Article(id=1224799660125081823, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, issueId=1224799656396345456, articleNumber=null, orderNo=null, doi=10.12284/hyxb2022110, pmid=null, cstr=null, oa=null, hot=null, price=null, onlineType=0, articleFormat=0, articleType=null, articleTypeStr=research-article, receivedDate=1627488000000, receivedDateStr=2021-07-29, revisedDate=1641398400000, revisedDateStr=2022-01-06, acceptedDate=null, acceptedDateStr=null, onlineDate=1769944594650, onlineDateStr=2026-02-01, pubDate=1656604800000, pubDateStr=2022-07-01, doiRegisterDate=null, doiRegisterDateStr=null, onlineIssueDate=1769944594650, onlineIssueDateStr=2026-02-01, onlineJustAcceptDate=null, onlineJustAcceptDateStr=null, onlineFirstDate=null, onlineFirstDateStr=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, createTime=1769944594650, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1769944594650, updator=13701087609, issue=Issue{id=1224799656396345456, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, year='2022', volume='44', issue='7', pageStart='1', pageEnd='176', issueExtLink='null', onlineDate='null', pubDate='null', beforeIssueId=null, nextIssueId=null, price=null, status=1, issueComplete=1, articleOrder=1, issueType=-1, specialIssue=null, createTime=1769944593762, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1769996013782, updator=13701087609, preIssue=null, nextIssue=null, ext={EN=IssueExt(id=1225015327654821950, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, issueId=1224799656396345456, language=EN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=), CN=IssueExt(id=1225015327654821951, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, issueId=1224799656396345456, language=CN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=)}, issueFiles=null}, startPage=47, endPage=57, ext={EN=ArticleExt(id=1224799661152686324, articleId=1224799660125081823, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, language=EN, title=Sensitivity study of constant and variable snow density schemes in diagnosing and calculating snow depth, columnId=1194652705852465724, journalTitle=Haiyang Xuebao, columnName=Article, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

Current CMIP6 climate models (such as CESM2 and NESM3) use constant snow density, while those models that focus on snow depth and density changes (such as SnowModel-LG) use empirical snow density formulas. Comparing the modeled snow depth with those observed by the CryoSat-2 satellite, it is found that from the perspective of the spatial distribution and average value of the snow depth, it is difficult to detect the effects of varying snow density on the simulation of snow depth in the Arctic Ocean. The model improvement and its mechanism from varying snow depth is still to be further studied. Here an empirical snow density model considering meteorological factors such as air temperature, wind etc., is applied to the SNOTEL observational site to carry out the following sensitivity experiments for different factors: A. snow density model considering all meteorological factors; B. constant snow density model; C. same as A but the influence of wind on the densification is not considered and D. same as A but the influence of temperature on the densification is not considered. The root mean square error of snow depth simulated by experiments A, B, C and D from November 1, 2018 to May 10, 2019 are 4.2 cm, 4.8 cm, 25.9 cm, and 4.2 cm, respectively. The results show that the mean snow density and depth simulated by the varying snow density model are close to the results using constant snow density, but the root mean square error of the simulated snow depth from Case A is the smallest, and the Case A simulation can reproduce the high frequency variations of snow depth on the time scale of several days to ten days. In the meantime, the relative errors in the period with high-frequency snow depth variations are also reduced as they are found to be related. In addition, it is also found that the influence of temperature on snow densification is much smaller than that of wind.

, correspAuthors=Meibing Jin, authorNote=null, correspAuthorsNote=null, copyrightStatement=Copyright © 2022 Pratacultural Science. All rights reserved., copyrightOwner=null, extLink=null, articleAbsUrl=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, pdfUrl=null, pdf=null, pdfFileSize=null, pdfExtLink=null, richHtmlUrl=null, mobilePdfUrl=null, reviewReport=null, pdfFirstPage=null, abstractGraph=null, abstractGraphContent=null, abstractVideo=null, citation=null, cebUrl=null, magXmlContent=null, mapNumber=null, authorCompany=null, fund=null, authors=null, authorsList=Huimin Zhang, Meibing Jin, Di Qi), CN=ArticleExt(id=1224799663119815048, articleId=1224799660125081823, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, language=CN, title=常数和变化积雪密度方案诊断计算积雪厚度的敏感性研究, columnId=1149698756456657529, journalTitle=海洋学报, columnName=论文, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

海冰上积雪的分布是影响海冰与大气能量交换以及气候变化的重要因素。当前的CMIP6气候模式(如CESM2和NESM3)采用定常的积雪密度,而专注于模拟雪厚度和密度变化的模式(如SnowModel-LG)则采用经验的变化雪密度公式。对比CryoSat-2卫星观测的积雪厚度发现,从积雪厚度的空间分布与平均值难以判断出变化雪密度对北冰洋积雪厚度模拟产生何种影响,对于变化雪密度模拟积雪厚度的改进及机制有待进一步研究。本文采用随气温、风速等因子变化的雪密度经验公式模型,并利用SNOTEL单站的长时间序列观测资料,对不同影响因子设计如下敏感性实验:A. 考虑所有气象因子的变化雪密度模型;B. 常数雪密度模型;C. 在A中不考虑风对密实化的影响;D. 在A中不考虑气温对密实化的影响。实验A、B、C和D诊断计算的2018年11月1日至2019年5月10日积雪厚度的均方根误差分别为4.2 cm、4.8 cm、25.9 cm和4.2 cm。结果表明,变化雪密度方案A模拟的积雪密度、厚度在平均值上与常数雪密度的结果接近,但其模拟的积雪厚度均方根误差最小,并且能够模拟出积雪厚度在几天到十几天时间尺度上的高频变化,同时减小了这种高频变化对应时段雪厚模拟结果的相对误差,二者具有一定的相关性。此外,还发现气温变化对积雪密实化的影响远小于风。

