Article(id=1212062511449378868, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, issueId=1212062510887342132, articleNumber=null, orderNo=null, doi=10.12284/hyxb2023112, pmid=null, cstr=null, oa=null, hot=null, price=null, onlineType=0, articleFormat=0, articleType=null, articleTypeStr=research-article, receivedDate=1634313600000, receivedDateStr=2021-10-16, revisedDate=1681660800000, revisedDateStr=2023-04-17, acceptedDate=null, acceptedDateStr=null, onlineDate=1766907821762, onlineDateStr=2025-12-28, pubDate=1696003200000, pubDateStr=2023-09-30, doiRegisterDate=null, doiRegisterDateStr=null, onlineIssueDate=1766907821762, onlineIssueDateStr=2025-12-28, onlineJustAcceptDate=null, onlineJustAcceptDateStr=null, onlineFirstDate=null, onlineFirstDateStr=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, createTime=1766907821762, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1766907821762, updator=13701087609, issue=Issue{id=1212062510887342132, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, year='2023', volume='45', issue='9', pageStart='1', pageEnd='188', issueExtLink='null', onlineDate='null', pubDate='null', beforeIssueId=null, nextIssueId=null, price=null, status=1, issueComplete=1, articleOrder=1, issueType=-1, specialIssue=null, createTime=1766907821628, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1766924706207, updator=13701087609, preIssue=null, nextIssue=null, ext={EN=IssueExt(id=1212133329994904375, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, issueId=1212062510887342132, language=EN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=), CN=IssueExt(id=1212133329994904376, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, issueId=1212062510887342132, language=CN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=)}, issueFiles=null}, startPage=25, endPage=44, ext={EN=ArticleExt(id=1212062511680065589, articleId=1212062511449378868, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, language=EN, title=An assessment of North Pacific interdecadal climate change simulations using the FIO-ESM v2.0, columnId=1194652705852465724, journalTitle=Haiyang Xuebao, columnName=Article, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

Numerical simulation play an important role in studying long-term climate change. For a long time, it has meted great challenges in characterizing the phase transitions of interdecadal climate changes like Pacific Decadal Oscillation (PDO). This study evaluates 145-year (1870–2014) historical PDO simulation results produced by the First Institute of Oceanography’s Earth System Model Version 2 (FIO-ESM v2.0) of Ministry of Natural Resources, in a comparison with reanalysis datasets and two other earth system model results. Results indicate that the FIO-ESM v2.0 can recreate the spatial modal distribution characteristics of the PDO from the historical period. The model’s PDO index has a period of 10 to 30 years and can describe the phase transition characteristics that resembles reanalysis datasets after 1960. Research shows that the FIO-ESM v2.0 can describe the phase transition features of PDO well. In addition, the model performance to simulate atmospheric circulation modes and relationship with PDO, as well as the possible mechanism for the model to simulate PDO are also discussed. The PDO of the model is related to the Aleutian Mode of atmospheric circulation. Further analysis shows that advection and heat flux are the main factors affecting the amplitude of SST anomalies in key decadal area, and the Rossby wave westward time may be the key factor affecting the phase transition of PDO.

, correspAuthors=Changming Dong, authorNote=null, correspAuthorsNote=null, copyrightStatement=Copyright © 2023 Pratacultural Science. All rights reserved., copyrightOwner=null, extLink=null, articleAbsUrl=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, pdfUrl=null, pdf=null, pdfFileSize=null, pdfExtLink=null, richHtmlUrl=null, mobilePdfUrl=null, reviewReport=null, pdfFirstPage=null, abstractGraph=null, abstractGraphContent=null, abstractVideo=null, citation=null, cebUrl=null, magXmlContent=null, mapNumber=null, authorCompany=null, fund=null, authors=null, authorsList=Xiaowei Wei, Changming Dong, Changshui Xia, Fangli Qiao), CN=ArticleExt(id=1212062517828915301, articleId=1212062511449378868, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, language=CN, title=地球系统模式FIO-ESM v2.0对北太平洋年代际气候变化的模拟评估, columnId=1149698756456657529, journalTitle=海洋学报, columnName=论文, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

数值模拟方法在研究长时间的气候变化上扮演着重要角色。一直以来,数值模式模拟年代际气候变化如太平洋年代际震荡(PDO)的位相转换存在巨大挑战。本文利用自然资源部第一海洋研究所研发的地球系统模式(First Institute of Oceanography-Earth System Model Version 2,FIO-ESM v2.0)145年(1870–2014年)历史气候模拟试验结果,结合再分析资料和另外两个地球系统模式结果,分析评估了该模式对太平洋年代际振荡的模拟能力。研究发现,FIO-ESM v2.0能够再现历史时期PDO的空间模态分布特征,其PDO指数具有10~30年的周期变化特征,同时于1960年以后能刻画出与再分析数据结果相近的PDO位相转变特征。研究表明,FIO-ESM v2.0能够较为准确地模拟出PDO的位相转变特征。另外,本文还评估了该模式对大气环流模态的模拟能力及其与PDO之间的关系,以及该模式模拟PDO的可能机制。该模式的PDO与大气环流的阿留申低压模态相关。进一步的分析表明,平流作用和热通量是关键年代际海域海温异常振幅的主要因素,而罗斯贝波西传时间则可能是影响PDO位相转变的关键因素。

, correspAuthors=董昌明, authorNote=null, correspAuthorsNote=
*董昌明(1967-),男,教授,主要从事物理海洋、海洋动力学和数值模拟研究。E-mail:
, copyrightStatement=版权所有©《海洋学报》编辑部 2023, copyrightOwner=null, extLink=null, articleAbsUrl=null, sourceXml=daVPw1EgbXn3UC5Eg3Tf4Q==, magXml=HpolsQQ81MoVKRYnYiJQCQ==, pdfUrl=null, pdf=zcdczBYFoESyZcObrKfBQw==, pdfFileSize=6900804, pdfExtLink=null, richHtmlUrl=null, mobilePdfUrl=null, reviewReport=null, pdfFirstPage=null, abstractGraph=0pjkzgXd/bLC8qMP0sE8pw==, abstractGraphContent=null, abstractVideo=null, citation=null, cebUrl=null, magXmlContent=BIddZeV/uO+Jg3Joe5+o1w==, mapNumber=null, authorCompany=null, fund=null, authors=

韦销蔚(1997-),女,广西壮族自治区河池市人,主要从事物理海洋学研究。E-mail:

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韦销蔚(1997-),女,广西壮族自治区河池市人,主要从事物理海洋学研究。E-mail:

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The data comes from ETOPO2

, figureFileSmall=9bm1W7JWmsm9gnGzfjMDUA==, figureFileBig=MtAuQdQyjX5oiYcXOd1JUg==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1215325227576378347, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, articleId=1212062511449378868, language=CN, label=图1, caption=北太平洋海域水深

数据来自ETOPO2

, figureFileSmall=9bm1W7JWmsm9gnGzfjMDUA==, figureFileBig=MtAuQdQyjX5oiYcXOd1JUg==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1215325227677041650, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, articleId=1212062511449378868, language=EN, label=Fig. 2, caption=FIO-ESM v2.0 simulated and reanalysis data’s, annual average spatial distribution of climate states from 1981 to 2010 of theirs sea surface temperature (a, b), sea level pressure and sea surface wind stress (d, e), sea surface height (g, h), and, as well as theirs deviation distributions (c, f, i), figureFileSmall=JVejERZTCzT0fxTQmjnR9w==, figureFileBig=Lv7CJjgLqSZgWABvU6bTKg==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1215325227752539126, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, articleId=1212062511449378868, language=CN, label=图2, caption=FIO-ESM v2.0模拟的和再分析数据的海表面温度(a,b)、海平面气压和海表面风应力(d,e)、海表面高度(g,h)1981−2010年气候态年平均空间分布以及两者的偏差分布(c,f,i), figureFileSmall=JVejERZTCzT0fxTQmjnR9w==, figureFileBig=Lv7CJjgLqSZgWABvU6bTKg==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1215325227840619514, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, articleId=1212062511449378868, language=EN, label=Fig. 3, caption=Spatial distribution and deviation (i−l) of sea surface temperature in spring, summer, autumn, and winter using FIO-ESM v2.0 (a−d) and HadISST reanalysis data (e−h), figureFileSmall=H5a3MaUlcXQRPVUyWn/TWA==, figureFileBig=msV5k06q20mlrkJIShMITQ==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1215325227928699902, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, articleId=1212062511449378868, language=CN, label=图3, caption=FIO-ESM v2.0模拟(a−d)与HadISST再分析数据(e−h)的海表面温度春、夏、秋和冬季的空间分布及偏差(i−l), figureFileSmall=H5a3MaUlcXQRPVUyWn/TWA==, figureFileBig=msV5k06q20mlrkJIShMITQ==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1215325227991614463, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, articleId=1212062511449378868, language=EN, label=Fig. 4, caption=Spatial distribution of sea level pressure and wind stress in spring, summer, autumn, and winter using FIO-ESM v2.0 (a−d) and NCEP/NCAR reanalysis dataset (e−h) and deviation (i−l), figureFileSmall=MjkxuLxSPx+i8ybJHTpaHQ==, figureFileBig=pabnUpO4SZtEadPtHzhNeQ==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1215325228062916610, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, articleId=1212062511449378868, language=CN, label=图4, caption=FIO-ESM v2.0模拟(a−d)与NCEP/NCAR再分析数据集(e−h)的海平面气压和风应力春、夏、秋和冬季的空间分布及偏差(i−l), figureFileSmall=MjkxuLxSPx+i8ybJHTpaHQ==, figureFileBig=pabnUpO4SZtEadPtHzhNeQ==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1215325228146802695, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, articleId=1212062511449378868, language=EN, label=Fig. 5, caption=Variance contribution rate (blue dots) and sampling error (black vertical lines) of the first eight EOF modes in North’s test of sea surface temperature anomaly for the FIO-ESM v2.0 model (a) and HadISST reanalysis dataset (b), figureFileSmall=o0G3EsllN2o2w0CMShj8/w==, figureFileBig=7HOAjAKg6GzyvLcrE8Mw/Q==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1215325228213911563, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, articleId=1212062511449378868, language=CN, label=图5, caption=FIO-ESM v2.0模拟(a)与HadISST再分析数据(b)的海表面温度异常经过EOF分解的前8个模态的方差贡献率(蓝色散点)及North检验取样误差(黑色竖线), figureFileSmall=o0G3EsllN2o2w0CMShj8/w==, figureFileBig=7HOAjAKg6GzyvLcrE8Mw/Q==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1215325228289409039, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, articleId=1212062511449378868, language=EN, label=Fig. 6, caption=The first special modes (a) and second special modes (c) of sea surface temperature anomaly for HadISST reanalysis dataset after EOF decomposition and the first special modes (b) and second special modes (d) of sea surface temperature anomaly simulated by FIO-ESM v2.0 after EOF decomposition

