Article(id=1212062425269007125, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, issueId=1212062420277792984, articleNumber=null, orderNo=null, doi=10.12284/hyxb2023084, pmid=null, cstr=null, oa=null, hot=null, price=null, onlineType=0, articleFormat=0, articleType=null, articleTypeStr=research-article, receivedDate=1667750400000, receivedDateStr=2022-11-07, revisedDate=1678636800000, revisedDateStr=2023-03-13, acceptedDate=null, acceptedDateStr=null, onlineDate=1766907801215, onlineDateStr=2025-12-28, pubDate=1693411200000, pubDateStr=2023-08-31, doiRegisterDate=null, doiRegisterDateStr=null, onlineIssueDate=1766907801215, onlineIssueDateStr=2025-12-28, onlineJustAcceptDate=null, onlineJustAcceptDateStr=null, onlineFirstDate=null, onlineFirstDateStr=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, createTime=1766907801215, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1766907801215, updator=13701087609, issue=Issue{id=1212062420277792984, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, year='2023', volume='45', issue='8', pageStart='1', pageEnd='190', issueExtLink='null', onlineDate='null', pubDate='null', beforeIssueId=null, nextIssueId=null, price=null, status=1, issueComplete=1, articleOrder=1, issueType=-1, specialIssue=null, createTime=1766907800024, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1766924671641, updator=13701087609, preIssue=null, nextIssue=null, ext={EN=IssueExt(id=1212133185010398004, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, issueId=1212062420277792984, language=EN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=), CN=IssueExt(id=1212133185010398005, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, issueId=1212062420277792984, language=CN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=)}, issueFiles=null}, startPage=143, endPage=154, ext={EN=ArticleExt(id=1212062425587774248, articleId=1212062425269007125, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, language=EN, title=Virus-induced autophagy in the marine coccolithophorid Emiliania huxleyi, columnId=1194652705852465724, journalTitle=Haiyang Xuebao, columnName=Article, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

To understand the characteristics of autophagy induced by virus infection in microalgae Emiliania huxleyi, we used diverse techniques including transmission electron microscopy, fluorescence microscopy, immunolabeling and biochemical methodologies to investigate the role of autophagy in the interaction between E. huxleyi BOF92 and its specific virus EhV99B1. The results showed that virus infection induced autophagy and vacuolar acidification in host cells, concomitant with up-regulation of autophagy-related genes such as atg1, atg5, atg8 and atg12 (p < 0.01) and Vps34 protein involved in the induction and nucleation of autophagosomes (p < 0.01). The expression level of autophagy marker protein p62 was significantly down-regulated (p < 0.05) during viral infection, indicating enhanced autophagic flux and activated autophagy. The expressions levels of negative regulatory factors such as phosphatidylinositol (PI3K), phosphorylated protein kinase B (p-Akt) and phosphorylated target of rapamycin protein (p-TOR) were significantly decreased in the late stage of viral infection (p < 0.01). Moreover, the level of reactive oxygen species (ROS) increased dramatically (p < 0.01), accompanied by a significant reduction in mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP) and ATP levels (p < 0.01) during viral infection. In conclusion, EhV99B1 infection induces ROS production and mitochondrial membrane damage in host cells, and initiates autophagy by regulating the PI3K/Akt/TOR signal pathway. Therefore, autophagy, as a unique form of programmed cell death, is of great significance to the individual survival and population dynamics of phytoplankton respond to environmental and biological stress.

, correspAuthors=Jingwen Liu, authorNote=null, correspAuthorsNote=null, copyrightStatement=Copyright © 2023 Pratacultural Science. All rights reserved., copyrightOwner=null, extLink=null, articleAbsUrl=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, pdfUrl=null, pdf=null, pdfFileSize=null, pdfExtLink=null, richHtmlUrl=null, mobilePdfUrl=null, reviewReport=null, pdfFirstPage=null, abstractGraph=null, abstractGraphContent=null, abstractVideo=null, citation=null, cebUrl=null, magXmlContent=null, mapNumber=null, authorCompany=null, fund=null, authors=null, authorsList=Yuxuan Xu, Xue Lu, Enquan Zhang, Jiyue Wan, Shumiao Zhang, Jingwen Liu), CN=ArticleExt(id=1212062428733502393, articleId=1212062425269007125, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, language=CN, title=病毒感染诱导赫氏颗石藻(Emiliania huxleyi)细胞自噬研究, columnId=1149698756456657529, journalTitle=海洋学报, columnName=论文, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

以海洋环境中具有重要生态功能的赫氏颗石藻(Emiliania huxleyi)BOF92及其特异性裂解病毒(E. huxleyi virus, EhV99B1)为研究对象,采用分子及细胞生物学方法探究海洋病毒感染诱导宿主细胞自噬特征及其调控机制。结果显示:病毒感染能诱导宿主细胞自噬,并出现明显的液泡酸化及液泡自噬现象;感染过程中核心自噬相关基因如atg1atg5atg8atg12的mRNA表达水平均显著上调(p < 0.01),自噬启动成核相关蛋白Vps34显著上调(p < 0.01),进而启动自噬并促使自噬体与液泡的融合;自噬标志性蛋白p62显著下调(p < 0.05),表明自噬流畅通以加速蛋白降解;感染中后期对自噬起负调控作用的磷脂酰肌醇(PI3K)、磷酸化蛋白激酶B(p-Akt)和磷酸化雷帕霉素靶蛋白(p-TOR)等因子的表达水平均显著降低(p < 0.01)。另外,病毒感染过程中,细胞活性氧(ROS)水平显著升高(p < 0.01),线粒体膜电位(MMP)及ATP含量显著降低(p < 0.01)。综上,病毒感染诱发宿主藻细胞ROS的产生、线粒体膜受损,并通过调节PI3K/Akt/TOR级联反应诱导细胞自噬。可见,自噬作为一种独特的程序性细胞死亡形式,对浮游植物遭受胁迫后的个体存活及种群延续具有重要意义。

, correspAuthors=刘静雯, authorNote=null, correspAuthorsNote=
*刘静雯,女,博士,教授,主要从事海洋微型生物分子生物学研究。E-mail:
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许毓轩(1998-),女,吉林省延边朝鲜族自治州敦化市人,主要从事海洋微生物生化与分子生物学研究。E-mail:

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许毓轩(1998-),女,吉林省延边朝鲜族自治州敦化市人,主要从事海洋微生物生化与分子生物学研究。E-mail:

