板和前板再次反射,从而保证后向散射光也全部进入海冰,使得海冰的反照率近似0[38]。同时,冰底光学传感器配备前向光学系统,缩小观测仪器的立体角,从而在一定程度上减少人造光源面积有限导致的光线在海冰内部的侧向散射损失[38]。尽管如此,人造光源的有限面积依然会导致一定程度上高估海冰的漫射衰减系数。
由海冰积分吸收率和积分衰减系数的公式可知,积分谱段的分辨率直接影响最终积分参数的准确性。本次实验使用的光学反射辐射剖面仪的光谱观测范围是443~683 nm,共包含11个谱段,光谱的分辨率平均为21.8 nm。由于不同谱段的辐射能在海冰中的衰减效果不同,光谱分辨率的降低掩盖了某些谱段在海冰中衰减的特殊性。本次实验的地点位于加拿大北极群岛的阿蒙森湾内部,距离陆地近,水深较浅,营养盐等物质较为丰富,同时受到麦肯锡河和阿拉斯加沿岸流的影响,海冰冻结过程中可能会有一定数量的冰藻和黄色物质存在于海冰内部,从而导致海冰的积分漫射衰减系数存在误差。但是,仪器的光谱分辨率仅仅影响积分光学参数,而不会引起海冰各谱段光学参数的误差。
另外,依据理论公式(5),海冰漫射衰减系数的确定需要在海冰中测量不同深度处的透射辐射,即获得海冰内部的透射辐射剖面,但由于在海冰生长过程中,很难在不破坏海冰整体结构的现场条件下,对不同深度处的透射辐射进行观测,因此无法获得某点原位海冰的完整透射辐射剖面。本项工作假设实际观测中不同地点不同厚度的海冰透射辐射值为某一点原位海冰处于不同生长阶段时测量获得的海冰透射辐射,即为该点的透射辐射剖面。和实际原位辐射剖面观测相比,该假设包含了每层厚度处冰底结构对海冰衰减性质的影响。从海冰的物理结构可知,一年冰包括表层散射层、中间柱状层和冰底骨骼层[50]。随着不同站点海冰厚度的不断增加,散射层和柱状层基本保持不变,只是每个厚度的透射辐射观测都包含了该站位冰底骨骼层对光场的影响。由于底部骨骼层温度较高,盐度较大,气泡含量少,其漫射衰减系数会相应减小[12],因此,多点厚度海冰的光学透射辐射观测会低估海冰实际的漫射衰减系数。
以上3个方面的原因整体而言会给一年冰光学参数的计算带来误差,但不同原因所引起的漫射衰减系数误差偏向不同,同时,现场试验过程和后期的数据处理过程都采用了一定的方法和手段来减小误差,因此,人造光源实验获得海冰光学特性在一定程度上反映了北极一年冰与辐射能的相互作用,并对海冰的热力学模型具有一定的参考意义。
本文利用人造光源对北极阿蒙森湾一年冰的光学特性进行了观测研究,重点分析了该海域一年冰的吸收率和衰减性质等表观光学参数,以及与之关系密切的海冰温度、盐度和密度等物理性质,得到如下结论:
(1) 加拿大北极群岛海域秋季冻结的一年冰在2007年11月24日至2008年1月26日期间,表层最低温度为–22.4℃,底层最高温度为–2.2℃,且海冰温度随深度的增加而单调增大,从积雪表面至海冰上层5 cm深度范围内温度变化较大,雪层中温度梯度明显大于冰层中的温度梯度,说明表面积雪对温度的垂向分布有较大影响。一年冰的平均温度随着冻结季节的深入逐渐降低,但和具体的天气条件有关,海冰温度的降低率在11月底最大,为2.1℃/d,此时也是海冰冻结速度最快的时间。该海域海冰的盐度在3.30~11.70之间变化,盐度剖面曲线整体呈现“C”形。海冰平均盐度在海冰厚度最小时(29 cm)达到最大值9.52。此外,一年冰的密度范围为0.86~0.96 g/cm3,平均值为(0.91±0.03)g/cm3,且海冰下层的平均密度高于上层。由于阿蒙森湾内的一年冰受到沿岸陆缘物质和上游陆地径流的影响,其整体密度略大。
(2) 一年冰的透射辐射在490 nm和589 nm处呈明显的双峰结构,但随着海冰厚度的增加,双峰结构逐渐减弱,体现了海冰对于不同谱段辐射能衰减作用的差异。同时,由于积雪的存在,透过海冰的辐射能明显减少,体现了积雪在海冰与辐射能相互作用中的重要性。另外,随着海冰厚度的增加,雪覆冰的透射辐射能在谱段465~625 nm范围内基本保持常量,显示雪覆冰的厚度达到一定程度后,透射辐射的光谱依赖性明显减弱。