The value in the upper right corner of the subgraph is the variance contribution rate

, figureFileSmall=vcVPUrjNg+31iCSSHX9CyA==, figureFileBig=wsJqlKhKzGwMmjnhpnVMSg==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1215325228377489428, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, articleId=1212062511449378868, language=CN, label=图6, caption=HadISST再分析数据的海表温度异常经过EOF分解的第一空间模态(a)、第二空间模态(c)和FIO-ESM v2.0模拟的海表温度异常经过EOF分解的第一空间模态(b)、第二空间模态(d)

子图右上角的数值为方差贡献率

, figureFileSmall=vcVPUrjNg+31iCSSHX9CyA==, figureFileBig=wsJqlKhKzGwMmjnhpnVMSg==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1215325228436209688, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, articleId=1212062511449378868, language=EN, label=Fig. 7, caption=The first special modes (a) and second special modes (c) of sea surface temperature anomaly simulated by FGOALS-g3 model after EOF decomposition and the first special modes (b) and second special modes (d) of sea surface temperature anomaly simulated by CESM2 model after EOF decomposition

The value in the upper right corner of the subgraph is the variance contribution rate

, figureFileSmall=i6vIOJQROhCGoKUwh4ALKw==, figureFileBig=Mc4st2phULIqXFR5m5QP1g==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1215325228532678682, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, articleId=1212062511449378868, language=CN, label=图7, caption=FGOALS-g3模式模拟的海表温度异常经过EOF分解的第一空间模态(a)、第二空间模态(c)和CESM2模式模拟的海表温度异常经过EOF分解的第一空间模态(b)、第二空间模态(d)

子图右上角的数值为方差贡献率

, figureFileSmall=i6vIOJQROhCGoKUwh4ALKw==, figureFileBig=Mc4st2phULIqXFR5m5QP1g==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1215325228629147678, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, articleId=1212062511449378868, language=EN, label=Fig. 8, caption=The PDO indexes of HadISST reanalysis dataset (a), FIO-ESM v2.0 (b), FGOALS-g3 model (c) and CESM2 model (d)

The green solid line in the figure is the result of 7-year low-pass filtering by Fourier transform, the red and blue bars respectively represent positive and negative values of the PDO index, the red solid line is the result of 7-year low-pass filtering by 4-order Butterworth

, figureFileSmall=/i+UpWEG/cC3pEnywALs5g==, figureFileBig=iWOSiTVCvTrZtrNM71xhfQ==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1215325228704645153, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, articleId=1212062511449378868, language=CN, label=图8, caption=HadISST再分析数据(a)、FIO-ESM v2.0(b)、FGOALS-g3模式(c)和CESM2模式(d)计算的PDO指数

图中绿色实线为通过傅里叶变换进行7年低通滤波的结果,红色和蓝色柱状分别代表PDO指数的正值和负值,红色实线为通过4阶巴特沃斯进行7年低通滤波的结果

, figureFileSmall=/i+UpWEG/cC3pEnywALs5g==, figureFileBig=iWOSiTVCvTrZtrNM71xhfQ==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1215325228838862885, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, articleId=1212062511449378868, language=EN, label=Fig. 9, caption=The power spectra of the PDO index for HadISST reanalysis dataset (a), FIO-ESM v2.0 (b), FGOALS-g3 model (c) and CESM2 model (d), figureFileSmall=oXVfl8kv457iCIthdi+QMw==, figureFileBig=id+NXVOZSph+alyUPEihCA==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1215325228981469228, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, articleId=1212062511449378868, language=CN, label=图9, caption=HadISST再分析数据集(a)、FIO−ESM v2.0(b)、FGOALS-g3模式(c)和CESM2模式(d)PDO指数的功率谱值, figureFileSmall=oXVfl8kv457iCIthdi+QMw==, figureFileBig=id+NXVOZSph+alyUPEihCA==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1215325229077938223, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, articleId=1212062511449378868, language=EN, label=Fig. 10, caption=The moving t-test graphs of the PDO index for HadISST reanalysis dataset (a), FIO-ESM v2.0 model (b), FGOALS-g3 model (c) and CESM2 model (d)

The solid blue line is the moving t-test statistic, the dotted red line is the significance level

, figureFileSmall=zAbPQPBmaI15CV6+V7Q8lw==, figureFileBig=/khmGD4lBQGQLd60RUlXhA==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1215325229174407218, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, articleId=1212062511449378868, language=CN, label=图10, caption=HadISST再分析数据(a)、FIO-ESM v2.0(b)、FGOALS-g3模式(c)和CESM2模式(d)PDO指数的滑动t检验图

蓝色实线为滑动t检验统计量,红色虚线为显著性水平

, figureFileSmall=zAbPQPBmaI15CV6+V7Q8lw==, figureFileBig=/khmGD4lBQGQLd60RUlXhA==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1215325229262487605, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, articleId=1212062511449378868, language=EN, label=Fig. 11, caption=The first special modes (a) and second special modes (c) of sea level pressure anomaly for NCEP/NCAR reanalysis dataset after EOF decomposition and the first special modes (b), second special modes (d) of sea surface temperature anomaly simulated by the FIO-ESM v2.0 after EOF decomposition

The value in the upper right corner of the subgraph is the variance contribution rate

, figureFileSmall=hTOYamMnB++i1WpCz4kzFw==, figureFileBig=CdrroF0jJPQMmwZoGTUdvw==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1215325229342179385, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, articleId=1212062511449378868, language=CN, label=图11, caption=NCEP/NCAR再分析数据集海平面气压异常经过EOF分解的第一空间模态(a)、第二空间模态(c)和FIO-ESM v2.0模拟的海平面气压异常的第一空间模态(b)、第二空间模态(d)

子图右上角的数值为方差贡献率

, figureFileSmall=hTOYamMnB++i1WpCz4kzFw==, figureFileBig=CdrroF0jJPQMmwZoGTUdvw==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1215325229442842684, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, articleId=1212062511449378868, language=EN, label=Fig. 12, caption=Time series analysis of AL mode, PDO index, and NPI between FIO-ESM v2.0 and reanalysis data

Fig. a and Fig. b are the AL modal time series analysis between FIO-ESM v2.0 and NCEP/NCAR reanalysis datasets; Fig. c and Fig. d are the result of a 7-year filtering of the time series; Fig. e and Fig. f are the PDO index autocorrelation coefficient analysis between HadISST reanalysis dataset and FIO-ESM v2.0; Fig. g and Fig. h are the analysis of the lag correlation coefficients of the PDO index and NPI, between the reanalysis data (HadISST and NCEP/NCAR) and FIO-ESM v2.0; the correlation coefficients all pass the 95% confidence level