, correspAuthors=金梅兵, authorNote=null, correspAuthorsNote=
金梅兵,教授,主要从事极地地球系统模型的研究。E-mail:
, copyrightStatement=版权所有©《海洋学报》编辑部 2022, copyrightOwner=null, extLink=null, articleAbsUrl=null, sourceXml=KOo5GI28Vp4XGN9TpSSldw==, magXml=RNnPwUpD5Iq/AgVP/erYLQ==, pdfUrl=null, pdf=zndkyAtG3BuyQbrXzd7c4Q==, pdfFileSize=1446266, pdfExtLink=null, richHtmlUrl=null, mobilePdfUrl=null, reviewReport=null, pdfFirstPage=null, abstractGraph=IYrpHWu/7E2ucT0vx0CdYQ==, abstractGraphContent=null, abstractVideo=null, citation=null, cebUrl=null, magXmlContent=g8Hh2nFSaZHI/DoY3+y8xQ==, mapNumber=null, authorCompany=null, fund=null, authors=

张慧敏(1997—),女,山西省晋中市人,从事极地海洋科学的研究。E-mail:

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张慧敏(1997—),女,山西省晋中市人,从事极地海洋科学的研究。E-mail:

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张慧敏(1997—),女,山西省晋中市人,从事极地海洋科学的研究。E-mail:

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The snow density in Case D is almost the same as that in Case A, so it is not shown in the figure

, figureFileSmall=GKhXOinbItO8LguBmfqVCw==, figureFileBig=yiTk3l60nwLfGkKxo82MRg==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1225366133017068521, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, articleId=1224799660125081823, language=CN, label=图5, caption=实验A、B和C模拟的普拉德霍湾站2018年11月至2019年5月积雪密度

实验D的积雪密度几乎与实验A的相同,故未展示

, figureFileSmall=GKhXOinbItO8LguBmfqVCw==, figureFileBig=yiTk3l60nwLfGkKxo82MRg==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1225366133121926130, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, articleId=1224799660125081823, language=EN, label=Fig. 6, caption=Relative errors of modeled snow depth in cases A and B at Prudhoe Bay Station

Since the relative error of snow depth in Case C is more than three times as much as the other three and the result of Case D is almost consistent with that of Case A, it is not shown in the figure

, figureFileSmall=youfXpCq/C3Bc2Uqe2eR3g==, figureFileBig=SvHJD+s7AKTNajehTrVH/w==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1225366133230978041, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, articleId=1224799660125081823, language=CN, label=图6, caption=实验A和B模拟的普拉德霍湾站积雪厚度的相对误差

由于实验C的积雪厚度相对误差远大于其余三者,且实验D的结果与实验A的一致,故不展示

, figureFileSmall=youfXpCq/C3Bc2Uqe2eR3g==, figureFileBig=SvHJD+s7AKTNajehTrVH/w==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1225366133319058431, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, articleId=1224799660125081823, language=EN, label=Table 1, caption=

Comparison of component models among CESM2, NESM3 and SnowModel-LG

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
模式分量CESM2NESM3SnowModel-LG
 注:−代表模式不包含该分量。
大气CAM6ECHAM v6.3ERA5; MERRA2;
自动气象站数据
海洋POP2NEMO v3.4
陆地CLM5JSBACH v3.1
海洋生物化学MARBL
气溶胶MAM4
大气化学MAM4
海冰CICE5.1CICE4.1海冰地形、海冰位置和
海冰密集度数据
陆地冰CISM4.1
), ArticleFig(id=1225366133478440970, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, articleId=1224799660125081823, language=CN, label=表1, caption=

CESM2、NESM3和SnowModel-LG的分量模式比较

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
模式分量CESM2NESM3SnowModel-LG
 注:−代表模式不包含该分量。
大气CAM6ECHAM v6.3ERA5; MERRA2;
自动气象站数据
海洋POP2NEMO v3.4
陆地CLM5JSBACH v3.1
海洋生物化学MARBL
气溶胶MAM4
大气化学MAM4
海冰CICE5.1CICE4.1海冰地形、海冰位置和
海冰密集度数据
陆地冰CISM4.1
), ArticleFig(id=1225366133579104272, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, articleId=1224799660125081823, language=EN, label=Table 2, caption=

Root mean square errors and correlation coefficients of snow depth in cases A, B, C and D at Prudhoe Bay Station

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
方案均方根误差/cm总体相关系数
2018年10月(4−31日)2018年11月2018年12月2019年1月2019年2月2019年3月2019年4月2019年5月(1−10日)总体
A2.44.85.84.52.21.82.97.54.20.82
B2.74.59.42.81.42.84.31.44.80.80
C6.118.525.635.227.425.323.515.825.90.67
D2.44.85.84.62.21.82.97.44.20.82
), ArticleFig(id=1225366133692350485, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, articleId=1224799660125081823, language=CN, label=表2, caption=

实验A、B、C和D模拟的普拉德霍湾站积雪厚度的均方根误差与相关系数

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
方案均方根误差/cm总体相关系数
2018年10月(4−31日)2018年11月2018年12月2019年1月2019年2月2019年3月2019年4月2019年5月(1−10日)总体
A2.44.85.84.52.21.82.97.54.20.82
B2.74.59.42.81.42.84.31.44.80.80
C6.118.525.635.227.425.323.515.825.90.67
D2.44.85.84.62.21.82.97.44.20.82
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常数和变化积雪密度方案诊断计算积雪厚度的敏感性研究
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张慧敏 1, 3 , 金梅兵 1, 2, * , 祁第 4
海洋学报 | 论文 2022,44(7): 47-57
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海洋学报 | 论文 2022, 44(7): 47-57
常数和变化积雪密度方案诊断计算积雪厚度的敏感性研究
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张慧敏1, 3 , 金梅兵1, 2, * , 祁第4
作者信息
  • 1.南京信息工程大学 海洋科学学院,江苏 南京 210044
  • 2.南方海洋科学与工程广东省实验室(珠海),广东 珠海 519080
  • 3.自然资源部第三海洋研究所 自然资源部海洋大气化学与全球变化重点实验室,福建 厦门 361005
  • 4.集美大学 极地与海洋研究院,福建 厦门 361021
  • 张慧敏(1997—),女,山西省晋中市人,从事极地海洋科学的研究。E-mail:

通讯作者:

金梅兵,教授,主要从事极地地球系统模型的研究。E-mail:
Sensitivity study of constant and variable snow density schemes in diagnosing and calculating snow depth
Huimin Zhang1, 3 , Meibing Jin1, 2, * , Di Qi4
Affiliations
  • 1. School of Marine Science, Nanjing University of Information Science and Technology, Nanjing 210044, China
  • 2. Southern Marine Science and Engineering Guangdong Laboratory (Zhuhai), Zhuhai 519080, China
  • 3. Key Laboratory of Global Change and Marine Atmospheric Chemistry, Ministry of Natural Resources, Third Institute of Oceanography, Ministry of Natural Resources, Xiamen 361005, China
  • 4. Polar and Marine Research Institute, Jimei University, Xiamen 361021, China
出版时间: 2022-07-01 doi: 10.12284/hyxb2022110
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海冰上积雪的分布是影响海冰与大气能量交换以及气候变化的重要因素。当前的CMIP6气候模式(如CESM2和NESM3)采用定常的积雪密度,而专注于模拟雪厚度和密度变化的模式(如SnowModel-LG)则采用经验的变化雪密度公式。对比CryoSat-2卫星观测的积雪厚度发现,从积雪厚度的空间分布与平均值难以判断出变化雪密度对北冰洋积雪厚度模拟产生何种影响,对于变化雪密度模拟积雪厚度的改进及机制有待进一步研究。本文采用随气温、风速等因子变化的雪密度经验公式模型,并利用SNOTEL单站的长时间序列观测资料,对不同影响因子设计如下敏感性实验:A. 考虑所有气象因子的变化雪密度模型;B. 常数雪密度模型;C. 在A中不考虑风对密实化的影响;D. 在A中不考虑气温对密实化的影响。实验A、B、C和D诊断计算的2018年11月1日至2019年5月10日积雪厚度的均方根误差分别为4.2 cm、4.8 cm、25.9 cm和4.2 cm。结果表明,变化雪密度方案A模拟的积雪密度、厚度在平均值上与常数雪密度的结果接近,但其模拟的积雪厚度均方根误差最小,并且能够模拟出积雪厚度在几天到十几天时间尺度上的高频变化,同时减小了这种高频变化对应时段雪厚模拟结果的相对误差,二者具有一定的相关性。此外,还发现气温变化对积雪密实化的影响远小于风。

气候模式  /  北极  /  积雪厚度  /  积雪密度

Current CMIP6 climate models (such as CESM2 and NESM3) use constant snow density, while those models that focus on snow depth and density changes (such as SnowModel-LG) use empirical snow density formulas. Comparing the modeled snow depth with those observed by the CryoSat-2 satellite, it is found that from the perspective of the spatial distribution and average value of the snow depth, it is difficult to detect the effects of varying snow density on the simulation of snow depth in the Arctic Ocean. The model improvement and its mechanism from varying snow depth is still to be further studied. Here an empirical snow density model considering meteorological factors such as air temperature, wind etc., is applied to the SNOTEL observational site to carry out the following sensitivity experiments for different factors: A. snow density model considering all meteorological factors; B. constant snow density model; C. same as A but the influence of wind on the densification is not considered and D. same as A but the influence of temperature on the densification is not considered. The root mean square error of snow depth simulated by experiments A, B, C and D from November 1, 2018 to May 10, 2019 are 4.2 cm, 4.8 cm, 25.9 cm, and 4.2 cm, respectively. The results show that the mean snow density and depth simulated by the varying snow density model are close to the results using constant snow density, but the root mean square error of the simulated snow depth from Case A is the smallest, and the Case A simulation can reproduce the high frequency variations of snow depth on the time scale of several days to ten days. In the meantime, the relative errors in the period with high-frequency snow depth variations are also reduced as they are found to be related. In addition, it is also found that the influence of temperature on snow densification is much smaller than that of wind.