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Chinese Bulletin of Botany, 2019, 54(1): 81−92., articleTitle=null, refAbstract=null)], funds=[Fund(id=1215323597002953482, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, articleId=1212062425269007125, awardId=null, language=CN, fundingSource=国家自然科学基金(42076086);福建省自然科学基金(2019J01696)。, fundOrder=null, country=null)], companyList=[AuthorCompany(id=1215323589071524296, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, articleId=1212062425269007125, xref=1, ext=[AuthorCompanyExt(id=1215323589075718601, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, articleId=1212062425269007125, companyId=1215323589071524296, language=CN, country=null, province=null, city=null, postcode=null, companyName=null, departmentName=null, remark=1 集美大学 海洋食品与生物工程学院,福建 厦门 361021)]), AuthorCompany(id=1215323589184770513, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, articleId=1212062425269007125, xref=1, ext=[AuthorCompanyExt(id=1215323589193159123, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, articleId=1212062425269007125, companyId=1215323589184770513, language=EN, country=null, province=null, city=null, postcode=null, companyName=null, departmentName=null, remark=1College of Ocean Food and Biological Engineering, Jimei University, Xiamen 361021, China)])], figs=[ArticleFig(id=1215323593618150055, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, articleId=1212062425269007125, language=EN, label=Fig. 1, caption=Infection dynamics and ultrastructure changes of E. huxleyi BOF92 during EhV99B1 infection

a−c. Virus infection leads to algae cell lysis (a. uninfected culture; b. 24 h post infection; c. 48 h post infection); d−i. transmission electron micrograph of E. huxleyi cells during viral infection (d. uninfected cells; e−g. 24 h post infection; h−i. 48 h post infection); N: nucleus; C: chloroplast; M: mitochondrial; V: vacuole; black arrows point to autophagosome or virions, the insets in Fig. e−h show higher magnification of the boxed areas, depicting the double membrane vesicles

, figureFileSmall=kijzs7w1wBOMiTdJgJ/27g==, figureFileBig=npiMmUon89GrQG60pylPkA==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1215323593714619051, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, articleId=1212062425269007125, language=CN, label=图1, caption=EhV99B1感染诱导颗石藻(E. huxleyi) BOF92细胞的裂解及细胞超微结构变化

a−c. 病毒感染导致藻细胞裂解(a. 未添加病毒的对照组;b. 病毒感染24 h;c. 病毒感染48 h);d−i. 病毒感染过程中藻细胞超微结构的变化(d. 对照组;e−g. 病毒感染24 h;h−i. 病毒感染48 h);N表示细胞核;C表示叶绿体;M表示线粒体;V表示液泡;黑色箭头指向自噬体或病毒颗粒,图e−h右下角的方框为该图中箭头所指位置的局部放大图

, figureFileSmall=kijzs7w1wBOMiTdJgJ/27g==, figureFileBig=npiMmUon89GrQG60pylPkA==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1215323593823670962, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, articleId=1212062425269007125, language=EN, label=Fig. 2, caption=Results of Lysosensor fluorescent labeling of acidizing compartments in Emiliania huxleyi cells

Control group: uninfected cells; infected group: viral infected cells 48 h post infection; rapamycin group: 10 μmol/L rapamycin-treated cells for 48 h (positive control)

, figureFileSmall=Sjthb1nLF/t1yjqmYVrRzw==, figureFileBig=mC1LiRQ+pNITkWc7GVDnDw==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1215323593945305784, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, articleId=1212062425269007125, language=CN, label=图2, caption=颗石藻细胞中酸化区室的Lysosensor荧光标记结果

对照组:未添加病毒;感染组:病毒感染48 h;雷帕霉素组:阳性对照,采用终浓度为10 μmol/L的雷帕霉素处理藻细胞48 h

, figureFileSmall=Sjthb1nLF/t1yjqmYVrRzw==, figureFileBig=mC1LiRQ+pNITkWc7GVDnDw==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1215323594024997564, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, articleId=1212062425269007125, language=EN, label=Fig. 3, caption=Relative expression level effect of core autophagy-related genes in E. huxleyi cells during viral infection

a. qRT-PCR analysis profiles of autophagy related genes,the value is the ratio of infected group to control group. Con 6-1 represents the gene expression level of the control group 1 after 6 h, Inf 6-1 represents the gene expression level of the infected group 1 after 6 h, and so on; b. relative expression levels of selected autophagy related genes; * indicates a significant differ(p < 0.05), ** indicates more significant differ (p < 0.01), *** indicates an extreme differ (p < 0.001)

, figureFileSmall=tJi4/9+mEiVs+UwV2RR5/g==, figureFileBig=JaHUZoYBJ772aYRquH9RdA==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1215323594100495041, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, articleId=1212062425269007125, language=CN, label=图3, caption=病毒感染对颗石藻细胞核心自噬相关基因表达水平的影响

a. 核心自噬相关基因qRT-PCR结果聚类热图(数值为感染组与对照组的比值),Con 6-1表示对照组1 6 h后基因表达水平,Inf 6-1表示感染组1 6 h后基因表达水平,以此类推;b. 自噬相关基因相对表达量;*表示差异显著(p < 0.05),**表示差异较显著(p < 0.01),***表示差异极显著(p < 0.001)

, figureFileSmall=tJi4/9+mEiVs+UwV2RR5/g==, figureFileBig=JaHUZoYBJ772aYRquH9RdA==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1215323594222129863, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, articleId=1212062425269007125, language=EN, label=Fig. 4, caption=Expression of core autophagy-related proteins in E. huxleyi cells during viral infection

* Indicates a significant differ (p < 0.05), ** indicates more significant differ (p < 0.01), ***indicates an extreme differ (p < 0.001)

, figureFileSmall=wwa4gaKHTBr/vyw+BOH0UA==, figureFileBig=Me2oM2H7p1qS3q679hfuDA==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1215323594352153297, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, articleId=1212062425269007125, language=CN, label=图4, caption=病毒感染对颗石藻细胞核心自噬相关蛋白表达的影响

*表示差异显著(p < 0.05),**表示差异较显著(p < 0.01);***表示差异极显著(p < 0.001)

, figureFileSmall=wwa4gaKHTBr/vyw+BOH0UA==, figureFileBig=Me2oM2H7p1qS3q679hfuDA==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1215323594436039382, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, articleId=1212062425269007125, language=EN, label=Fig. 5, caption=Effects of virus infection on the levels of ROS in E. huxleyi cells

Rosup indicates positive control group; ** indicates more significant differ ( p < 0.01), *** indicates an extreme differ ( p < 0.001)

, figureFileSmall=rbSx+WnACKiIJZK5kpXqsA==, figureFileBig=Puv5BJhVxFTyiBDC9Ecq6w==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1215323594515731160, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, articleId=1212062425269007125, language=CN, label=图5, caption=病毒感染对颗石藻细胞ROS水平的影响

Rosup为阳性对照组;**表示差异较显著(p < 0.01);***表示差异极显著(p < 0.001)