, figureFileSmall=a0e5W+3iLcANFejrbznovw==, figureFileBig=OVxOxoIZ2Wq2HNJSrfZQeQ==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1215325229522534462, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, articleId=1212062511449378868, language=CN, label=图12, caption=FIO-ESM v2.0和再分析数据的AL模态、PDO指数和NPI的时间序列分析

a、b为FIO-ESM v2.0和NCEP/NCAR再分析数据集的AL 模态时间序列分析;c、d为时间序列经过7年滤波的结果;e、f为HadISST再分析数据集和FIO-ESM v2.0的PDO指数自相关系数分析;g、h为再分析数据(HadISST和NCEP/NCAR)和FIO-ESM v2.0的PDO指数和NPI的超前滞后相关系数分析;相关系数均通过95%置信度

, figureFileSmall=a0e5W+3iLcANFejrbznovw==, figureFileBig=OVxOxoIZ2Wq2HNJSrfZQeQ==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1215325229602226241, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, articleId=1212062511449378868, language=EN, label=Fig. 13, caption=Regression coefficient of sea level pressure anomalies and wind stress anomalies regressing to the PDO index for the reanalysis datasets and FIO-ESM v2.0

Fig. a and Fig. c are the regression coefficient plots of NCEP/NCAR reanalysis dataset sea level pressure anomalies and wind stress anomalies regressing to the PDO index of HadISST reanalysis data; Fig. b and Fig. d are the the regression coefficient plots of sea level pressure anomalies and wind stress anomalies simulated by FIO-ESM v2.0 regressing to the PDO index of FIO-ESM v2.0; the dotted areas in Fig. a and Fig. b and the blue arrows in Fig. c and Fig. d represent data pass the 95% confidence level

, figureFileSmall=JxbYato/gYr09trWzogHYQ==, figureFileBig=SzNTO3b2MIpB+yZedOR0qg==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1215325229665140805, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, articleId=1212062511449378868, language=CN, label=图13, caption=再分析数据集和FIO-ESM v2.0的海平面气压异常和风应力异常回归于PDO指数上的回归系数

a和c为NCEP/NCAR再分析数据集海平面气压异常和风应力异常回归于HadISST再分析数据PDO指数的回归系数图;b和d为FIO-ESM v2.0模拟的海平面气压异常和风应力异常回归于FIO-ESM v2.0的PDO指数的回归系数图;a和b中打点区域以及c和d中蓝色箭头为通过95%置信度的数据

, figureFileSmall=JxbYato/gYr09trWzogHYQ==, figureFileBig=SzNTO3b2MIpB+yZedOR0qg==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1215325229744832584, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, articleId=1212062511449378868, language=EN, label=Fig. 14, caption=The time series of sea surface temperature anomalies (KOEI , blue solid line) and PDO index (PDOI, black solid line) in the KOE sea area from 1948 to 2014 after 7 years of low-pass filtering (a) and the distribution of the regression coefficient of the North Pacific Sea surface temperature anomaly to the KOEI (b)

The blue transparent solid line in Fig. a is the time series of unfiltered SST anomalies in the KOE area; the dotted areas in Fig. b are data that pass the 95% confidence level

, figureFileSmall=cdvC3C2mW2eL/Og+VQkSBw==, figureFileBig=/C6cVk9qFtuKl3eUL76Jgw==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1215325229916799052, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, articleId=1212062511449378868, language=CN, label=图14, caption=经过7年低通滤波的1948–2014年KOE海域海表面温度异常时间序列(KOEI,蓝色实线)与PDO指数(PDOI,黑色实线)(a)和北太平洋海表面温度异常回归至KOEI上的回归系数分布(b)

图a中蓝色透明实线为KOE海域未经过滤波的海温异常时间序列;图b中黑色打点区域为通过95%置信度的数据

, figureFileSmall=cdvC3C2mW2eL/Og+VQkSBw==, figureFileBig=/C6cVk9qFtuKl3eUL76Jgw==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1215325230000685136, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, articleId=1212062511449378868, language=EN, label=Fig. 15, caption=The power spectrum of the time series of sea temperature anomalies in the KOE area after 7 years of low-pass filtering, figureFileSmall=ZD1zmXA/FtCsUTVgND4JNg==, figureFileBig=5QaqIBpUDUTcRBngdXa3cA==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1215325230092959828, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, articleId=1212062511449378868, language=CN, label=图15, caption=经过7年低通滤波的KOE海域海温异常时间序列的功率谱, figureFileSmall=ZD1zmXA/FtCsUTVgND4JNg==, figureFileBig=5QaqIBpUDUTcRBngdXa3cA==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1215325230164262999, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, articleId=1212062511449378868, language=EN, label=Fig. 16, caption=Time series of annual average heat budget anomalies in the KOE sea area from 1948 to 2014

The red solid line is the heat storage rate term; the blue solid line is the surface net heat flux term; the black solid line is the sum of the surface net heat flux term, the advection term and the entrainment term; the black dashed line is the sum of the surface net heat flux term, geostrophic advection term, Ekman advection term and the entrainment term

, figureFileSmall=AOHoXqOUXwTV9DkECtnMjA==, figureFileBig=RxoNMyFZHhA9o3uxPjCqQg==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1215325230285897819, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, articleId=1212062511449378868, language=CN, label=图16, caption=KOE海域1948–2014年年平均的热收支项异常时间序列

红色实线为海温储热率项;蓝色实线为海表面净热通量项;黑色实线为海表面净热通量项、平流项和卷夹作用项之和;黑色虚线为海表面净热通量项、地转平流项、Ekman平流项和卷夹作用项之和

, figureFileSmall=AOHoXqOUXwTV9DkECtnMjA==, figureFileBig=RxoNMyFZHhA9o3uxPjCqQg==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1215325230390755422, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, articleId=1212062511449378868, language=EN, label=Fig. 17, caption=Time series of annual average heat budget anomalies (a−e) and time series of sea surface temperature anomalies (f) in the KOE sea area from 1948 to 2014

a. Sea surface temperature heat storage rate term; b. sea surface net heat flux term; c. advection term; d. geostrophic advection term; e. Ekman advection term

, figureFileSmall=9P2xsXJKFTj8uDFFvAM7Zw==, figureFileBig=K3sGaEKVQGb6wHb7v6QAOQ==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1215325230487224416, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, articleId=1212062511449378868, language=CN, label=图17, caption=KOE海域1948−2014年年平均的热收支各项异常时间序列(a−e)和海表面温度异常时间序列(f)

a. 海温储热率项;b. 海表面净热通量项;c. 平流项;d. 地转平流项;e. Ekman平流项

, figureFileSmall=9P2xsXJKFTj8uDFFvAM7Zw==, figureFileBig=K3sGaEKVQGb6wHb7v6QAOQ==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1215325230579499108, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, articleId=1212062511449378868, language=EN, label=Fig. 18, caption=Distribution of lag regression coefficients on KOEI for wind stress curl anomalies in the North Pacific to different lag time (0−12 years)

The solid black line is the mean wind stress curl zero line for years. Data were low-pass filtered and detrended for 7 years before regression

, figureFileSmall=z4A3yjNkq/bVrgsauZ0hiw==, figureFileBig=65ta2Y5WAsvWwSmL3y0coQ==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1215325230684356711, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, articleId=1212062511449378868, language=CN, label=图18, caption=北太平洋风应力旋度异常回归至不同滞后时间长度(0~12年)的KOEI上的滞后回归系数分布

黑色实线为多年平均的风应力旋度零线;数据回归前进行了7年低通滤波和去趋势

, figureFileSmall=z4A3yjNkq/bVrgsauZ0hiw==, figureFileBig=65ta2Y5WAsvWwSmL3y0coQ==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1215325230785020010, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, articleId=1212062511449378868, language=EN, label=Fig. 19, caption=Rossby waves deformation radius (a), wave velocity (b), and estimated basin crossing time estimated by FIO-ESM V2.0 (c) for the climatological baseline average (1981−2010) in the North Pacific Ocean, figureFileSmall=xxRt5ajaZa0J3eOW9ce7+w==, figureFileBig=x/PKEJuvQPuD7Eh643h20w==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1215325230860517484, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, articleId=1212062511449378868, language=CN, label=图19, caption=北太平洋海域基准气候态平均(1981−2010年)的罗斯贝波变形半径(a)、波速(b)以及FIO-ESM V2.0模拟的穿越海盆所需时间(c), figureFileSmall=xxRt5ajaZa0J3eOW9ce7+w==, figureFileBig=x/PKEJuvQPuD7Eh643h20w==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1215325230961180783, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, articleId=1212062511449378868, language=EN, label=Fig. 20, caption=Time-longitude cross-sections of sea surface height anomalies at 38.5°N, 41.5°N, and 45.5°N from 1948 to 2014

d−f: The results after 7 years of low-pass filtering

, figureFileSmall=+kkfTizmD8PD3ULrPVbvPw==, figureFileBig=yDvRUk4hlRllfheP/C/AgQ==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1215325231066038385, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, articleId=1212062511449378868, language=CN, label=图20, caption=1948−2014年海表面高度异常在38.5°N、41.5°N和45.5°N处的(单位:m)时间−经度断面

d−f:经过7年低通滤波的结果

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Statistical parameters of each physical field simulated by FIO-ESM v2.0 and the reanalysis datasets