climate model  /  Arctic  /  snow depth  /  snow density
张慧敏, 金梅兵, 祁第. 常数和变化积雪密度方案诊断计算积雪厚度的敏感性研究. 海洋学报, 2022 , 44 (7) : 47 -57 . DOI: 10.12284/hyxb2022110
Huimin Zhang, Meibing Jin, Di Qi. Sensitivity study of constant and variable snow density schemes in diagnosing and calculating snow depth[J]. Haiyang Xuebao, 2022 , 44 (7) : 47 -57 . DOI: 10.12284/hyxb2022110
海冰上的积雪是极地气候的重要组成部分,影响着海洋与大气间的能量平衡和水分交换。雪与海冰的物理性质存在差异,比如雪的反照率高于海冰,雪对光的衰减作用远大于海冰[1],雪还是短波辐射平衡过程中的重要因素,影响着海冰的生长、消融[2]。雪的密度影响其热导率[3],进而影响海冰与大气间的热交换。海冰上的积雪相当于一个保温层,当积雪厚度较大时,隔热效果较好。
密度是雪的基本物理性质之一,会受到降雪期间的气象要素影响。当气温远低于冰点时,雪密度通常较低,在可发生降雪的条件下,雪密度与气温大致呈明显正相关[4]。在雪降落到地面后停留的这段时间内,积雪密度可能在风力作用下增大[4]。雪密度值存在一定的变化范围,为50~550 kg/m3[5-10]。以往对积雪的研究大部分在陆地区域,根据雪的密度受到气温、风速等因素的影响,前人拟合了一些计算雪密度的经验公式[6, 11-16]。例如,由Hedstrom和Pomeroy[11]拟合的雪密度随气温变化的经验公式曾被Bartlett等[14]应用于CLASS(Canadian Land Surface Scheme)3.1版本,也被Lundberg和Feiccabrino[17]用于估算雪密度。Avanzi等[18]基于不同的雪密度经验回归模型研究美国西部地区积雪厚度与降水量之间的关系,但大多数经验回归模型将雪深视为雪密度的唯一预测因子,导致无法重现观测的雪厚与雪水当量的关系,使得观测和估计的积雪密度变化在冬季中期一致性高、春季一致性低。有学者认为,新雪密度可能与雪粒大小、类型有关,后来还有学者对新雪的密度变化及其与气温等要素之间的关系进行了研究[19]。此外,气旋活动是北极降雪的重要影响因子,研究表明,气旋引起的大西洋地区降雪占该地区总降雪量的80%,而引起太平洋地区降雪占该地区总降雪量的50%左右[20]
积雪的参数设置影响海冰模式的模拟效果[21-22]。如积雪密度值影响积雪厚度,进而影响雪的透光性等物理特性。海冰模式从发展初期侧重于海冰热力学部分[23]发展到动力学、热力学与海冰厚度分布等多组成部分[24]。积雪的变化除了对海冰模式的相关参数敏感外,还与雪龄有关,如多年冰上的雪龄比一年冰上的更长[10]。北极海冰面积及多年冰面积在近几十年里迅速减小,且减小的速率还在不断加快[25-26]
随着对两极积雪变化的关注度增加,不同学者提出了对极地积雪密度、厚度变化的不同模拟方案[10, 27-29]。如De Michele等[27]使用多元回归方法估算积雪密度,并认为积雪可分为干雪和湿雪,分别计算各部分雪的质量后再计算整体的雪密度。这体现了积雪在部分融化时雪密度增大的特征。此外,有研究人员开发了海冰上基于欧拉方法或拉格朗日方法预报积雪密度和厚度的模型。如Petty等[29]开发了用于估计雪厚度、密度的NESOSIM(NASA Eulerian Snow on Sea Ice Model)模式。NESOSIM是一个三维的两层雪模式(上层新雪、下层旧雪),组成该模式的几个参数化过程代表了积雪期内积雪变化的关键机制[29]。NESOSIM还考虑了新雪可能在风力作用下移动到冰间水道造成雪量损失的情况。还有,Liston等[10]开发了用于研究北极地区海冰上积雪变化的SnowModel-LG(Lagrangian Snow-Evolution Model)模式。该模式考虑了气温、风、湿度等气象要素以及吹雪升华等过程对雪密度的影响[30]。Blanchard-Wrigglesworth等[28]利用降雪数据、海冰运动和欧洲中期天气预报中心提供的再分析降雪量数据(ERA-Interim),基于拉格朗日方法的模式模拟海冰上的积雪厚度,模拟结果与冰桥计划(Operation IceBridge, OIB)、冰质量平衡浮标(Ice Mass-balance Buoys, IMBs)的实测数据存在差异,他们将这一差异归因于未考虑升华或风力作用等因素导致了雪厚变化。再加上高纬度地区降水率的不确定性[31-32],因此,有待开发出应用于海冰模式的积雪密度参数化方案,以提高对极地区域气候的模拟能力,更好地理解积雪变化对极地以及全球气候变化的影响。目前的大多数气候模式仍采用常数雪密度,这一做法虽降低了降雪不确定性导致的积雪密度误差[33],但同时也忽略了积雪密度随升华、压实、气温和风速等因子变化的细节。尹豪等[34]考虑的积雪变化的物理过程则更为合理,将积雪分为新、旧两个雪层,并加入各雪层的密实化过程对积雪厚度的影响,能较好地再现积雪厚度的变化。但气象要素对积雪密实化过程的相对重要性有待探究。本文先对比北极圈内积雪厚度的观测和模式结果,再用单点的积雪厚度长时间观测序列检验不同雪密度方案诊断计算的积雪厚度,分析不同气象要素对雪密度的影响以及变化雪密度对雪厚度模拟结果的短期与长期影响。
这里选取两个积雪密度参数取常数(330 kg/m3)的气候模式的雪厚模拟结果进行分析。第六次国际耦合模式比较计划(the Sixth Coupled Model Intercomparison Project, CMIP6)中CESM2(Community Earth System Model version 2)与南京信息工程大学地球系统模式(NUIST Earth System Model version 3, NESM3)分别是由美国国家大气研究中心与中国南京信息工程大学发布的地球系统气候模式,均提供了对地球过去、现在和未来气候状态的模拟。二者都包含大气、海洋、陆地和海冰4个分量,不同的是,CESM2还加入了海洋生物化学、气溶胶、大气化学和陆地冰4个分量。以海冰分量为例(表1),CESM2使用美国Los Alamos国家实验室开发的CICE海冰模式5.1版本;NESM3则使用了该模式的4.1版本,并改进了冰雪的反照率的精度[35]。Wang等[36]评估了不同版本CICE海冰模式模拟北极海冰时空分布特征的能力,CICE 6.0解决了CICE 4.0和CICE 5.0低估多年冰变化趋势、高估季节冰变化趋势等问题。但CICE海冰模式的积雪密度仍取为常数[37]。本文采用CESM2和NESM3在温室气体排放中等强迫情景(SSP245,即对RCP4.5情景的升级)下模拟的北极地区2015年10月至2018年7月3年的月平均积雪厚度,与SnowModel-LG模拟的对应时段结果作对比。