, figureFileSmall=rbSx+WnACKiIJZK5kpXqsA==, figureFileBig=Puv5BJhVxFTyiBDC9Ecq6w==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1215323594687697631, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, articleId=1212062425269007125, language=EN, label=Fig. 6, caption=Effects of virus infection on the levels of MMP in E. huxleyi cells

CCCP indicates positive control group; *** indicates an extreme differ (p < 0.01)

, figureFileSmall=F5A6l09nGzhXKJ3AmNdjxw==, figureFileBig=SvLM8ix0/g+5gQ9f5PiAvA==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1215323594767389412, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, articleId=1212062425269007125, language=CN, label=图6, caption=病毒感染对颗石藻细胞膜电位MMP的影响

CCCP为阳性对照组;***表示差异极显著(p < 0.001)

, figureFileSmall=F5A6l09nGzhXKJ3AmNdjxw==, figureFileBig=SvLM8ix0/g+5gQ9f5PiAvA==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1215323594868052713, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, articleId=1212062425269007125, language=EN, label=Fig. 7, caption=Effects of virus infection on the contents of ATP in E. huxleyi cells

** indicates more significant (p < 0.01)

, figureFileSmall=T8/GFMb/iOqrlrevpvQ1zg==, figureFileBig=ddaLMN7H1pljouqVZJkZvg==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1215323594981298927, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, articleId=1212062425269007125, language=CN, label=图7, caption=病毒感染对颗石藻细胞中ATP含量的影响

**表示差异较显著(p < 0.01)

, figureFileSmall=T8/GFMb/iOqrlrevpvQ1zg==, figureFileBig=ddaLMN7H1pljouqVZJkZvg==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1215323596222812915, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, articleId=1212062425269007125, language=EN, label=Fig. 8, caption=Schematic diagram of virus induced autophagy in the E. huxleyi-EhV system

Thick arrows indicate the mRNA expression level of atg1, atg5, atg12, protein expression levels of Atg8, PI3K, p-Akt, p-TOR and contents of ATP, ROS, MMP

, figureFileSmall=mII5HaPTaCP7lhGMHG/1ng==, figureFileBig=1yNQbd9lf6kvf+okQs2Lcg==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1215323596323476214, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, articleId=1212062425269007125, language=CN, label=图8, caption=病毒感染诱导颗石藻细胞自噬示意图

图中粗箭头所示为atg1atg5atg12的mRNA表达水平、Atg8、PI3K、p-Akt及p-TOR的蛋白表达水平和ROS、MMP和ATP含量的变化

, figureFileSmall=mII5HaPTaCP7lhGMHG/1ng==, figureFileBig=1yNQbd9lf6kvf+okQs2Lcg==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1215323596390585081, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, articleId=1212062425269007125, language=EN, label=Table 1, caption=

Primer sequence of autophagy-related gene for qRT-PCR used in this study

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
基因
名称
扩增片段
长度/bp
引物
名称
序列(5’→3’)
atg1106FAGGGCAGCTTTGCGATTGT
RTTGGCCTGTAGCTTCTGGTTG
atg296FCATGGGCGTGTTTGTCGAG
RAAGGCGTAGAGGGAGGAGAAG
atg4_1118FGCGTGCCTTTGGTTCACGTA
RGTGCTTGCGCGAGTATCATCT
atg3146FTCCTGGAGAAGGGTGTGTTGAC
RCGTGACGAGGTACTGCTTGTTC
atg5117FGAGCACTTCCTGCCTTTTGC
RCGTCAGCAGGTCAAAGAGCA
atg7154FGCAAACACACTCGAGGACTTCAA
RTCTTGAGGTCTGCGAAGGTGA
atg8_1163FGCCGCTGATTGACAAGAAGAA
RCGTCCTTGTGGCTGTCGTAGA
atg9215FGTCGCCCGTTTCGTCACTT
RCGAGCCATCACAGCAGGTT
atg10181FGGTGCTGGAGGAGCCAATCT
RAGCGGCAGATGTGTATGCG
atg12149FCGAACCGCTGCTCCTCTACT
RGAAAGCACTGCGCCACATC
atg13249FGCGAAACTGCGTCCAGAAGA
RCGCTCGAGAAGCACGAGATG
LST8212FTGGCAAACAACTTCTCGTGC
RTCAAACTGGCCCATCGTGTA
TOR_1110FCAGCACAATCTCCTTCTGCAC
RTGCCGATTTGCGGGTAC
TOR_379FGACCGGCACCTCAACAACA
RCCTCGAAGCAGTCGCCATA
Vps15122FCATCAAGGGCGAGAATGTGC
RCGTCAAAGTAGAAGGAGAAGTCCG
Vps34_2203FAGCTCGTCTGGAAGTTCCGGTA
RCCTCGGCTGTATCTCGCATACAT
β-tubulin160FTCATGTGCTCCTACTCGGTCTTC
RTTCAGCGTGCGGAAACAGA
), ArticleFig(id=1215323596537385726, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, articleId=1212062425269007125, language=CN, label=表1, caption=

本研究自噬相关基因qRT-PCR引物序列

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
基因
名称
扩增片段
长度/bp
引物
名称
序列(5’→3’)
atg1106FAGGGCAGCTTTGCGATTGT
RTTGGCCTGTAGCTTCTGGTTG
atg296FCATGGGCGTGTTTGTCGAG
RAAGGCGTAGAGGGAGGAGAAG
atg4_1118FGCGTGCCTTTGGTTCACGTA
RGTGCTTGCGCGAGTATCATCT
atg3146FTCCTGGAGAAGGGTGTGTTGAC
RCGTGACGAGGTACTGCTTGTTC
atg5117FGAGCACTTCCTGCCTTTTGC
RCGTCAGCAGGTCAAAGAGCA
atg7154FGCAAACACACTCGAGGACTTCAA
RTCTTGAGGTCTGCGAAGGTGA
atg8_1163FGCCGCTGATTGACAAGAAGAA
RCGTCCTTGTGGCTGTCGTAGA
atg9215FGTCGCCCGTTTCGTCACTT
RCGAGCCATCACAGCAGGTT
atg10181FGGTGCTGGAGGAGCCAATCT
RAGCGGCAGATGTGTATGCG
atg12149FCGAACCGCTGCTCCTCTACT
RGAAAGCACTGCGCCACATC
atg13249FGCGAAACTGCGTCCAGAAGA
RCGCTCGAGAAGCACGAGATG
LST8212FTGGCAAACAACTTCTCGTGC
RTCAAACTGGCCCATCGTGTA
TOR_1110FCAGCACAATCTCCTTCTGCAC
RTGCCGATTTGCGGGTAC
TOR_379FGACCGGCACCTCAACAACA
RCCTCGAAGCAGTCGCCATA
Vps15122FCATCAAGGGCGAGAATGTGC
RCGTCAAAGTAGAAGGAGAAGTCCG
Vps34_2203FAGCTCGTCTGGAAGTTCCGGTA
RCCTCGGCTGTATCTCGCATACAT
β-tubulin160FTCATGTGCTCCTACTCGGTCTTC
RTTCAGCGTGCGGAAACAGA
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Antibodies used in this study