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海表面
温度/°C
海表面气压/
hPa
风应力/
(m2·s−2)
海表面
高度/m
注:RMSE为均方根误差,MAE为平均绝对误差,R为空间相关系数。
最大偏差3.803.6075.640.46
最小偏差−2.97−1.80−27.86−0.48
RMSE1.180.9716.960.07
MAE0.970.7411.670.05
R0.960.990.890.96
), ArticleFig(id=1215325231267364981, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, articleId=1212062511449378868, language=CN, label=表1, caption=

FIO-ESM v2.0模拟的与再分析数据的各物理场的统计参数

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海表面
温度/°C
海表面气压/
hPa
风应力/
(m2·s−2)
海表面
高度/m
注:RMSE为均方根误差,MAE为平均绝对误差,R为空间相关系数。
最大偏差3.803.6075.640.46
最小偏差−2.97−1.80−27.86−0.48
RMSE1.180.9716.960.07
MAE0.970.7411.670.05
R0.960.990.890.96
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地球系统模式FIO-ESM v2.0对北太平洋年代际气候变化的模拟评估
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韦销蔚 1 , 董昌明 2, * , 夏长水 3 , 乔方利 3
海洋学报 | 论文 2023,45(9): 25-44
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海洋学报 | 论文 2023, 45(9): 25-44
地球系统模式FIO-ESM v2.0对北太平洋年代际气候变化的模拟评估
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韦销蔚1 , 董昌明2, * , 夏长水3, 乔方利3
作者信息
  • 1 广西壮族自治区气象局 气象信息中心,广西 南宁 530022
  • 2 南京信息工程大学 海洋科学学院,江苏 南京 210044
  • 3 自然资源部第一海洋研究所,山东 青岛 266061
  • 韦销蔚(1997-),女,广西壮族自治区河池市人,主要从事物理海洋学研究。E-mail:

通讯作者:

*董昌明(1967-),男,教授,主要从事物理海洋、海洋动力学和数值模拟研究。E-mail:
An assessment of North Pacific interdecadal climate change simulations using the FIO-ESM v2.0
Xiaowei Wei1 , Changming Dong2, * , Changshui Xia3, Fangli Qiao3
Affiliations
  • 1Meteorological Information Center, Meteorological Administration of Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region, Nanning 530022, China
  • 2School of Marine Sciences, Nanjing University of Information Science and Technology, Nanjing 266061, China
  • 3First Institute of Oceanography, Ministry of Natural Resources, Qingdao 266061, China
出版时间: 2023-09-30 doi: 10.12284/hyxb2023112
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数值模拟方法在研究长时间的气候变化上扮演着重要角色。一直以来,数值模式模拟年代际气候变化如太平洋年代际震荡(PDO)的位相转换存在巨大挑战。本文利用自然资源部第一海洋研究所研发的地球系统模式(First Institute of Oceanography-Earth System Model Version 2,FIO-ESM v2.0)145年(1870–2014年)历史气候模拟试验结果,结合再分析资料和另外两个地球系统模式结果,分析评估了该模式对太平洋年代际振荡的模拟能力。研究发现,FIO-ESM v2.0能够再现历史时期PDO的空间模态分布特征,其PDO指数具有10~30年的周期变化特征,同时于1960年以后能刻画出与再分析数据结果相近的PDO位相转变特征。研究表明,FIO-ESM v2.0能够较为准确地模拟出PDO的位相转变特征。另外,本文还评估了该模式对大气环流模态的模拟能力及其与PDO之间的关系,以及该模式模拟PDO的可能机制。该模式的PDO与大气环流的阿留申低压模态相关。进一步的分析表明,平流作用和热通量是关键年代际海域海温异常振幅的主要因素,而罗斯贝波西传时间则可能是影响PDO位相转变的关键因素。

FIO-ESM v2.0  /  太平洋年代际震荡  /  海气相互作用

Numerical simulation play an important role in studying long-term climate change. For a long time, it has meted great challenges in characterizing the phase transitions of interdecadal climate changes like Pacific Decadal Oscillation (PDO). This study evaluates 145-year (1870–2014) historical PDO simulation results produced by the First Institute of Oceanography’s Earth System Model Version 2 (FIO-ESM v2.0) of Ministry of Natural Resources, in a comparison with reanalysis datasets and two other earth system model results. Results indicate that the FIO-ESM v2.0 can recreate the spatial modal distribution characteristics of the PDO from the historical period. The model’s PDO index has a period of 10 to 30 years and can describe the phase transition characteristics that resembles reanalysis datasets after 1960. Research shows that the FIO-ESM v2.0 can describe the phase transition features of PDO well. In addition, the model performance to simulate atmospheric circulation modes and relationship with PDO, as well as the possible mechanism for the model to simulate PDO are also discussed. The PDO of the model is related to the Aleutian Mode of atmospheric circulation. Further analysis shows that advection and heat flux are the main factors affecting the amplitude of SST anomalies in key decadal area, and the Rossby wave westward time may be the key factor affecting the phase transition of PDO.