本研究选取Stroeve等[30]用SnowModel-LG模式模拟的北极圈内2015年10月至2018年7月的积雪厚度数据(http://dx.doi.org/10.5067/27A0P5M6LZBI)。SnowModel-LG是由Liston等[10]和Stroeve等[30]开发的基于拉格朗日方法模拟北极地区1980年8月至2018年7月积雪厚度和密度变化的模式。该模式包括能量平衡(EnBal)、积雪分层(SnowPack-ML)、吹雪过程(SnowTran-3D)、雪床生成(Snow Dunes)和数据同化过程(SnowAsim)5个模块[10],专注于研究模拟积雪的生长、消融等变化。
10 m水平风场、2 m露点温度、2 m气温、平均海表面气压、平均表面向下长波辐射、平均表面向下短波辐射、降水量等逐3 h大气强迫场数据来自欧洲中期天气预报中心第五代再分析资料(the Fifth Generation ECMWF Reanalysis, ERA5),空间分辨率为0.25°×0.25°。经过空间插值与日平均处理后得到近海SNOTEL测站普拉德霍湾(Prudhoe Bay, PB)站(图1)逐日的气象要素数据,用于驱动PB站积雪厚度模拟的模式。
CryoSat-2卫星由欧洲航天局建造,用于确定地球大陆冰盖和海洋冰盖厚度的变化以及检验全球变暖导致北极冰层变薄的预测(http://www.altimetry.info/missions/current-missions/cryosat-2/)。该卫星运行时间始于2010年4月,携带1个SIRAL高度计和1个DORIS仪器,其观测的数据为2010−2020年期间每年10月至翌年4月的极地积雪厚度(http://data.meereisportal.de/)。本研究选取CryoSat-2卫星观测的2015−2017年每年10月至翌年4月积雪厚度数据,用于检验CESM2、NESM3与SnowModel-LG模拟的结果。
为研究变化雪密度与常数雪密度对雪厚度的影响,本研究采用近海的SNOTEL测站PB站(70.27°N, 148.57°W,图1)2011−2019年逐日的积雪厚度观测数据,包括逐日最高气温、最低气温、降水量和积雪厚度数据。其中,积雪厚度通过激光测距的雪厚传感器测量,其误差原因主要是由于雪表面存在空气孔隙而引起的光束反射不一致。这里将敏感性实验结果与该时段观测的PB站积雪厚度进行直观比较,再从均方根误差、相关性等角度分析。
这里采用Liston等[10]变化的积雪密度方案,在计算雪密度时考虑了气温、风速、露点温度等气象要素的影响。研究中认为气温低于0℃是发生降雪的必要条件,将积雪密度分为新雪密度与旧雪经密实化过程增加的密度,其中新雪密度(ρfresh,单位:kg/m3)的计算计算公式为
$ {\rho }_{\mathrm{f}\mathrm{r}\mathrm{e}\mathrm{s}\mathrm{h}}={\rho }_{\mathrm{t}\mathrm{m}}+{\rho }_{\mathrm{b}\mathrm{s}} \text{,} $
式中,ρtmρbs分别为无风时的雪密度[6]和风速大于5 m/s时的雪密度[38],风速小于5 m/s时ρbs为0。
$ {\rho }_{\mathrm{t}\mathrm{m}}=50+1.7{\left({{T}}_{\mathrm{w}\mathrm{b}}+15\right)}^{1.5}\text{,}{T}_{\mathrm{w}\mathrm{b}} \geqslant -15\mathrm{^\circ C},$
$ {\rho }_{\mathrm{b}\mathrm{s}}={C}_{1}+{C}_{2}\left\{1.0-\mathrm{e}\mathrm{x}\mathrm{p}\left[-{C}_{3}\left(V-5.0\right)\right]\right\}, $
式中,Twb为湿球温度(单位:℃);V为风速(单位:m/s);系数C1=25.0 kg/m3;系数C2=250.0 kg/m3;系数C3=0.2 s/m。先由式(2)、式(3)计算ρtmρbs,再由式(1)得到新雪密度ρfresh
不同地理位置的雪密实化速率是不同的[39]。这里考虑了气温、风速两种气象要素对积雪密实速率ρsr(单位:kg/(m3·s))的影响,其公式为
$ {\rho }_{\mathrm{s}\mathrm{r}}={\rho }_{\mathrm{c}\mathrm{c}}+{\rho }_{\mathrm{w}\mathrm{i}\mathrm{n}\mathrm{d}}\text{,} $
式中,ρccρwind分别表示气温和风速引起的积雪密实速率,由式(5)、式(6)计算得出[10]
$ {\rho }_{\mathrm{c}\mathrm{c}}={\beta }_{u}{N}_{1}{h}_{\mathrm{w}}{\rho }_{\mathrm{s}}\mathrm{e}\mathrm{x}\mathrm{p}\left({N}_{2}{T}_{\mathrm{s}}\right)\mathrm{e}\mathrm{x}\mathrm{p}\left(-{N}_{3}{\rho }_{\mathrm{s}}\right) \text{,} $
$ {\rho }_{\mathrm{w}\mathrm{i}\mathrm{n}\mathrm{d}}={m}_{1}{N}_{1}{F}_{\mathrm{w}}{\rho }_{\mathrm{s}}\mathrm{e}\mathrm{x}\mathrm{p}\left({N}_{2}{T}_{\mathrm{s}}\right)\mathrm{e}\mathrm{x}\mathrm{p}\left(-{N}_{3}{\rho }_{\mathrm{s}}\right) \text{,} $