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
抗体名称生产商产品货号稀释倍数
CDK1Beyotime, 中国AF15161∶800
ATG8Abcam, 英国ab47531∶1000
Vps34Abcam, 英国ab2334371∶200
CDK1Beyotime, 中国AF01111∶1000
PI3KBeyotime, 中国AF77491∶1000
p-AKT (Thr308)Beyotime, 中国AF57341∶1000
p-TOR (Ser2448)Bioworld, 中国BS47061∶1000
IgGThermo, 美国314601∶10000
), ArticleFig(id=1215323596780655363, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, articleId=1212062425269007125, language=CN, label=表2, caption=

本研究中使用的抗体

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
抗体名称生产商产品货号稀释倍数
CDK1Beyotime, 中国AF15161∶800
ATG8Abcam, 英国ab47531∶1000
Vps34Abcam, 英国ab2334371∶200
CDK1Beyotime, 中国AF01111∶1000
PI3KBeyotime, 中国AF77491∶1000
p-AKT (Thr308)Beyotime, 中国AF57341∶1000
p-TOR (Ser2448)Bioworld, 中国BS47061∶1000
IgGThermo, 美国314601∶10000
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病毒感染诱导赫氏颗石藻(Emiliania huxleyi)细胞自噬研究
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许毓轩 1 , 卢雪 1 , 张恩权 1 , 万霁月 1 , 张书苗 1 , 刘静雯 1, *
海洋学报 | 论文 2023,45(8): 143-154
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海洋学报 | 论文 2023, 45(8): 143-154
病毒感染诱导赫氏颗石藻(Emiliania huxleyi)细胞自噬研究
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许毓轩1 , 卢雪1, 张恩权1, 万霁月1, 张书苗1, 刘静雯1, *
作者信息
  • 1 集美大学 海洋食品与生物工程学院,福建 厦门 361021
  • 许毓轩(1998-),女,吉林省延边朝鲜族自治州敦化市人,主要从事海洋微生物生化与分子生物学研究。E-mail:

通讯作者:

*刘静雯,女,博士,教授,主要从事海洋微型生物分子生物学研究。E-mail:
Virus-induced autophagy in the marine coccolithophorid Emiliania huxleyi
Yuxuan Xu1 , Xue Lu1, Enquan Zhang1, Jiyue Wan1, Shumiao Zhang1, Jingwen Liu1, *
Affiliations
  • 1College of Ocean Food and Biological Engineering, Jimei University, Xiamen 361021, China
出版时间: 2023-08-31 doi: 10.12284/hyxb2023084
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以海洋环境中具有重要生态功能的赫氏颗石藻(Emiliania huxleyi)BOF92及其特异性裂解病毒(E. huxleyi virus, EhV99B1)为研究对象,采用分子及细胞生物学方法探究海洋病毒感染诱导宿主细胞自噬特征及其调控机制。结果显示:病毒感染能诱导宿主细胞自噬,并出现明显的液泡酸化及液泡自噬现象;感染过程中核心自噬相关基因如atg1atg5atg8atg12的mRNA表达水平均显著上调(p < 0.01),自噬启动成核相关蛋白Vps34显著上调(p < 0.01),进而启动自噬并促使自噬体与液泡的融合;自噬标志性蛋白p62显著下调(p < 0.05),表明自噬流畅通以加速蛋白降解;感染中后期对自噬起负调控作用的磷脂酰肌醇(PI3K)、磷酸化蛋白激酶B(p-Akt)和磷酸化雷帕霉素靶蛋白(p-TOR)等因子的表达水平均显著降低(p < 0.01)。另外,病毒感染过程中,细胞活性氧(ROS)水平显著升高(p < 0.01),线粒体膜电位(MMP)及ATP含量显著降低(p < 0.01)。综上,病毒感染诱发宿主藻细胞ROS的产生、线粒体膜受损,并通过调节PI3K/Akt/TOR级联反应诱导细胞自噬。可见,自噬作为一种独特的程序性细胞死亡形式,对浮游植物遭受胁迫后的个体存活及种群延续具有重要意义。

赫氏颗石藻  /  病毒  /  自噬  /  自噬相关基因  /  线粒体功能  /  PI3K/Akt/TOR信号通路

To understand the characteristics of autophagy induced by virus infection in microalgae Emiliania huxleyi, we used diverse techniques including transmission electron microscopy, fluorescence microscopy, immunolabeling and biochemical methodologies to investigate the role of autophagy in the interaction between E. huxleyi BOF92 and its specific virus EhV99B1. The results showed that virus infection induced autophagy and vacuolar acidification in host cells, concomitant with up-regulation of autophagy-related genes such as atg1, atg5, atg8 and atg12 (p < 0.01) and Vps34 protein involved in the induction and nucleation of autophagosomes (p < 0.01). The expression level of autophagy marker protein p62 was significantly down-regulated (p < 0.05) during viral infection, indicating enhanced autophagic flux and activated autophagy. The expressions levels of negative regulatory factors such as phosphatidylinositol (PI3K), phosphorylated protein kinase B (p-Akt) and phosphorylated target of rapamycin protein (p-TOR) were significantly decreased in the late stage of viral infection (p < 0.01). Moreover, the level of reactive oxygen species (ROS) increased dramatically (p < 0.01), accompanied by a significant reduction in mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP) and ATP levels (p < 0.01) during viral infection. In conclusion, EhV99B1 infection induces ROS production and mitochondrial membrane damage in host cells, and initiates autophagy by regulating the PI3K/Akt/TOR signal pathway. Therefore, autophagy, as a unique form of programmed cell death, is of great significance to the individual survival and population dynamics of phytoplankton respond to environmental and biological stress.