FIO-ESM v2.0  /  Pacific Decadal Oscillation  /  air-sea interactions
韦销蔚, 董昌明, 夏长水, 乔方利. 地球系统模式FIO-ESM v2.0对北太平洋年代际气候变化的模拟评估. 海洋学报, 2023 , 45 (9) : 25 -44 . DOI: 10.12284/hyxb2023112
Xiaowei Wei, Changming Dong, Changshui Xia, Fangli Qiao. An assessment of North Pacific interdecadal climate change simulations using the FIO-ESM v2.0[J]. Haiyang Xuebao, 2023 , 45 (9) : 25 -44 . DOI: 10.12284/hyxb2023112
北太平洋海温异常存在地球上最显著的年代际变化信号,Mantua等[1]第一次将其称为太平洋年代际振荡(Pacific Decadal Oscillation,PDO),其具有10~20年甚至50年以上的年代际周期振荡频率[2-3]。PDO定义为太平洋20°N以北的海表面温度异常通过经验正交函数(Empirical Orthogonal Function,EOF)展开,得到的第一空间模态,PDO指数则为对应的时间序列。前人研究表明,PDO对全球及周边地区的气候变化、生物分布、冰川消退、海洋极端事件和森林火灾等事件有不可忽略的影响[4-9],同时PDO可作为背景场调制厄尔尼诺−南方涛动(El Niño−Southern Oscillation,ENSO)现象[10-11]
关于PDO的形成机制,目前已经有了许多基于观测和模式数据的研究结论:(1)天气尺度噪声的随机强迫可引起类似PDO的海洋低频响应[12-13];(2)热带通过“大气桥”[14-15]、海洋波动[16-17]及其自身的年代际变化影响PDO[18];(3)中纬度海气相互作用也是PDO的产生机制,包括“重现”机制[19-20]、夏季海表面温度与低云量的正反馈机制[21]、北太平洋海气环流调整[22-26]等;(4)热带和中纬度海洋共同作用也是PDO的可能产生机制之一,这种共同作用涉及潜沉作用[27-28]、副热带风应力的调整[29-30]、“季节足迹机制”[31]等。除了上述的气候系统内部强迫外,PDO与外部强迫如太阳辐射[32]和潮汐[33]等过程也可能相关。
由于观测资料时间长度和空间垂向深度的有限性,对PDO部分特征的刻画和过程机制的分析研究存在局限性。随着再分析数据产品的不断优化以及同化技术的发展,众多研究学者不断推进利用数值模拟手段对北太平洋年代际变化进行历史模拟和预测的研究工作。不同于太平洋年际变化尺度现象(不同事件类型的ENSO现象,已具有较为成熟的形成机制和预测技巧研究工作基础)[34-35],对年代际的模式后报和预测还存在巨大的挑战。由世界气候研究计划(the World Climate Research Program, WCRP)下的耦合模型工作组(Working Group on Coupled Modelling,WGCM)主持的耦合模式比对项目(Coupled Model Intercomparison Project,CMIP)已经持续推进20年。该项目经过5个阶段的发展逐渐成为一项重要的国际多模式研究活动,为全球气候变化研究,特别是类似PDO的年代际变化研究,提供了必不可少的支撑,目前已经发展到第6阶段,即CMIP6[35]
从CMIP3到CMIP5项目的耦合气候模式历史气候模拟试验结果中可知,部分模式具备重现PDO现象空间分布特征和相近的周期变化特征的能力,但几乎不能模拟出与观测相近的时间序列位相变化特征[36-39]。北太平洋上层海温的初始状态,特别是黑潮−亲潮延伸体海域对PDO现象的后报效果有很重要的影响[40-41]。基于ENSO可通过大气遥相关等过程影响北太平洋年代际变率的性质,对PDO的模拟和预测技术大多依赖对ENSO的模拟和预报效果[42-43],低估赤道与北太平洋之间的相互作用可能会导致对PDO现象的模拟和预测偏差[44]。在数值建模中,考虑更全面的10年尺度热带和温带耦合作用,对两半球的年代际变化的模拟和预测具有重要意义[45]。当然,数值模式的偏差也会造成对PDO的模拟不准确[46]。另外,也有学者认为考虑海气之间的强耦合同化方法可能对提升模拟北太平洋年代际预测水平有帮助[47]。近十几年数值模拟获得了巨大的进步,最近的评估工作表明,参与评估的15个CMIP6模式中,约10个模式在模拟PDO的空间模态分布特征能力上有了较大提高(相比于CMIP5),并且能模拟出与阿留申低压(Aleutian Low,AL)变率之间的相关关系,但没有涉及到对位相变化和周期的讨论[48]
数值模式作为重要的科研手段,能够通过不同的敏感性实验提供有关年代际变化机制的信息。Qiao等[49]发展了浪致混合理论,并指出海浪在上层海洋混合中的关键作用。由于上层海洋对年际和年代际全球气候变化起控制性作用,浪致混合理论显著降低了气候模式海表温度模拟的共性偏差[50],在此基础上,Qiao等[51]建立了国际首个包含浪致混合的气候模式,并参加了CMIP5对比项目。Liu[52]也注意到海浪和环流对气候变化的重要作用。本文评估的自然资源部第一海洋研究所地球系统模式(First Institute of Oceanography-Earth System Model Version 2.0,FIO-ESM v2.0)包含4个特色海洋物理过程,即浪致混合、斯托克斯漂流、海浪飞沫和海表面温度日变化对海气通量的影响[53]。前期的模拟研究表明,引入海浪的FIO气候模式能解决气候模式中的一些经典偏差问题,并且在CMIP5的40个模式中模拟20世纪全球SST增温趋势表现较好[54]。FIO-ESM v2.0改善了SST模拟效果,特别是在赤道海域[54],但对ENSO和PDO的模拟效果如何则需要进一步的评估。
本文通过FIO-ESM v2.0与再分析数据、FIO-ESM v2.0与另外两个地球系统模式数据进行比较,评估FIO-ESM v2.0模拟PDO现象的能力及其与年代际大气环流模态之间的联系。本文的第二部分介绍使用的模式和再分析资料以及采用的方法和数据处理手段;第三部分评估模式对北太平洋基准气候态年变化、季节变化以及PDO的模拟效果,探讨PDO与北太平洋年代际大气环流模态之间的关系;第四部分讨论模式模拟PDO的可能机制;第五部分对本文进行总结和展望。
本文采用FIO-ESM v2.0历史气候模拟试验(Historical)结果进行评估分析。Historical是以工业革命前参照试验(piControl)为初始场模拟运行后的结果[55]。FIO-ESM v2.0提供以piControl第301年、第330年和第350年的模拟数据为初始场的运行结果,运行结果分别标记为“r1i1p1f1” “r2i1p1f1”和“r3i1p1f1”。“r3i1p1f1”试验在重现过去165年全球变暖的时间演变上表现较好[55],因此本文采用该试验结果进行评估分析。模式数据包含海表面温度、海平面气压、海表面风场和海表面高度等变量,空间范围为全球,空间分辨率为1°(经向)× 1°(纬向),时间范围为1850−2014年,时间分辨率为月平均,数据获取网址为https://esgf-node.llnl.gov/projects/cmip6/。考虑再分析数据的时间长度,选取1870−2014年的海表面温度数据和1948−2014年的大气场数据。
本文采用两个同样参与CMIP6项目“r3i1p1f1”试验的海表面温度模式结果,意在进行模式间对PDO现象模拟能力的横向比较。这两个模式分别为中国科学院大气物理研究所大气科学和地球流体力学数值模拟国家重点实验室研发的气候系统模式(Flexible Global Ocean-Atmosphere-Land System Model,FGOALS-g3)和美国国家大气研究中心研发的通用地球系统模式(Community Earth System Model Version 2,CESM2),它们在CMIP5中对PDO的空间分布特征模拟较好[38]。同时,CESM2的框架基本上和FIO-ESM v2.0相似,部分模块如海浪和径流模块不同,而FGOALS-g3使用的海洋分量模块和另外两个模式不一致,三者进行比较能体现不同分量模块的模拟效果。
为了验证FIO-ESM v2.0的模式产品,本文采用如下融合了观测数据的再分析数据集进行对比分析。
英国气象局(Met Office)Hadley中心HadISST数据集(Hadley Center Sea Ice and Sea Surface Temperature Data)提供了全球月平均的海温和海冰数据。其中,海表面温度取自英国气象局海洋数据库(the Met Office Marine Data Bank,MDB),在数据缺失的海域采用国际海洋大气综合数据集(International Comprehensive Ocean-Atmosphere Data Set,ICOADS)补充。本文采用HadISST1.1海表面温度数据集(获取网址:https://www.metoffice.gov.uk/hadobs/hadisst/data/download.html),空间分辨率为1°(经向)× 1°(纬向),空间范围为全球,时间范围为1870−2014年,时间分辨率为月平均。
海表面气压场和海表面风场数据来自NCEP/NCAR月平均大气再分析数据集,该数据集由美国国家环境预报中心(National Centers for Environmental Prediction,NCEP)和美国国家大气研究中心(National Center for Atmospheric Research,NCAR)联合制作。空间分辨率为2.5°(经向)× 2.5°(纬向),时间范围为1948年至今(获取网址:https://psl.noaa.gov/data/gridded/data.ncep.reanalysis.html)。本文采用1948年1月至2014年12月的月平均海表面压力场和海表面风场数据进行分析。