$ {F}_{\mathrm{w}}={E}_{1}+{E}_{2}\left\{1.0-\mathrm{e}\mathrm{x}\mathrm{p}\left[-{E}_{3}\left(V-5.0\right)\right]\right\}\text{,} $
式中,βu为积雪密度速率调整因子,无量纲数,研究中设为0.1;系数N1=0.003 1 m/s;系数N2=0.081℃;系数N3=0.021 m3/kg;hw为雪转化成水后水的深度(单位:m);Ts为雪温(单位:℃),采用2 m气温来近似;ρs为积雪密度(单位:kg/m3);m1是无量纲数,为0.10;Fw表示风速(单位:m/s)对积雪密度的影响程度,当风速大于5 m/s时由式(7)计算,否则为1.0 m/s;系数E1=5.0 s/m;E2=15.0 s/m;E3=0.2 s/m[38]。积雪密实速率导致的雪密度变化还与上一时刻雪的密度、厚度有关。SnowModel-LG中将βu取为1,计算过程中对比分析了βu的取值从0.1~1.0对雪厚模拟的影响,得出βu的取值对计算结果影响很小,并且取为0.1时的结果稍好。
积雪厚度分为新雪厚度和旧雪厚度两部分,分别计算后再相加得到当天的积雪厚度。新雪厚度的计算公式为
$ {h}_{\mathrm{f}\mathrm{r}\mathrm{e}\mathrm{s}\mathrm{h}}=\frac{{P}_{\mathrm{r}}\Delta t}{{\rho }_{\mathrm{f}\mathrm{r}\mathrm{e}\mathrm{s}\mathrm{h}}}\text{,} $
式中,hfresh为新雪厚度(单位:m);$ \Delta t $为1 d(86 400 s);Pr为ERA5降水数据(单位:kg/(m2·s))。旧雪经过密实化过程后的厚度$ {h}_{\mathrm{o}\mathrm{l}\mathrm{d}}^{n} $及新、旧雪叠加后的平均积雪厚度$ {h}_{\mathrm{s}}^{n} $分别为
$ {h}_{\mathrm{o}\mathrm{l}\mathrm{d}}^{n}=\frac{{\rho }_{\mathrm{s}}^{n-1}{h}_{\mathrm{s}}^{n-1}}{{\rho }_{\mathrm{s}}^{n-1}+{\rho }_{\mathrm{s}\mathrm{r}}\Delta t}, $
$ {h}_{\mathrm{s}}^{n}={h}_{\mathrm{o}\mathrm{l}\mathrm{d}}^{n}+{h}_{\mathrm{f}\mathrm{r}\mathrm{e}\mathrm{s}\mathrm{h}}\text{,} $
式中,上标nn−1分别表示第n天和第n−1天;$ {\ \rho }_{\mathrm{s}}^{n-1} $为第n−1天的积雪密度(单位:kg/m3);第n天新、旧雪叠加后的平均积雪密度$ {\ \rho }_{\mathrm{s}}^{n} $等于新、旧雪的总质量除以平均积雪厚度。以上是对变化雪密度的计算,对于常数雪密度,将式(8)至式(10)中的密度变量取常数即可。
为了研究变化雪密度与常数雪密度对模拟PB站积雪厚度的影响以及不同气象要素对积雪密实化的相对重要性,这里设计了敏感性实验A、B、C与D。4个实验均采用2.4节的方法计算积雪厚度。不同之处在于,实验A采用2.3节的方法计算雪密度;而实验B中雪密度取常数330 kg/m3,等于海冰模式(如CICE[37]与Hamburg[40])中采用的常数雪密度参数。实验C是在A中不考虑风对密实化的影响来计算雪密度(式(6)和式(7)),实验D是在A中不考虑气温变化对密实化的影响来计算雪密度(式(5))。
卫星观测数据、CESM2、NESM3和SnowModel-LG模拟数据的获取时段分别是2010−2020年的每年10月至翌年4月、2015年1月至2064年12月、2015年1月至2054年12月和1980年8月至2018年7月,它们都存在完整降雪年数据的相同时段是2015−2018年的每年10月至翌年4月。研究中对比了CESM2、NESM3 1年(2015年10月至2016年7月)和3年(2015年10月至2018年7月)平均的数据,发现两者在空间分布(图2e至图2l图3e至图3l)和全域平均值方面差异不大。为了让模式有更好的时间代表性,本研究采用CryoSat-2卫星观测的和CESM2、NESM3、SnowModel-LG模拟的2015年10月至2018年4月3年平均的2月、4月、10月和12月北极圈内(66.5°N以北)积雪厚度(图2)讨论常数雪密度和变化雪密度对模拟雪厚度结果的影响。
CryoSat-2观测的北极圈内10月、12月、2月和4月积雪厚度基本都呈西高东低的梯度分布特征(图2a图2d),其中最大积雪厚度区域在4月的加拿大群岛北部海域(70°~90°N,30°~90°W),而拉普捷夫海(70°~80°N,105°~140°E)、东西伯利亚海(70°~80°N,140°E~180°)上积雪厚度最小。从3个模式结果(图2e图2p)来看,10月、12月的积雪厚度低值区都在阿拉斯加至俄罗斯北部沿岸,但高值区不同:CESM2和NESM3的高值区在加拿大群岛一侧,与观测值相似,但数值明显偏小;SnowModel-LG的高值区则仅部分分布于加拿大群岛,而多数高值位于北冰洋海盆中部的广大海区。对于2月和4月,3个模式的积雪厚度高值区都与卫星观测结果明显不同:CESM2和NESM3的高值区在格陵兰岛东北侧和楚科奇海;SnowModel-LG的高值区仍在加拿大群岛北侧及北冰洋海盆中部的广大海区。气候模式CESM2和NESM3考虑了大气、海洋、海冰等复杂的耦合动力过程;而SnowModel-LG是通过对遥感的逐7 d的海冰运动和海冰密集度数据进行插值处理来实现模式的动力学过程计算,比气候模式的动力学过程相对简单。并且,遥感观测数据在时间或空间上的缺测,可能会导致海冰运动结果的误差,进而使得模拟的积雪厚度空间分布产生误差。
CryoSat-2观测的北极圈内10月、12月、2月和4月的积雪厚度平均值分别为17 cm、16 cm、19 cm和20 cm;SnowModel-LG的模拟结果分别为10 cm、17 cm、22 cm和24 cm;CESM2的模拟结果分别为6 cm、9 cm、15 cm和22 cm;NESM3的模拟结果分别为2 cm、8 cm、16 cm和22 cm。总体上,采用常数雪密度的气候模式模拟的积雪厚度在数值量级上比观测结果偏小,尤其是在10月和12月。采用变化雪密度的SnowModel-LG模拟的10月、12月积雪厚度值比CESM2和NESM3的大,更接近卫星观测结果。但是这与SnowModel-LG在处理降水数据时将北冰洋的数据乘以了一个降水比例因子有关(对于MERRA2和ERA5的2009−2016年降水场,该因子平均值分别为1.37和1.58[10]),从而导致模拟的积雪厚度量值比气候模式更接近观测结果。