Emiliania huexlyi  /  virus  /  autophagy  /  autophagy-related genes  /  mitochondrial function  /  PI3K/Akt/TOR signal pathway
许毓轩, 卢雪, 张恩权, 万霁月, 张书苗, 刘静雯. 病毒感染诱导赫氏颗石藻(Emiliania huxleyi)细胞自噬研究. 海洋学报, 2023 , 45 (8) : 143 -154 . DOI: 10.12284/hyxb2023084
Yuxuan Xu, Xue Lu, Enquan Zhang, Jiyue Wan, Shumiao Zhang, Jingwen Liu. Virus-induced autophagy in the marine coccolithophorid Emiliania huxleyi[J]. Haiyang Xuebao, 2023 , 45 (8) : 143 -154 . DOI: 10.12284/hyxb2023084
海洋颗石藻(Coccolithophores)是一类全球广泛分布且具有重要生态功能的真核微型浮游植物,其中赫氏颗石藻(Emiliania huxleyi)是最为重要,也是迄今被研究最多的一种,几乎每年都在大洋中形成大面积赤潮[1]。因其可以产生由碳酸钙(CaCO3)构成的“球石粒”及二甲基巯基丙酸内盐(DMSP),在海洋碳、硫生物地球化学循环中具有重要作用[2-4]。自然海域中,某些株系的颗石藻能够被其特异性裂解病毒(E. huxleyi virus, EhVs)感染,并诱导宿主程序性细胞死亡(Programmed Cell Death, PCD)以此控制该藻赤潮消亡及宿主的种群动力学过程[5-6]。PCD是真核生物应对环境胁迫进化出的一种高度保守的细胞自我保护机制,在病原菌感染的免疫防御过程中起重要作用。单细胞浮游植物在营养胁迫或病原菌侵染条件下均能诱导PCD过程,这一过程在决定海洋光合自养生物细胞命运中扮演重要角色,并不断重塑浮游植物的演替和进化轨迹[7-9]。凋亡(I型PCD)和自噬是两种由不同效应分子介导的PCD行为,但它们之间存在复杂的交互调控,即“串话”(Crosstalk)关系,特别是在病原菌感染的细胞中,它们的协同作用影响子代病毒的复制、传播,进而影响细胞的生命活动[10-12]。有关浮游植物响应环境胁迫细胞凋亡的研究已有大量报道,如,氮胁迫诱导假微型海链藻(Thalassiosira pseudonana)细胞活性氧(ROS)水平急剧上升,与细胞凋亡过程密切相关的caspase蛋白酶活性水平明显升高[13]。颗石藻细胞在被病毒感染后,合成并积累了大量病毒性鞘糖脂(vGSLs),vGSLs能够诱导宿主依赖于凋亡特征蛋白酶metacaspase的细胞凋亡过程[5, 14-15]。玫瑰杆菌(Phaeobacter inhibens)与钙化颗石藻(E. huxleyi)CCMP3266共培养能够促进二倍体阶段颗石藻细胞ROS的产生、类-caspase酶活性升高并出现典型的类-caspase细胞凋亡形态特征(Apoptosis-Like-PCD, AL-PCD)[16]。然而,细胞凋亡并非是决定浮游植物细胞死亡命运的唯一方式,近年也陆续发现浮游植物通过细胞自噬(Ⅱ型PCD)应答众多环境和生物胁迫。例如,强光照[17]或高浓度金属离子[18]胁迫下,莱茵衣藻(Chlamydomonas Reinhardtii)通过产生ROS和调节自噬通路关键蛋白的表达丰度诱导细胞自噬。氮饥饿诱导莱茵衣藻(C. Reinhardtii )CC-2686细胞自噬,促进细胞三酰甘油(TAG)的积累,从而介导氮胁迫下的营养循环和再利用[19]。长时间低光胁迫或氮饥饿诱导纤维藻(Ankistrodesmus densus)细胞凋亡和植物所特有的液泡自噬(Autophagic/Vacuolar Cell Death, VCD)[20]。磷胁迫上调颗石藻(E. huxleyi)CCMP2090细胞碱性磷酸酶(AP)活性以促进膜磷脂成分发生迅速可逆性重构,如形成胞内膜泡并与液泡融合、酸化,加速生物大分子的循环利用[21]。2014年以色列学者首次报道裂解性病毒EhV201感染颗石藻(E. huxleyi)CCMP2090诱导宿主细胞裂解并出现自噬体样囊泡,且子代病毒粒子包膜上含有宿主自噬相关蛋白Atg8,暗示自噬可能在病毒粒子的组装和释放过程中起关键作用[22]。可见,凋亡和自噬在颗石藻病毒与宿主相互作用过程中发挥重要作用,并可能存在类似于哺乳动物病毒感染诱导的细胞凋亡和自噬之间的“串话”关系。自噬过程由一系列自噬相关基因(atgs)编码的自噬相关蛋白(Atgs)所介导,这些自噬相关基因在酵母、植物和哺乳动物中具有高度保守性。雷帕霉素靶点复合体(Target of Rapamycin Complex, TOR)位于自噬信号通路的最上游,它可以通过感受细胞内多种信号变化,对自噬进行负调控[23]。与哺乳动物细胞类似,浮游植物细胞中也存在由核心自噬相关蛋白组成的3个关键功能单位,即Atg9循环系统、Ⅲ型磷脂酰肌醇三磷酸激酶(Phosphatidyli Nositol 3-Kinase,PI3K)复合体I以及类泛素化(Ubiquitin-like,Ubl)系统[24]。目前,浮游植物自噬研究多集中于自噬相关基因的发现和鉴定,对自噬的分子机制及自噬与凋亡之间的交互作用等尚缺乏足够的认识。随着对颗石藻病毒−宿主复杂的基因组结构、基因间水平转移现象以及丰富的遗传多样性等特点的逐渐认识,发现它们之间存在很强的协同进化关系[25]。颗石藻及其病毒已成为研究真核浮游植物宿主−病毒互作的最佳模式系统。本研究以颗石藻E. huxleyi BOF92和其特异性裂解病毒(EhV99B1)为对象,探究病毒感染诱导的细胞自噬及其调控机制。
颗石藻(E. huxleyi)BOF92及其特异性裂解病毒(EhV99B1)均分离自挪威西海域(60.2°N,5.2°E)[26]。颗石藻培养使用f/2-Si加富培养基,培养条件:温度为(18 ± 1)℃,光照强度(以光子计)为100 μmol/(m2·s),光周期为14 h∶10 h(光∶暗)。