海表面高度数据来自美国马里兰大学和美国德州农工大学共同开发的简单海洋数据同化海洋再分析资料(the Simple Ocean Data Assimilation Ocean,SODA)。空间分辨率为0.5°(经向)× 0.5°(纬向)×50层,垂向为非等间距分布,表层为5 m,最大深度可达5 395 m,基本覆盖全球海区(除部分极地海区外)。时间范围为1980−2015年,时间分辨率为月平均。本文采用SODA3.4.1数据集(获取网址:https://www2.atmos.umd.edu/~ocean/index_files/soda3.4.1_mn_download.htm)。
本文关注北太平洋年代际时间尺度气候变化及FIO-ESM v2.0对其的模拟能力,采用的方法包括EOF分解、线性回归、低通滤波、功率谱分析、滑动t检验以及超前滞后相关等。
本文将再分析数据和模式数据均处理成1° × 1°的空间分辨率,方便二者进行对比。针对1981−2010年的基准气候态,评估模式对年平均和季节变化的模拟效果。EOF方法将某一变量场的协方差矩阵分解为空间和时间的函数,用以表征某些物理过程的空间变异性和调节每个过程的时间变异性。在进行EOF计算前,对所有变量的每个网格点数据乘以对应的纬度余弦的平方根,进行面积加权以消除中高纬度区域数据密集对EOF计算造成的影响[4]。本文采用Zhang等[56]的方法,选取20°~70°N、110°E~100°W的核心区域[57],见图1。月平均海表面温度异常(Sea Surface Temperature Anomaly,SSTA)场去除同月全球平均的SSTA,以去除全球增暖的影响。经过上述处理的数据,进行EOF计算,得到空间模态和对应的时间序列,并对模态的显著性进行检验[58]。对时间序列,本文通过功率谱分析提取其振荡周期,并采用7年低通滤波滤除年际变化;根据功率谱分析的结果选取合适的子序列长度,采用滑动t检验法对年代际气候突变进行检测。另外,为了探究模式是否能反映大气与海洋的年代际变化之间的关系,海平面气压异常和风应力异常对PDO指数进行线性回归,线性回归前对数据进行面积加权和线性去趋势,并进行PDO指数和北太平洋指数(North Pacific Index,NPI)的超前滞后相关分析。
FIO-ESM v2.0模拟的北太平洋温度、海表面气压、风应力和海表面高度空间分布特征与再分析数据基本匹配(图2)。模式能模拟出北太平洋海域海温随纬度的带状分布特征,超过90%的海域偏差绝对值在2°以内。鄂霍次克海、白令海西部和千岛寒流附近的海域以及西太暖池延伸至北太平洋中部海域的海温模拟值偏低,中国近海、黑潮下游以及北美洲沿岸的海域温度模拟值偏高(图2a图2c)。相比FIO-ESM v1.0,FIO-ESM v2.0模拟北太平洋西海岸的海温偏差得到改善;北太平洋东海岸即美国西海岸的热偏差减小,范围缩小[54]。FIO-ESM v2.0总体上能模拟出以冷暖西边界流交汇区为界限、北低南高的海表面高度分布特征,偏差主要分布在黑潮延伸体海域和美国西海岸至白令海海域(图2g图2i),最大偏差出现在黑潮流域。FIO-ESM v2.0能再现三圈环流底层的分布特征(图2d图2e)。阿留申低压位置和形态与再分析数据基本一致,范围稍小,导致阿拉斯加湾和鄂霍次克海的气压偏高;位于东太平洋的夏威夷高压和西太平洋副热带高压相连接,而在再分析数据中这两个高压呈分离的状态。围绕低压(高压)中心,风应力(矢量)呈现出相应的气旋和反气旋状态,在西风带和信风带的风应力相较再分析结果强,在北美洲西海岸则较弱。对3个要素场的模拟结果进行统计表明了高度的空间相关性及较小的误差(面积加权,如表1所示),尽管FIO-ESM v2.0对风应力有所高估,但其对北太平洋气候态年平均变化趋势的模拟是令人信服的。
FIO-ESM v2.0反映了与再分析数据结果一致的北太平洋SST季节变化趋势(图3图4):在较寒冷季节(冬季和春季)高纬度冷水可达日本海中部海域,低纬度西太平洋暖池范围减退至30°N左右;相反,在较温暖季节(夏季和秋季),暖池范围可延伸至40°N,而高纬度海水减退至白令海和鄂霍次克海海域,在局部海域如鄂霍次克海低估了对海温的模拟。总体上,模式模拟的季节性海温与再分析数据的季节性海温空间相关系数均在0.90以上,均方根误差均低于2°C,平均绝对误差均低于1.5°C。
大气环流表现出明显的季节变化特征。在夏季,夏威夷高压西移,范围扩大至北太平洋中西部海域,高压中心强度增强并伴随着反气旋风,西太平洋副高则隐退至东亚大陆;在冬季,阿留申低压加强并南移,范围扩大至30°N,围绕低压中心的较强的极地东风和西风也随之南移,西太平洋副高压东移至西太平洋海面。春季和秋季则为过渡季节。FIO-ESM v2.0模拟的大气环流基本反映了大气环流的季节性空间分布特征,但略为高估了夏季和冬季的高压和低压中心的强度和范围,随之伴随着比再分析数据强的风应力。模式模拟的季节性海表面气压(风应力)与再分析数据的空间相关系数基本上在0.90(0.80)以上。模式模拟的季节性海表面气压均方根误差均低于3.5 hPa,平均绝对误差均低于3 hPa。模式模拟的季节性纬向(经向)风应力均方根误差均低于30 m2/s2(10 m2/s2),平均绝对误差均低于20 m2/s2(7 m2/s2)。
本文对核心海域(20°~70°N、110°E~100°W)1870−2014年145年经过处理的月平均海表面温度异常进行EOF分解。对EOF分解的模态方差进行North检验,如图5所示,FIO-ESM v2.0方差占比大的前两个模态的样本误差不相交,即两模态特征值的差大于取样误差,说明前两个模态可显著分离并具有物理意义。同理,FGOALS-g3和CESM2也具有相同的检验结果(未显示)。
根据再分析数据分析的结果(图6a图6c)可知,北太平洋SST异常经过EOF分解的第一空间模态(EOF1)表现出中西部北太平洋海温异常冷、北美沿岸至阿拉斯加湾海温异常暖的“马鞍型”分布特征,即PDO模态。海温冷异常与中纬度西风带的位置相匹配,而海温暖异常则沿北美大陆西海岸呈南北向分布。该模态占总方差贡献率的25.2%。第二空间模态(EOF2)则表现出东北(暖)−西南(冷)−西北(暖)向的海温异常三极子结构,即维多利亚模态(Victoria Mode,VM)[59],该模态占总方差贡献率的11.7%。东北向的暖中心强度明显强于西北向的暖中心强度,两者相隔距离较短。两个模态一共占总方差的36.9%。
FIO-ESM v2.0能基本反映出EOF1“马鞍型”的空间分布特征(图6b),方差贡献率为23.8%,与再分析数据结果相近,但其暖异常范围可达鄂霍次克海,并且在美国阿拉斯加州出现一个暖异常中心,整个暖异常带和再分析数据相比较强,另外墨西哥西海岸处的海温异常与再分析数据相比较低;在北太平洋中部,模式模拟的冷异常中心强度低于再分析数据结果,并且在黑潮与千岛寒流交汇海区出现了第二个明显的强冷异常中心,模式模拟整体冷异常范围向低纬度扩展。模式模拟的EOF2能再现东北−西南−西北的海温异常三极子形态(图6d),方差贡献率为13.3%,也与再分析数据结果相近。其中,一强暖异常中心位于千岛寒流中上流海域,并与东北向的暖中心相隔较远,这与再分析数据的结果有所差异;位于西南的冷异常中心与再分析数据相比较冷,并且在美国西海岸至阿拉斯加州沿岸海域出现冷异常。两个模态一共占总方差的37.1%,与再分析数据的结果非常相近。
对比另外两个模式结果(图7),CESM2模式高估了EOF1和EOF2的方差贡献率(总方差贡献率为43.5%),而FGOALS-g3模式则低估了EOF1而高估了EOF2的方差贡献率(总方差贡献率为41.4%)。从空间分布特征来看,CESM2模式对EOF1和EOF2的刻画较好,但也存在EOF1在黑潮−亲潮延伸体海域的强冷异常以及EOF2中两个暖异常中心相距甚远的差异。FGOALS-g3模式模拟的EOF1表现为阿拉斯加湾至白令海之间强的暖异常中心和被低估的北太平洋中部冷异常中心的差异,EOF2则表现为大范围暖异常的减小、黑潮−亲潮延伸体海域强的暖异常中心以及美国西海岸至阿拉斯加州沿岸海域冷异常的差异。
FIO-ESM v2.0、FGOALS-g3和CESM2与再分析数据结果的EOF1和EOF2空间相关系数分别为R(EOF1/EOF2) = 0.89/0.88、0.49/0.54、0.96/0.87。总体上,FIO-ESM v2.0基本能反映北太平洋海域海温异常前两个主导模态的空间分布特征,模拟效果较好。
为了评估和分析模式模拟PDO的时间演变规律,本文对标准化的EOF1对应时间序列(Principal Component 1, PC1)即PDO指数进行低通滤波、功率谱分析以及滑动t检验。不同的滤波器在时间序列的起始和末端的处理方式不同,为了客观评价,本文对PC1进行傅里叶变换滤波和4阶巴特沃斯滤波(图8,实线),滤除7年以下的周期信号(如ENSO等信号)。再分析数据结果显示(图8a),于1907年、1923年、1945年、1976年和1998年发生较为显著的气候跃迁(regime shift),即1907–1923年、1924–1945年、1946–1976年、1977–1998年及1999–2014年北太平洋海温异常分别以冷暖位相交替出现,表现出年代际变化的特征。FIO-ESM v2.0在1960年以后能刻画出与再分析数据结果一致的冷暖位相交替出现的特征(图8b),但发生气候跃迁的时间点发生偏移,譬如1976年/1977年气候跃迁在模式中提前了4~5年(1972年/1973年),1998年/1999年跃迁提前了2~3年(1995年/1996年)。相比之下,FGOALS-g3和CESM2(图8c图8d)则不能近似地模拟出1960年以后近似再分析结果的气候跃迁现象。再分析数据与FIO-ESM v2.0、FGOALS-g3和CESM2的PC1之间的相关系数分别为–0.03、–0.03和0.12,通过傅里叶变换滤波/巴特沃斯滤波后模式和再分析数据PC1相关系数分别为R (fft/butter) = –0.07/–0.09、–0.22/–0.23和0.31/0.32。在整体上,CESM2的PDO指数与再分析数据结果相关性最高,刻画效果较好。然而可以明显地看出,经过滤波后的FIO-ESM v2.0和再分析数据的PDO指数,两者的变化趋势在1960年以后表现出较好的相似性,能够近似刻画几个显著的气候跃迁事件,相关系数可达0.40左右,高于另外两个模式结果。上述计算的相关系数均通过了95%置信度。