以上分析表明,从空间分布与平均值很难判断出常数雪密度和变化雪密度对北冰洋积雪厚度的模拟结果产生何种影响。首先,这3个模式的热力学、动力学过程和降雪分布都还存在很大的不确定性误差。CESM2与NESM3气候模式考虑了较复杂的耦合动力过程,CESM2还包括气溶胶、海洋生物化学、大气化学和陆地冰4个模式分量;而SnowModel-LG是通过对遥感数据插值处理以实现其动力学过程计算,比气候模式的动力学过程相对简单。其次,CryoSat-2卫星的积雪厚度分布数据与模式的部分数据来自遥感观测,而遥感观测数据在时间或空间上的缺测可能会导致其出现误差,比如CryoSat-2观测的积雪厚度或输入到SnowModel-LG中的海冰运动数据。如果海冰运动数据存在误差,则会增加SnowModel-LG模拟的积雪厚度误差。由此,本研究在保证大气强迫场输入、数据处理等过程相同的条件下设计了敏感性实验,仅通过改变积雪密度方案诊断计算一维单点测站PB站的积雪厚度,分析不同积雪密度对积雪厚度模拟的影响以及不同气象要素对模拟积雪密度、厚度的相对重要性。
本文利用PB站2018年10月4日至2019年5月10日降雪累积时段的观测资料检验敏感性实验结果(图4),研究以PB站观测的积雪开始连续累积(2018年10月4日)和完全消融(2019年5月25日)的时间点为准,将降雪累积时段分为前期(10月4日至12月31日)、中期(翌年1−2月)和后期(翌年3−5月,积雪完全消融)3个时期。从实测积雪厚度变化看,积雪厚度在前期主要表现为连续累积,呈波动增加的趋势;中后期积雪厚度继续增加,但增加幅度小于前期;后期随着气温的升高,积雪厚度在5月中旬迅速减小至完全消融。总体上,变化雪密度方案诊断计算的积雪厚度均方根误差最小,为4.2 cm,相关系数为0.82;常数雪密度计算的积雪厚度均方根误差次之,为4.8 cm,相关系数为0.80;仅考虑风对积雪密实化影响时得到的积雪厚度均方根误差、相关系数接近同时考虑风、气温对积雪密实化影响时的结果;仅考虑气温对积雪密实化影响时得到的积雪厚度均方根误差最大,为25.9 cm,相关系数为0.67(表2)。以上结果说明:变化雪密度方案有利于减小对积雪厚度模拟的误差;其结果与观测值的相关性更高。
实验A、B、C和D前期的积雪厚度均方根误差平均值分别为4.3 cm、5.5 cm、16.7 cm和4.3 cm,中期的分别为3.4 cm、2.1 cm、31.3 cm和3.4 cm,后期的分别为4.1 cm、2.8 cm、21.5 cm和4.0 cm。前期随着积雪厚度连续增加,不断有新雪降落累积在旧的雪层上,加上风力等作用使雪层变得更加密实,得到实验A的前期各月积雪厚度均方根误差小于实验B和C。而实验C仅考虑了气温对积雪密实化的影响,得到的积雪厚度均方根误差最大。中期,积雪厚度缓慢增加,注意到实验A的均方根误差均值比实验B的大。从实验C可以看出,仅考虑气温对积雪密实化的影响时,积雪厚度均方根误差比前期的明显增大。到了后期,实验B的积雪厚度均方根误差均值最小(2.8 cm),但实验B的积雪厚度变化未模拟出积雪厚度高频变化上的特点,仅能反映积雪累积的平均过程。实验A的积雪厚度从5月开始减小,比观测和试验B的早,使后期积雪厚度均方根误差比实验B的大1.3 cm。与实验A、D相比,实验C的均方根误差增大了3倍以上,表明风对积雪密实化的影响远大于气温对其的影响。此外,当仅考虑气温对积雪密实化过程的影响时,实验C在观测到积雪厚度开始累积(10月4日)前就有了积雪,而观测结果表明实际从10月4日才出现降雪并累积。因此,模拟积雪厚度变化时考虑风对积雪密实化的影响是至关重要的。
就各月均方根误差而言,实验A对于2019年3月的积雪厚度均方根误差最小(1.8 cm)。因为实验A很好地模拟出了2019年3月6−9日和17−23日等时段的积雪厚度在几天到十几天时间尺度上的高频变化,从而减小了相对误差,并提高了与观测值的相关性。实验A的5月积雪厚度均方根误差最大(7.5 cm)。虽然在积雪厚度量值上与观测结果相差较大,但实验A模拟出了5月中上旬积雪厚度短时间内上升、下降的高频变化。实验B则不能再现雪厚在十几天甚至几天以内的高频变化细节,仅反映了雪厚平均值的低频变化。
实验A得出的雪密度范围与以往研究的结果较一致(图5)。不同学者曾对不同区域的积雪密度范围进行了研究,如Gottlieb[6]通过拟合的经验公式得到格陵兰岛南部的积雪覆盖与冰川化盆地的积雪密度范围为50~500 kg/m3,Liston等[10]应用SnowModel-LG模拟的冬天雪密度变化范围为150~450 kg/m3,夏天可达到550 kg/m3,且呈现出更复杂的空间分布特征。实验A、D模拟的雪密度范围为150~550 kg/m3,而实验C的为50~280 kg/m3图5),因此,变化雪密度方案计算的积雪密度范围与以往研究的观测或模拟结果一致,是合理的。
就积雪密度平均值而言,实验A和D的雪密度整体平均值(330.6 kg/m3和330.0 kg/m3)接近实验B的常数雪密度值,而实验C模拟的雪密度平均值仅为其他实验结果的一半。历史研究结果中,Longley[41]测得北美北部群岛上积雪的平均密度为332 kg/m3,Warren等[9]观测的北极海冰上积雪平均密度为300 kg/m3,Sturm等[42]通过SHEBA浮标所测数据计算得出积雪密度平均值为320 kg/m3。实验A、D计算的2月平均积雪密度为341.2 kg/m3,比Longley[41]测得加拿大西北地区2月的积雪密度均值(343.3 kg/m3)小2.1 kg/m3,比Warren等[9]测得的北极2月积雪密度平均值(300.0 kg/m3)大41.2 kg/m3。总体上,变化雪密度方案模拟的积雪密度平均值是合理的。并且与考虑气温对积雪密实化的影响相比,考虑风对积雪密实化影响比考虑气温对其影响时得到的雪密度更接近以往研究结果。比较实验A模拟的2019年2月1日前后的积雪密度可得,该日前的积雪密度均值为300.9 kg/m3,该日后的积雪密度均值为374.4 kg/m3,前者小于后者。上述对各敏感性实验的模拟结果,既表明了积雪存在密实化过程,也反映了考虑这一过程对于模拟更加符合实际的积雪厚度变化的重要性。