(3) 裸冰和雪覆冰的吸收率随光谱的变化整体上呈现“勺”型分布,在443~490 nm范围内二者的吸收率随波长增大而降低,在490~683 nm范围内二者的吸收率随波长增大而升高,490 nm波长的吸收率最小。雪覆冰的吸收率随波长的变化较为平缓,尤其是在490~625 nm的谱段,海冰吸收率基本不随波长发生变化,体现了雪覆冰吸收率的光谱独立性。尽管海冰吸收率与海冰厚度变化成正比,但在不同厚度条件下,吸收率的增长趋势略有不同。在海冰厚度小于70 cm时,吸收率增长速率较快,到达0.007 8 cm−1,而海冰厚度一旦超过70 cm,吸收率的增长趋势放缓,增长速率仅为0.002 4 cm−1。因此,海冰厚度对薄冰的吸收性影响更加明显。
(4) 在可见光谱段,加拿大北极群岛一年冰的谱衰减系数呈“U”字形分布,紫光和红光谱段的衰减系数较大,中间谱段的光的衰减系数较小,589 nm波长的衰减系数最小,为1.7 m−1,683 nm波长的光衰减系数最大,达到了13.3 m−1。其整体位于多年冰粒状层和冰内部衰减系数之间,并同时高于夏季融化冰的漫射衰减系数。由于观测海域位于阿蒙森湾内,同时上游麦肯锡河三角洲的陆缘物质在阿拉斯加沿岸流的作用下输入到该海湾内部,可能是导致紫光谱段的衰减系数略大的原因;红光谱段衰减系数异常增加的原因则可能是冰藻的富集和一年冰较高的卤水含量。该因素也直接增加了一年冰的积分衰减系数,达到2.3 m−1,略高于多年浮冰的漫射衰减系数1.5 m−1
由于现场观测方式和仪器光谱分辨率的局限性,导致一年冰光学性质的计算结果存在一定程度的误差。但是,不同原因引起的误差偏向并不相同。通过对比分析前人的实验结果,表明利用人造光源研究厚度较小的一年冰光学性质具有可行性,并在一定程度上弥补了秋冬季节缺少自然光源所导致的研究空白。未来的工作中,需要在不破坏海冰物理结构的条件下获得海冰透射辐射剖面,从而更加准确地计算一年冰或者多年冰的漫射衰减系数等表观光学性质,为海冰与太阳辐射的相互作用研究以及海冰热力学模式的参数化方案提供更加准确的观测结果。
  • 国家自然科学基金(41776192);国家自然科学基金重点项目(41941012)
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doi: 10.12284/hyxb2021153
  • 接收时间:2021-02-03
  • 首发时间:2026-02-26
  • 出版时间:2021-07-25
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  • 收稿日期:2021-02-03
  • 修回日期:2021-06-26
基金
国家自然科学基金(41776192);国家自然科学基金重点项目(41941012)
作者信息
    1中国海洋大学 海洋与大气学院,山东 青岛 266100
    2自然资源部第一海洋研究所,山东 青岛 266061
    3中国科学院海洋研究所,山东 青岛 266071

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李涛,副教授,主要从事北极海冰与上层海洋光热物理学过程研究。E-mail:
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2种不同金属材料的力学参数

Family
属数
Number of
genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of
total species (%)

Genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of total
species (%)
鹅膏菌科Amanitaceae 2 11 5.26 鹅膏菌属 Amanita 10 4.78
小菇科 Mycenaceae 2 12 5.74 丝盖伞属 Inocybe 5 2.39
多孔菌科 Polyporaceae 8 14 6.70 蜡蘑属 Laccaria 5 2.39
红菇科 Russulaceae 3 23 11.00 小皮伞属 Marasmius 6 2.87
小菇属 Mycena 11 5.26
光柄菇属 Pluteus 5 2.39
红菇属 Russula 17 8.13
栓菌属 Trametes 5 2.39
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