基于信号的能量谱密度与自相关函数互为傅里叶变换的特性,本文进一步对模式和再分析数据的标准化PDO指数做功率谱分析(图9),以提取PDO的周期特征。低通滤波的再分析数据结果表明,北太平洋海域海温存在9年、19年和48年左右的年代际周期,均通过了严格的99%和95%红噪声显著性检验。从FIO-ESM v2.0低通滤波的时间序列功率谱图上可观察到12年和32年峰值通过检验,也可体现出年代际周期特征。FGOALS-g3模式仅观察到16年的周期峰值。CESM2则包含了更多信号,能体现包括9年、19年和49年在内的10~50年的年代际周期信号,但峰值远低于再分析数据。以上的分析结果表明,FIO-ESM v2.0能够模拟出PDO的短周期过程(10~30年),但不能很好地体现更长周期如50年的特征。
进一步地,根据功率谱分析的结果,本文选取20年的子序列长度,对PDO指数进行滑动t检验,检验模式是否能模拟出气候跃迁点(图10)。再分析数据的PDO指数在20世纪出现了5次气候跃迁现象(分别在1905年、1925年、1945年、1976年和1994年前后出现,如图10a所示),表现出明显的突变峰值。FIO-ESM v2.0的PDO指数分别于1913年、1931–1946年、1952年、1972年和1994年发生较为显著的突变,如图10b所示。FGOALS-g3的PDO指数于1930–1941年、1950年和1969年发生较为显著的突变(图10c)。CESM2 PDO指数于1918–1928年、1969年和1989年发生较为显著的突变(图10d)。其中,再分析数据和FIO-ESM v2.0结果在20世纪40年代后表现出相似的突变过程,不同之处在于,FIO-ESM v2.0的结果提早出现气候跃迁现象,再分析数据的结果在20世纪40–50年代和70–80年代的突变峰值大于模式在50–60年代和70–80年代的结果,于90年代的突变峰值则小于模式结果。以上的结果进一步验证了FIO-ESM v2.0在1960年后能模拟出近似再分析数据结果的气候跃迁事件。
北太平洋的年代际变化在海洋和大气中均有具体的表现形式,两者的年代际变化存在紧密的联系。为了更全面地理解PDO现象,综合评估FIO-ESM v2.0对其的模拟效果,需要评估FIO-ESM v2.0对年代际大气环流模态的模拟能力。本文利用的对比数据为NCEP/NCAR再分析数据集(1948–2014年)67年月平均的海平面气压异常数据,对其进行EOF分解后,获得北太平洋大气环流的第一和第二空间模态,分别称作阿留申低压模态[60]和北太平洋涛动(North Pacific Oscillation, NPO)模态[61]
主导的AL模态表明北太平洋受大范围的阿留申低压系统控制,该模态体现北太平洋年代际的变化。模式对该模态空间分布特征的模拟效果较好,中心强度稍强于再分析数据结果。NPO模态表示大气环流呈现南–北向的偶极子空间分布特征,象征北太平洋的年际变化[62]。再分析数据结果显示,高纬度的低压中心位于白令海,高压中心位于北太平洋中部。模式结果则显示低压中心占据阿拉斯加州和加拿大西部大陆,高压中心强度低于再分析数据,范围延伸至东亚大陆,呈现西南(高压)–东北(低压)略微倾斜的分布特征。再分析数据和FIO-ESM v2.0的AL模态方差贡献率分别为30.8%和36.5%,如图11a图11b所示;再分析数据和FIO-ESM v2.0的NPO模态方差贡献率分别为18.9%和17.1%,如图11c图11d所示。再分析数据和FIO-ESM v2.0两个模态的总方差贡献率分别为49.7%和53.6%,二者结果相近。对于AL模态与NPO模态,模式与再分析数据的空间相关系数为R (AL/NPO) = 0.98/0.96。
Trenberth和Hurrell[63]定义30°~65°N、160°E~140°W区域范围内面积加权平均的海平面气压异常为NPI,表征北太平洋阿留申低压系统的强度变化程度。图12b图12d显示与文献[63]计算结果相似的变化趋势,故本文将AL模态对应的时间序列称为NPI,代表了阿留申低压的强度变化。采用上述滤波方法滤去NPI的年际变化,考察其低压系统强度的年代际变化规律。如图12d所示,再分析数据中阿留申低压系统具有明显的年代际变化规律,发生位相转变的时间超前于PDO指数,例如在1975年/1976年由正异常转变为负异常,1988年/1989年则由负异常转变为正异常。根据功率谱分析的低通滤波结果(未显示)可知,NPI具有9年和22年左右的年代际周期特征。FIO-ESM v2.0低通滤波的NPI则具有7年和22年左右的周期特征,于1974年整体发生由正异常转变为负异常的气候跃迁现象(图12c)。再分析数据和模式原序列通过95%置信度的相关系数为0.03,滤波后的相关系数为0.05,呈较微弱的相关。
Newman等[64]统计了CMIP3和CMIP5模式的PDO指数自相关系数,发现大多数模式模拟的PDO指数相对再分析数据(图12e)持续时间较长,FIO-ESM v2.0则降低了这种模拟偏差,PDO指数的自相关性与实际非常接近(图12f)。根据上述分析可知,北太平洋海洋和大气环流主模态均存在年代际变化规律,海洋变化滞后于大气变化,两者发生转变的时期非常接近。若要具体诊断PDO和NPI之间的相互关系,需要进行超前滞后相关性分析,如图12g图12h所示。NPI超前于PDO指数时有较大的正相关系数,表明模式基本能反映与再分析数据相似的结果,即大气强迫海洋的关系,但在超前滞后12个月以后在模式中出现负的相关系数。
前人研究表明,大气的异常强迫引起北太平洋年代际的变化[65-67],为了检验模式海洋年代际模态与大气异常场之间的关系,本文通过一元线性回归的方式,分别将再分析数据和FIO-ESM v2.0的海平面气压异常和海表面风应力异常回归至PDO指数上,回归系数图则反映着大气环流如何响应PDO指数的变化,如图13所示。回归的海平面气压异常与大气环流的AL模态相似,说明海洋的PDO模态受大气环流的AL模态影响,并伴随着气旋式海表面风应力异常。再分析数据与模式海平面气压异常和海表面风应力异常回归场的空间相关系数为R (slp/wind) = 0.97/0.94。当阿留申低压加强时,中纬度西风异常增强导致太平洋中西部海水异常失温,向赤道的埃克曼平流将副极地的冷水输送至北太平洋中部,造成SST的异常降低;而强劲的东南风将低纬度的温暖空气输送至北美至阿拉斯加州海域,减少了上升流导致的海水热量流失,同时向东的埃克曼平流将相对于沿岸暖的北太平洋表层水输送至沿岸海域,导致SST异常增暖;阿留申低压减弱时则呈现相反的现象[65, 68]。总体上,FIO-ESM v2.0较好地反映了PDO与相应AL模态及伴随风应力异常之间的空间分布关系。
前人以及上述的评估结果表明,大多数数值模式在黑潮−亲潮延伸体(Kuroshio-Oyashio Extension,KOE)海域、北太平洋中部海域以及阿拉斯加湾海域,对海表面温度异常信号有不同程度的模拟偏差[69],而KOE海域被认为是短周期年代际海域的关键海域之一[40]。对于FIO-ESM v2.0,KOE海域在PDO空间模态中也表现出了明显的海温异常信号。
利用1948–2014年的FIO-ESM v2.0模拟的海表面温度数据,本文给出了模式中KOE海域(38°~45°N、140°~170°E)海温异常时间序列和PDO指数的对比图(图14a)。两者的相关系数为−0.70,进行7年低通滤波后两者的相关系数为−0.61,表明KOE海域的海温异常变化与PDO指数存在强相关性。当对应PDO的暖位相(PDO指数为正值)时,KOE海域的海温异常变化为负。若将北太平洋海表面温度异常回归至标准化的PDO指数上(图14b),回归系数的空间分布特征也与PDO空间模态高度相关(相关系数为0.90;回归时海温异常时间序列乘以−1)。功率谱的分析结果表明(图15),KOE海域海温异常的变化具有9年和22年的周期特征,其功率谱与PDO指数的功率谱(图9b)相似。以上的分析结果表明KOE海域是20年短周期PDO过程的关键海域。
海洋的年代际变化实际上是对海水热量的再分配过程。分析具体是哪些过程贡献了PDO关键海域的海温异常变化,有助于理解模式模拟PDO的形成机制。混合层热收支方程是一个便于比较影响海温变化过程贡献大小的方法,本文利用该方法对KOE海域的温度变化进行了分析。本文采用Stevenson和Niiler[70-71]推导的混合层热收支方程,该方程进一步可写为
$ \begin{split} h\rho {c_{\rm{p}}}\frac{{\partial {\theta _{\rm{a}}}}}{{\partial t}} =& - h\rho {c_{\rm{p}}}{{{\boldsymbol{V}}_{\rm{a}}}} \cdot \nabla {\theta _{\rm{a}}} - \rho {c_{\rm{p}}}\left( {{\theta _{\rm{a}}} - {\theta _{ - {{h}}}}} \right) \times {w_{\rm{e}}} + {Q_{{\rm{net}}}} - \\&\left\{ {\rho {c_{\rm{p}}}\nabla \cdot \left( {\int_{ - {{h}}}^0 {{{{\boldsymbol{V}} }^*}{\theta ^*}{\rm{d}}z} } \right) + {Q_{ - {{h}}}} + F} \right\} \text{,} \end{split} $