将指数生长期的藻液(细胞密度约为1 × 106 cell/mL)分成两组,不加病毒的作为对照组(Control),将按宿主与病毒50∶1体积比加入浓缩病毒裂解液的组作为感染组(Infected)(病毒感染复数(Multiplicity of Infection,MOI)约为1∶1),每组设置3个生物学平行,分别于病毒感染后6 h、24 h和48 h收集藻细胞样品。分别收集10 mL藻细胞沉淀(4℃,3 000 g离心5 min)用于细胞活性氧ROS、线粒体膜电位(MMP)、细胞ATP含量的测定及荧光染色观察液泡酸化情况;收集50 mL藻细胞样品用于观察细胞超微结构变化;收集500 mL藻细胞沉淀(4℃,6 000 g离心8 min)迅速冻于液氮中,用于提取细胞总RNA和总蛋白。
将上述藻细胞沉淀加入1 mL固定液(含4%多聚甲醛PFA、1%戊二醛和pH为7.2的磷酸缓冲液),于4°C固定1 h以上,然后转入锇酸固定。依次使用30%、50%、70%、90%和100%的乙醇进行分级脱水,最后用100%环氧丙烷处理1 h。分别用环氧丙烷/树脂比例为1∶1和1∶2浸透样品1 h,纯树脂浸透2 h,于70℃聚合12 h进行包埋。超薄切片,柠檬酸铅染色10 min,透射电镜(Hitachi HT7700 120kV, 日本)观察并拍照。
用2 mL无菌海水重悬细胞沉淀,加入2 μL浓度为1 mmol的lysosensor DND189荧光染料,光照培养箱中锡纸包裹避光培养20 min,培养条件同上。取50 μL混合的培养液滴于载玻片上,避光孵育30 min。用少量海水洗去多余染料,滴加15 μL抗荧光淬灭封片剂封片。分别于绿色通道激发波长(502~545 nm)和红色通道激发波长(655~755 nm)下观察细胞中的酸性区室。用终浓度为1 μmol/L雷帕霉素(溶于DMSO中)处理作为阳性对照组,其他步骤同上。
利用Primer Premier 5.0设计引物,β-tubulin作为内参,引物序列见表1。使用天根RNA simple总RNA提取试剂盒提取藻细胞总RNA,采用诺唯赞HiScript® II Q RT SuperMix和ChamQ Universal SYBR qPCR试剂盒进行RNA反转录。qRT-PCR反应体系为20 μL,其中包括2 μL模板cDNA,6 μL DEPC水,10 μL ChamQ Universal SYBR qPCR Master Mix和各1 μL 浓度为10 μmol/L的正、反向引物。PCR扩增程序:95℃ 30 s;95℃ 10 s, 60℃ 30 s, 72℃ 30 s,50个循环。每个样品设置3个生物学重复和3个技术重复,采用2−ΔΔCT法计算自噬相关基因的相对表达量。
用0.2 mol PBS(pH为6.8)洗涤细胞沉淀,加入增强型细胞裂解液(1 mL RIPA、0.5% PVP及终浓度为1 mmol 的PMSF),超声破碎细胞,4℃ 12 000 g离心30 min,收集上清,用BOSTER BCA蛋白浓度测定试剂盒测定蛋白浓度。每个泳道上样40~60 μg蛋白进行SDS-PAGE电泳,采用0.45 μm的NC膜于80 V恒压湿转1 h,3% BSA室温封闭1 h,加入相应的一抗(表2),室温孵育1 h,TBST洗膜5次(5 min/次),使用索莱宝ECL化学发光液进行显色,凝胶成像仪曝光、拍照。采用Image J软件对Western Blot蛋白条带进行灰度分析。
p62是反映自噬活性的重要标志蛋白之一,其与自噬体膜蛋白Atg8/LC3以及泛素化的蛋白质结合,将包含p62的蛋白聚合物转运到自噬体,一同在自噬溶酶体内降解,其蛋白含量间接反映自噬小体清除水平[27]。本研究采用Enzo life science p62 Elisa试剂盒测定p62蛋白的浓度。用1×PBS稀释蛋白样品至浓度为0.625 ng/μL后加入10 μL到包被了p62单克隆抗体的Elisa 96孔板中,Assau Buffer作为空白对照,每个样品设置3个平行,密封孔板于室温震荡(500 r/min)孵育1 h;加入300 μL的1×Wash buffer清洗3次,然后加入100 μL p62多克隆抗体(1∶800)孵育1 h,加入300 μL的1×Wash buffer清洗3次。每孔加入100 μL p62缀合物(辣根过氧化物酶HRP标记的二抗),密封孔板室温震荡孵育30 min,加入300 μL的1×Wash buffer重复洗涤3次,加入100 μL TMB,室温震荡孵育30 min,最后加入100 μL终止液。用BioTEK酶标仪读取450 nm处的光密度值并绘制标准曲线,根据标准曲线计算p62的浓度。
用1 mL无菌海水重悬细胞沉淀,加入1 mL终浓度为10 μmol/L的DCFH-DA荧光探针工作液(用无菌海水按照1∶1 000的比例稀释),于16℃避光孵育30 min(每5 min颠倒混匀一次),提前20 min加入1 μL Rosup刺激剂(终浓度为50 mg/mL)作为阳性对照组。孵育结束后,用0.01 mol的PBS溶液洗涤细胞3次(4°C,3 000 g离心5 min),然后用500 μL 0.01 mol的PBS溶液重悬细胞沉淀,采用Millipore流式细胞仪的绿色荧光通道检测细胞绿色荧光强度。
用1 mL无菌海水重悬细胞沉淀,加入双标荧光探针1×JC-1染色缓冲液(超纯水和5×JC-1染色缓冲液4∶1稀释),16℃避光孵育20 min(每5 min颠倒混匀一次),提前20 min加入1 μL CCCP刺激剂(终浓度为10 mmol/L)作为阳性对照组。孵育结束后,用1×JC-1染色缓冲液洗涤细胞3次(4°C,3 000 g离心5 min),然后用500 μL 1×JC-1染色缓冲液重悬细胞沉淀,采用Millipore流式细胞仪的绿色荧光通路检测细胞绿色荧光强度。
采用碧云天ATP检测试剂盒测定细胞中ATP含量。根据说明书操作,于10 mL藻细胞沉淀中加入1 mL细胞裂解液,冰上超声破碎1 min(35 kHz,Ampl 40%),离心5 min(4℃,6 000 g),在96孔板中加入100 μL稀释10倍的ATP检测工作液,室温静置3~5 min后加入20 μL上述细胞裂解样品,用BioTEK酶标仪检测254 nm波长下的荧光强度。
采用SPSS 26.0软件进行统计学分析。实验数据以平均值±标准差表示,显著性差异采用t检验,p < 0.05表示差异显著,p < 0.001表示差异极显著。
特异性裂解病毒EhV99B1感染颗石藻E. huxleyi BOF92过程中,随着感染时间的延长,宿主细胞被病毒裂解,藻液逐渐变澄清(图1a图1c)。透射电镜观察结果显示,病毒感染中期(24 h)即可观察到细胞质及液泡内出现的自噬体样双层膜囊泡结构,即液泡自噬现象(图1e图1g),感染后期(48 h)细胞核出现皱缩、叶绿体和线粒体结构膨大松散,细胞膜破裂并释放出子代病毒颗粒(图1h图1i)。