为了进一步说明诊断计算结果的可信度,本研究比较了实验A和B计算的积雪厚度与实测厚度的相对误差(图6)。将相对误差进行5点滑动平均,消除了异常值对相对误差整体变化趋势的影响。实验A、B、C和D模拟的2018年11月1日至2019年5月10日积雪厚度相对误差平均值分别为16.50%、16.02%、136.30%和16.52%。实验C的积雪厚度相对误差最大,这是由于该实验未考虑风对积雪密实化的影响。此外,实验A和B在2018年11月至12月初积雪密度的相对误差变化幅度基本一致;但具体到以日为单位分析可知,实验B在2018年12月2−26日积雪厚度相对误差比实验A的平均高约16.4%;而对于2018年12月27日至2019年1月18日的积雪厚度,实验A的相对误差比实验B的高约19.1%。从2019年2月中旬至4月下旬,实验A的相对误差平均值为6.4%,实验B的约为9.3%。就逐月相对误差而言,实验A在2019年3月的积雪厚度相对误差最小(5.88%),2018年11月相对误差最大(28.02%);实验B在2019年5月相对误差最小(2.35%,5月1−10日),在2018年12月相对误差最大(32.05%)。与常数雪密度相比,采用变化雪密度方案减小了积雪厚度最大月平均相对误差。在模拟出积雪厚度几天到十几天时间尺度上的高频变化的同时(2019年3月6−9日和17−23日等时段),实验A与积雪厚度高频变化对应时段的积雪厚度相对误差都比实验B的小(图6),说明再现积雪厚度短时间内的高频变化有助于减小模拟积雪厚度的误差。
以往对积雪的研究大部分在陆地区域,积雪密度的研究经历了从常数、经验公式到参数化方案的过程。雪密度的影响因子及其相对重要性以及已有的一些参数化方案是否适用于气候模式模拟极地海冰上的积雪,有待进一步探讨研究。本文通过比较采用变化雪密度的SnowModel-LG与采用常数雪密度的气候模式CESM2和NESM3模拟的以及CryoSat-2卫星观测的2015年10月至2018年7月3年平均的10月、12月、2月和4月北冰洋积雪厚度,发现很难从不同模式的热力学、动力学过程和模拟的降雪分布等方面得出积雪密度变化对模拟结果的影响。于是设计了4个敏感性实验诊断计算SNOTEL测站PB站的积雪厚度,并用观测资料进行检验,在保证大气数据输入、其他处理过程相同的条件下探究采用不同积雪密度方案对于模拟积雪厚度的影响。
模拟雪密度的变化范围与观测结果相当,并且能够反映出积雪厚度在几天到十几天时间尺度上的高频变化。例如PB站2018−2019年时段的积雪厚度的高频变化主要发生于2018年12月和2019年3月。综合考虑气温与风速对积雪密实化影响得到的积雪密度变化范围为150~550 kg/m3,其平均值(330.6 kg/m3)接近目前气候模式采用的常数雪密度值(330 kg/m3),而仅考虑气温对积雪密实化的影响得到的雪密度平均值仅约为150 kg/m3。与考虑气温对积雪密实化的影响相比,考虑风速对积雪密实化影响下模拟的雪密度更接近观测值。
实验A和实验B的雪厚变化差异主要表现在几天到十几天的尺度上,而它们在月平均的尺度上则很接近。这表明3.1节中SnowModel-LG与气候模式CESM2和NESM3模拟雪厚的区别不是因为变化雪密度,而主要是因为大气和海冰状况的不同。如果3个模式的大气和海冰状况一样,则3个模式的月平均雪厚值应该很接近。
综合考虑气温与风速对积雪密实化影响的变化雪密度方案模拟的2018−2019年降雪累积期内积雪厚度均方根误差(4.2 cm)比采用常数雪密度方案的(4.8 cm)小。不考虑风速对积雪密实化影响时模拟的积雪厚度均方根误差最大(25.9 cm),因此,风速对积雪密实化的影响远大于气温对其的影响,在模拟积雪密度和厚度变化时必须考虑风速对积雪密实化的影响。
与常数雪密度方案相比,采用变化雪密度方案减小了模拟的积雪厚度最大月平均相对误差。此外,采用变化雪密度方案模拟出积雪厚度在几天到十几天内高频变化的同时也减小了积雪厚度出现高频变化时段对应的相对误差,因此,是否模拟出积雪厚度出现高频变化时段与能否减小模拟误差具有一定的相关性。
  • 国家重点研发计划(2019YFE0114800,2018YFA0605900)
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2022年第44卷第7期
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doi: 10.12284/hyxb2022110
  • 接收时间:2021-07-29
  • 首发时间:2026-02-01
  • 出版时间:2022-07-01
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  • 收稿日期:2021-07-29
  • 修回日期:2022-01-06
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国家重点研发计划(2019YFE0114800,2018YFA0605900)
作者信息
    1.南京信息工程大学 海洋科学学院,江苏 南京 210044
    2.南方海洋科学与工程广东省实验室(珠海),广东 珠海 519080
    3.自然资源部第三海洋研究所 自然资源部海洋大气化学与全球变化重点实验室,福建 厦门 361005
    4.集美大学 极地与海洋研究院,福建 厦门 361021

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金梅兵,教授,主要从事极地地球系统模型的研究。E-mail:
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鹅膏菌科Amanitaceae 2 11 5.26 鹅膏菌属 Amanita 10 4.78
小菇科 Mycenaceae 2 12 5.74 丝盖伞属 Inocybe 5 2.39
多孔菌科 Polyporaceae 8 14 6.70 蜡蘑属 Laccaria 5 2.39
红菇科 Russulaceae 3 23 11.00 小皮伞属 Marasmius 6 2.87
小菇属 Mycena 11 5.26
光柄菇属 Pluteus 5 2.39
红菇属 Russula 17 8.13
栓菌属 Trametes 5 2.39
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