式中,$ h $为混合层深度;${\theta _{\rm{a}}}$为混合层深度垂向平均的海水温度;${\boldsymbol{V}}_{\rm{a}}$为海水水平流速的混合层深度垂向平均;$ \rho $为海水密度;${c_{\rm{p}}}$为海水定压比热;$ \rho $${c_{\rm{p}}}$根据3维温盐数据求得并取混合层平均数值;${\theta _{ - {{h}}}}$为混合层底的海水温度;${\boldsymbol V ^*}$$ {\theta ^*} $为水平流速和海水温度对其垂直平均量的偏差;${w_{\rm{e}}} = \dfrac{{\partial h}}{{\partial t}} + {{{\boldsymbol{V}}_{ - {{h}}}}} \cdot \nabla h + {w_{ - {{h}}}}$定义为卷夹速度;${Q_{{\rm{net}}}}$为海表面净热通量;${Q_{ - {{h}}}}$为穿过混合层底的热通量;${Q_{{\rm{net}}}}$由FIO-ESM v2.0的历史气候模拟试验数据直接提供;$ \left\{ {} \right\} $代表余项;F代表被省略或未考虑的过程。本文计算方程(1)等式左侧和右侧前3项,热收支各项单位为W/m2,正值表示促使海温升高,负值表示促使海温下降。为了进一步分析水平平流造成海温变化的具体细节,本文还将水平流速分解为地转流速和埃克曼流速,分别通过${{\boldsymbol{U}}_{g}}=-g \nabla \zeta \times {{\boldsymbol{k}}} / f$${{\boldsymbol{U}}_{e}}={{\boldsymbol{\tau}}} \times {{\boldsymbol{k}}} /(\rho f h)$计算,并由此计算它们的平流热收支项。其中,$ \zeta $代表海表面高度异常;$\boldsymbol{\tau}$代表海表面风应力;$ f $为科氏力参数。
本文关注长时间尺度的异常信号变化特征,图16展示了KOE海域1948–2014年年平均的热收支各项异常的时间序列。热收支各项异常的年平均值由热收支项减去气候月平均值,再求1–12月的平均值得出。KOE海域的海温储热率项表现出明显的年际变化特征,和海表面净热通量项之间通过99%置信度的相关系数为0.65。当加入平流作用项后,式(1)右侧与海温储热率项的相关系数升高至0.90,说明平流作用的影响非常显著,同时平流作用还表现为抵消海表面净热通量贡献的作用。需要注意到的是,由于缺乏数据,式(1)右侧的前3项在某些年份并不能使整个混合层热收支方程完全闭合。
进一步地,本文对热收支各项进行了具体分析,如图17所示。由于卷夹作用项在该海域的量值很小,因此不重点分析该项的影响。对于KOE海域,海温储热率项可分别由海表面净热通量项和平流项解释,相关系数分别为0.65和0.69,平流项中又以地转流项为主,与海温储热率项的相关系数为0.73。埃克曼流项和海温储热率项在多数年份的变化趋势一致,也具有一定的正相关(相关系数为0.48),叠加在地转流上能促进海温异常的发展和壮大,有时则作为阻尼项起作用。在KOE海域,经向流的作用远大于纬向流。考虑海表面温度异常的变化(图17f),可以发现海表面净热通量异常在大部分年份主要抑制海温异常的发展(相关系数为−0.27),经过7年滤波的时间序列相关系数为−0.73。平流项特别是地转流项主要发展和维持海温异常,相关系数为0.80。若对7年滤波的地转流项异常时间序列进行功率谱分析,则均可发现22年周期的峰值通过显著性检验(未显示)。埃克曼流在大多数年份起与地转流一致的作用,与海温异常呈现一定的正相关(R = 0.47)。
前人通过观测或者模式研究认为,KOE海域海温异常的位相转变是由超前3~10年的北太平洋中东部风应力旋度异常变化,引起罗斯贝波西传,影响KOE海域锋面或者涡流活动的强度等过程,缓慢调整环流位置或强度所造成的[18, 64, 7273]
北太平洋风应力旋度异常滞后KOE海表面温度异常时间序列(KOEI)的结果图(图18)表明,在KOE海域海温异常变化滞后北太平洋风应力旋度异常变化10~12年,在北太平洋中心出现了风应力旋度异常变化中心,即负的风应力旋度异常中心出现在35°~50°N,正的风应力旋度中心出现在20°~35°N。而滞后0年时,风应力旋度异常位相发生翻转,此时对应着阿留申低压的加强和南移。前人的研究表明,正(负)的风应力旋度异常会引起埃克曼抽吸,使得海表面高度降低(升高),由于β效应,海表面高度异常将通过罗斯贝波向西边界传播,影响了西边界的黑潮延伸体射流及其南部的再循环环流,进而促使西边界环流南北移动,异常的地转流将影响KOE海域温度的异常变化。
本文根据Chelton等[74]的计算方法计算了FIO-ESM v2.0中的罗斯贝波变形半径和波速,并且估算了罗斯贝波跨越海盆的时间[75],如图19所示。在38.5°~45.5°N之间,向西的罗斯贝波波速分别为1.51 cm/s和0.88 cm/s左右,跨越整个纬向北太平洋海盆的时间大致为21~27年,在高纬度海域模式的罗斯贝波传播的速度比根据再分析数据计算的结果慢[75]。若风应力旋度异常在北太平洋中心出现,海表面高度异常随罗斯贝波传播至KOE海域需要10~14年的时间,是KOE海域海温异常变化周期的一半左右,也接近PDO指数周期的一半。
为了验证北太平洋在年代际上是否有罗斯贝波西传现象,图20给出了1948–2014年纬度为38.5°N、41.5°N和45.5°N的月平均海表面高度异常时间−经度断面图。可以观察到,在北太平洋160°W左右存在海表面高度异常的中心,并存在西传的现象,但西传的形态和时间并不是规律的(图20a图20c)。当滤除7年以下的信号后(图20d图20f),从时间−经度断面图上可以明显地观察到罗斯贝波西传的现象,并且纬度越高罗斯贝波西传现象越明显,说明在该模式中,年代际尺度上存在着罗斯贝波西传的现象,西传时间为10~20年左右,且西传至KOE海域的时间接近PDO位相发生转变的时间。
本文通过再分析数据与模式资料之间的比较,评估了FIO-ESM v2.0对PDO现象的模拟效果,并且讨论了海洋与大气之间年代际变化的统计相关性。北太平洋表面的海气耦合系统存在年代际的变化特征,在海洋中表现为PDO模态,在大气中表现为AL模态。FIO-ESM v2.0能再现北太平洋PDO现象的空间模态,并且能反映其10年以上的年代际周期。可喜的是FIO-ESM v2.0能模拟出1960年以后与再分析数据相近的PDO指数位相变化特征以及气候跃迁现象,即使某些典型的气候跃迁事件在模式中被提前模拟,仍说明了该模式具备模拟北太平洋年代际变化的能力。FIO-ESM v2.0能够模拟出与再分析数据一致的大气年代际变化空间分布特征,以及与PDO之间的统计关系。FIO-ESM v2.0能模拟出NPI的年代际周期。
同时,FIO-ESM v2.0也能再现部分与前人机制研究结果相符的结论,这主要涉及了中纬度海气耦合作用机制,例如Latif-Barnett假说[22]以及修正的Latif-Barnett假说[76]。关键的年代际海域即KOE海域的海温异常信号强弱主要受平流作用和海表面净热通量的影响,而阿留申低压的强弱及其移动将在北太平洋中东部引起西传的罗斯贝波,传播至西边界流海域引起异常的地转平流变化,导致PDO的位相发生转变。FIO-ESM v2.0模拟罗斯贝波西传的时间可能是模拟短周期PDO位相转变的关键因素,而平流作用和热通量的贡献将决定关键年代际海域的异常信号大小。
综上所述,参与CMIP6项目的FIO-ESM v2.0能够较好地刻画PDO的空间模态分布特征,相较CMIP5中的大部分模式来说对时间序列位相转变的模拟有较大改善。海洋在气候系统年代际变化中扮演着重要的角色,海洋年代际变化实际上是海洋热量和动量等的再分配过程,PDO形成机制的不确定性和数据有限性等使得数值模式难以重现气候年代际变化。在FIO-ESM v2.0中,太平洋如何通过“海洋通道”对热量和动量实现再分配过程,比如在FIO-ESM v2.0中罗斯贝波是如何影响西边界流变化的,需要进一步细化讨论。同时,该模式特色物理过程的相关敏感性实验将会对PDO的模拟效果有何异同,具体体现在什么方面,也是值得在未来进行进一步的定量评估和分析。
  • 自然资源部海洋环境科学与数值模拟重点实验室开放基金(2020-ZD-02);国家重点研发计划(2017YFA0604100)。
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2023年第45卷第9期
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doi: 10.12284/hyxb2023112
  • 接收时间:2021-10-16
  • 首发时间:2025-12-28
  • 出版时间:2023-09-30
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  • 收稿日期:2021-10-16
  • 修回日期:2023-04-17
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自然资源部海洋环境科学与数值模拟重点实验室开放基金(2020-ZD-02);国家重点研发计划(2017YFA0604100)。
作者信息
    1 广西壮族自治区气象局 气象信息中心,广西 南宁 530022
    2 南京信息工程大学 海洋科学学院,江苏 南京 210044
    3 自然资源部第一海洋研究所,山东 青岛 266061

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*董昌明(1967-),男,教授,主要从事物理海洋、海洋动力学和数值模拟研究。E-mail:
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