Lysosensor DND189荧光探针用于标记和追踪活细胞中的酸性区室(如溶酶体、液泡),随着细胞器的酸化程度其荧光强度呈pH依赖型增强。早期自噬体的pH与细胞质相同,在成熟过程中与含有液泡膜蛋白和质子泵的囊泡融合后开始酸化。荧光标记结果显示,感染后期,细胞内出现了类似于雷帕霉素处理后的液泡酸化绿色荧光(图2),雷帕霉素是一种有效的自噬诱导剂,与该阳性组结果对比,表明病毒感染诱导了宿主细胞液泡参与的自噬过程。
基于颗石藻(E. huxleyi)CCMP1516全基因组注释信息(https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/),筛选部分自噬关键核心基因,对其表达水平进行qRT-PCR定量分析。与对照组相比,病毒感染过程中自噬相关基因的表达均发生了明显变化(图3a)。感染早期,mTOR信号通路关键因子TOR_1、自噬小体组装和体膜延伸必要蛋白atg5atg12基因mRNA的表达水平均呈上调趋势,分别是对照组的1.11倍、2.85倍和1.19倍;感染中期,自噬启动基因atg1 mRNA表达量显著上调,是对照组的1.47倍(p < 0.05),atg12 mRNA表达量呈上调趋势,其他自噬相关基因表达量均下调;感染后期,自噬体成核相关基因Vps34显著上调,是对照组的2.11倍(p < 0.01),哺乳动物LC3酯化过程相关同源基因atg8 mRNA表达量呈上调趋势(图3b)。
在EhV99B1感染的颗石藻(E. huxleyi) BOF92细胞中鉴定到一个高度保守的自噬核心相关蛋白Atg8(Atg8a/Atg8b),其分子量约为16 kDa,属于哺乳动物LC3(微管相关蛋白1轻链3)的同源物,是自噬体膜上的标志性蛋白。EhV99B1感染过程中,Atg8a(LC3II)蛋白水平显著下调(p < 0.05),感染早、中、晚期的表达水平与对照组的比值分别为0.84、0.89和0.55,而Atg8b(LC3I)则几乎检测不到(图4a图4b);Vps34蛋白主要参与自噬的启动成核阶段,该蛋白表达量在感染早期显著上调(p < 0.01),是对照组的1.56倍(图4a图4c);p62蛋白表达水平在整个感染过程中均显著下调(p < 0.05)(图4d),感染早、中、晚期的表达水平与对照组的比值分别为0.78、0.85、0.53。p62蛋白作为自噬配体与LC3相互作用,负责招募特定“待降解货物”到自噬体膜上,迅速与货物蛋白一起被降解,p62蛋白下调能够促进自噬的发生。PI3K/Akt/TOR级联反应通过雷帕霉素靶点复合体(TORC1)调控自噬,其核心蛋白PI3K和p-Akt(Thr 308)的表达水平在感染中、后期均显著下调(p < 0.01),与对照组的比值分别为0.55和0.81(图4e图4g);p-TOR(Ser 473,表示TOR蛋白的磷酸化位点发生在第473个丝氨酸上)在感染早期上调(p < 0.05),是对照组的1.32倍,感染中、后期则显著下调(p < 0.01),与对照组的比值分别为0.78和0.7(图4e图4h)。
病毒感染诱导细胞ROS水平显著上调(p < 0.01),并呈现时间依赖性增加特征(图5)。MMP水平在感染早期无明显变化,感染中、后期均显著下调(p < 0.01)(图6)。ATP含量在感染早、中期与对照组无明显差别,感染后期显著降低(p < 0.01)(图7)。可见,病毒感染促进细胞ROS的合成和积累,线粒体膜结构受损,从而影响ATP的合成。
自噬是细胞通过溶酶体(动物)或液泡(如植物、酵母菌)降解自身组分或清除入侵微生物以达到维持细胞内正常生理活动及稳态的一种细胞代谢过程。植物细胞自噬过程中,一些小的液泡先出现在胞质中,随后逐渐融合形成一个大液泡,随着胞质被液泡取代,胞内蛋白质和细胞器逐渐被降解导致细胞死亡[28-29]。经刀豆素A处理的挪威云杉(Picea abies)胚柄细胞[30]及莱茵衣藻[31]均观察到因自噬流阻断而聚积在液泡中的自噬体,表明刀豆素A可以阻止液泡酸化进而抑制液泡的水解酶活性。磷胁迫诱导颗石藻E. huxleyi CCMP2090细胞自噬体的形成,并通过与液泡融合降解胞内物[21]。本研究在EhV99B1感染的E. huxleyi BOF92细胞中观察到典型的自噬体样双层膜囊泡,部分自噬体出现在液泡内(图1),且在感染48 h后出现明显的液泡酸化现象(图2)。有趣的是,在EhV201感染E. huxleyi CCMP2090后60 h,每个宿主细胞中子代病毒粒子的丰度却达到最高值(约300个/cell)[22]。上述结果表明,液泡酸化似乎并没有被宿主用作一种防御机制,暗示EhV可通过诱导细胞自噬以利于其自身的增殖。正如在许多哺乳动物宿主−病原体系统中发现的一样,自噬溶酶体降解可作为对抗病毒感染的细胞防御机制,但许多RNA或DNA病毒均可通过调节自噬机制而利于自身的生存[32]。如在牛痘病毒(Vaccinia)、虹彩病毒(Iridovirus)以及冠状病毒(Coronaviruses)等感染的宿主细胞中,双层膜结构包裹细胞内容物的同时,也为病毒组装提供了平台,这些细胞内特殊的名为“病毒工厂”的隔间被认为更利于核酸分子和蛋白质的招募,从而提高病毒的复制效率[33-34]
自噬体的形成是由一系列称为Atgs蛋白或自噬相关蛋白的协同作用驱动。在颗石藻(E. huxleyi) BOF92中,Atg8是哺乳动物LC3的同源物,Atg8a与吞噬泡上的磷脂酰乙醇胺(PE)发生酯化反应延伸扩张吞噬泡膜以形成完整的自噬体。EhV感染过程中只检测到酯化形成的Atg8a-PE,且其表达量随感染时间的推移逐渐降低。另外,在Atg8-PE酯化及自噬体延伸过程中起重要作用的atg5atg12基因在病毒感染早期均显著上调(图3),进而加速Atg5-Atg12复合体的形成,以参与自噬体膜的延伸并促进病毒增殖。在EhV201感染E. huxleyi CCMP2090过程中,成熟的子代病毒粒子的外壳蛋白上包裹了丰富的宿主Atg8蛋白[22]。因此,我们推测可能正是由于感染过程中病毒粒子的组装消耗了部分Atg8a-PE,从而导致Atg8a虽然在转录水平持续上调,但蛋白丰度则持续降低,这也进一步证实该蛋白作为成熟EhV包膜蛋白成分之一参与子代病毒粒子的组装。新近几篇有关EhV感染的脂质组学研究结果也进一步证实这一现象,即病毒感染过程中,宿主细胞内及病毒粒子膜包上均富集了大量的PE,约占细胞总脂的1.5%[14, 35]。可见,在“病毒细胞(virocell)”中,自噬过程产生的膜在释放到宿主细胞外之前就有一部分与Atg8a-PE蛋白一起被作为病毒的结构成分用于子代病毒粒子的组装。另外,参与自噬激活阶段的Vps34基因在病毒感染过程中,其转录水平和蛋白水平的表达模式类似(图3图4)。在EhV感染的E. huxleyi CCMP 2090细胞中,作者没有检测Vps34在蛋白水平的变化,但感染过程中该基因在mRNA水平的变化与本研究结果一致[22]。在酵母和哺乳动物细胞中,Vps34主要在蛋白水平调控自噬[36],Vps34通过与Beclin结合形成Vps34复合体诱导不依赖于mTOR的自噬过程[37]。因此,在感染后期,Vps34基因的转录水平显著上调,然后以蛋白复合体形式被消耗。这也在一定程度上解释了EhV感染的细胞中,Vps34基因转录高峰出现在感染后期的原因(图3)。综上,EhV感染过程中细胞自噬总体呈现正向调控趋势。
哺乳动物雷帕霉素靶蛋白(mTOR)是自噬调节中研究最多的靶蛋白之一。PI3K/Akt/mTOR信号通路由PI3激酶(PI3K)、蛋白激酶B(PKB/Akt)和mTOR 3个作用分子组成,通过催化多个靶标的磷酸化,从而调节自噬。例如,人乳头瘤病毒HPV16在感染人角质细胞早期,通过激活生长因子受体(GFR)启动PI3K/Akt/mTOR信号途径抑制宿主细胞自噬[38]。类似的,在EhV感染早期,PI3K基本维持在正常表达水平,其下游Akt被磷酸化,具有活性形式的p-Akt进一步催化TOR的磷酸化(图4e),从而抑制自噬的启动,以利于病毒粒子的复制和组装。EhV感染中、后期,PI3K蛋白丰度显著降低,进而抑制其下游Akt和TOR的磷酸化级联反应(图4e),从而有序地启动细胞自噬。
自噬与凋亡之间存在着复杂的交互调控—二者能被多种应激刺激共同激活、共享多个调节分子,甚至互相协调转化。凋亡特征蛋白酶Caspase可以直接与自噬相关蛋白Atgs发生互作,从而抑制自噬发生、启动细胞凋亡或促进自噬体形成;而自噬不仅可以抑制细胞凋亡、促进细胞存活,还可以通过Caspase依赖性或非依赖性途径促进细胞死亡[39]。尽管浮游植物中有关自噬和凋亡之间的关联性研究较少,但浮游植物中存在Caspase同源物—Metacaspase[5]和自噬相关蛋白Atgs[24],且存在类似细胞凋亡、类凋亡和自噬等途径的PCD[40]。如在EhV201[22]和本研究的EhV99B1感染的特异性宿主藻细胞中均检测到高丰度的atg5基因转录本,而Atg5则被认为是自噬和凋亡之间的转换器[11]。近年,ROS由于具有调节细胞存活和细胞死亡信号通路的能力而在抗癌策略研究中备受关注[41-42]。如血凝性脑脊髓炎病毒(HVJ)感染人前列腺癌PC3细胞后,能够触发ROS的产生,并通过复杂的信号途径诱导ROS剂量依赖的凋亡和自噬[41]。在浮游植物中也发现类似的现象,如高盐胁迫诱导微星鼓藻(Micrasterias denticulata)细胞ROS的合成,其含量变化在细胞凋亡和自噬转换之间起作用,即当ROS含量较低时伴随着自噬小体的形成,而当ROS含量迅速升高则诱导细胞凋亡[43]
EhV感染过程中,病毒编码的辅助代谢基因(vAMGs)通过“劫持”宿主鞘脂类代谢途径大量合成vGSL,并伴随着ROS和谷胱甘肽(GSH)的产生[44-46]、细胞内部物质快速降解、光合作用效率降低[47]、凋亡相关蛋白metacaspase活性显著升高、凋亡小体等典型的细胞凋亡特征[5-6]。研究发现,植物细胞中存在氧化物酶体、线粒体、内质网及核糖体等自噬现象,而这些细胞器均是产生ROS的主要部分,暗示ROS在细胞自噬中起关键作用[48]。本研究中,EhV99B1感染能够诱导宿主ROS水平时间依赖性的积累,并显著抑制细胞膜电位MMP和ATP水平,导致线粒体功能受损,并通过调节PI3K/Akt/TOR信号通路诱导细胞自噬(图8)。综上,EhV通过vGSLs的积累产生更多的ROS的机制诱发自噬,随着感染时间的延长,最终细胞终将被病毒裂解死亡—由自噬转向凋亡,可见,ROS在EhV诱导的自噬和凋亡“串话”中起一定的转换作用。病毒感染诱导的颗石藻细胞自噬和凋亡对自然海域中该藻的生命周期、赤潮消亡及种群动力学过程都有着深远的影响,并在海洋碳、硫生物地化循环及全球气候变化中起到举足轻重的作用。
  • 国家自然科学基金(42076086);福建省自然科学基金(2019J01696)。
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2023年第45卷第8期
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文章信息
doi: 10.12284/hyxb2023084
  • 接收时间:2022-11-07
  • 首发时间:2025-12-28
  • 出版时间:2023-08-31
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  • 收稿日期:2022-11-07
  • 修回日期:2023-03-13
基金
国家自然科学基金(42076086);福建省自然科学基金(2019J01696)。
作者信息
    1 集美大学 海洋食品与生物工程学院,福建 厦门 361021

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*刘静雯,女,博士,教授,主要从事海洋微型生物分子生物学研究。E-mail:
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2种不同金属材料的力学参数

Family
属数
Number of
genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of
total species (%)

Genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of total
species (%)
鹅膏菌科Amanitaceae 2 11 5.26 鹅膏菌属 Amanita 10 4.78
小菇科 Mycenaceae 2 12 5.74 丝盖伞属 Inocybe 5 2.39
多孔菌科 Polyporaceae 8 14 6.70 蜡蘑属 Laccaria 5 2.39
红菇科 Russulaceae 3 23 11.00 小皮伞属 Marasmius 6 2.87
小菇属 Mycena 11 5.26
光柄菇属 Pluteus 5 2.39
红菇属 Russula 17 8.13
栓菌属 Trametes 5 2.39
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