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The surge process, magnitude and timing are of critical importance for accurate storm prediction and warning as well as hazard mitigation. A total of 28 tropical cyclones that most affected the head Bay of Bengal during 1991−2020 are selected and simulated with interactive forces including wind, tide, wave and river discharge. The occurrence frequencies of the maximum surge cluster in the rising tide, amounting to 89.3%, mostly 3 h and 4 h before the peak tide. The larger maximum surges are associated with phase shift of storm tide from astronomical tide. The surge processes can be classified into “(quasi-) solitary wave” and “(quasi-) periodic” oscillations. The solitary-wave-like surge may last only the rising tide or both the rising tide and the falling tide. The non-linear interactions between the storm surge and astronomical tide have the same period of a semi-diurnal tide, and their amplitudes are controlled by tidal range. The surge-tide interaction curves demonstrate two types: one is “peak in rising tide and trough in falling tide”, the other is the opposite. They are 180°out of phase, i.e. 6 h for a semi-diurnal tide. The advancing direction of cyclones relative to tidal current, the tidal phase at a cyclone landfall and the formation & propagation of trapped edge surge waves are the dominant mechanism to determine the timing of maximum surges.

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研究风暴潮期间的增水过程、振幅和时相特征对提高风暴潮实时预报的精度和减轻灾害损失具有重要价值。采用径流、潮汐、风、波浪耦合模型模拟了孟加拉湾1991−2020年期间对湾顶布里斯瓦尔河口一带增水影响最大的28次热带气旋过程。结果显示,由风暴潮总水位减去天文潮位得到的总增水极值相对于天文潮高潮位的出现时刻集中于涨潮阶段,占总次数的89.3%,并且集中于高潮位前的3 h和4 h。增水过程呈现“(准)孤立波”和“(准)周期性振动”两大类型,其中孤立波形式的增水过程有的在涨潮阶段便完成,也有的持续一个完整的涨、落潮阶段。风暴潮增水−天文潮相互作用曲线具有与天文潮同样周期的振动特征,其振幅与潮差的大小相关,呈现出“涨峰−落谷”与“涨谷−落峰”两种类型,二者具有180°的相位差。热带气旋的行进方向与潮流同逆向、登陆时的潮相、海岸陷波(边缘波)的形成与传播等是决定总增水极值时相特征的主要动力机制。

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王玉海(1970-),男,山西省襄汾县人,正高级工程师,博士,主要从事河口海岸水动力、岸滩演变及工程泥沙等方面的研究工作。E-mail:

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王玉海(1970-),男,山西省襄汾县人,正高级工程师,博士,主要从事河口海岸水动力、岸滩演变及工程泥沙等方面的研究工作。E-mail:

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王玉海(1970-),男,山西省襄汾县人,正高级工程师,博士,主要从事河口海岸水动力、岸滩演变及工程泥沙等方面的研究工作。E-mail:

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Including the tidal gauge stations of Chittagong and Khepupara, the OWI wave hindcast site and the Buriswar Estuary

, figureFileSmall=7+Pz4pd5hNT/B3OXemw8PA==, figureFileBig=9oWvs1FtYLDEqHOOkrFDvw==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1215313887122080173, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, articleId=1211432601064181830, language=CN, label=图1, caption=风暴潮、波浪数值模型模拟范围

包括验潮站吉大港和赫普帕拉、海洋气象公司(OWI)波浪后报点及布里斯瓦尔河口

, figureFileSmall=7+Pz4pd5hNT/B3OXemw8PA==, figureFileBig=9oWvs1FtYLDEqHOOkrFDvw==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1215313887205966257, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, articleId=1211432601064181830, language=EN, label=Fig. 2, caption=Tracks of selected tropical cyclones influencing the Buriswar Estuary at the head of Bengal Bay during 1991−2020 (source: IMD), figureFileSmall=yAeQquyhIAFF5+KSdNJPrw==, figureFileBig=WDC3XDoj0yqP6clRBFkfYA==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1215313887273075125, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, articleId=1211432601064181830, language=CN, label=图2, caption=孟加拉湾1991−2020年影响湾顶布里斯瓦尔河口的主要热带气旋路径(来源:IMD), figureFileSmall=yAeQquyhIAFF5+KSdNJPrw==, figureFileBig=WDC3XDoj0yqP6clRBFkfYA==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1215313887352766906, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, articleId=1211432601064181830, language=EN, label=Fig. 3, caption=Calibrations of storm water level and surge height at Chittagong gauge station (a, b), and significant wave height at OWI and ERA5 hindcast site (c, d) for selected cyclones in the Bay of Bengal, figureFileSmall=EyJIzwaK9qywv55C8lTQ5Q==, figureFileBig=RWQ2LqBQwI7OmiF2ihbwrw==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1215313887457624511, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, articleId=1211432601064181830, language=CN, label=图3, caption=孟加拉湾部分热带气旋吉大港站水位、增水(a, b)及OWI和ERA5波浪后报点的有效波高(c, d)验证, figureFileSmall=EyJIzwaK9qywv55C8lTQ5Q==, figureFileBig=RWQ2LqBQwI7OmiF2ihbwrw==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1215313887537316289, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, articleId=1211432601064181830, language=EN, label=Fig. 4, caption=Occurrence frequencies of maximum total surges before peak tide of observed data (1987−2000) at the Khepupara gauge station (a) and of the modeled 1991−2020 cyclones at the Buriswar Estuary (b)

Note 0 h represents the peak tide, negative hrs are for rising tide while positive hrs are for falling tide

, figureFileSmall=Vo5UMeCNOEYzMxlIKrJwVw==, figureFileBig=84Vme9qxThO39nXuZpTBHg==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1215313887621202377, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, articleId=1211432601064181830, language=CN, label=图4, caption=孟加拉湾湾顶赫普帕拉验潮站1987−2000年观测的总增水极值时刻(a)与数值模拟的布里斯瓦尔河口1991−2020年热带气旋总增水极值时刻(b)频率分布

0时刻表示天文潮高潮位,负值表示涨潮阶段,正值表示落潮阶段

, figureFileSmall=Vo5UMeCNOEYzMxlIKrJwVw==, figureFileBig=84Vme9qxThO39nXuZpTBHg==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1215313887726059982, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, articleId=1211432601064181830, language=EN, label=Fig. 5, caption=The track of Sidr cyclone and the high water level at Buriswar Estuary (17:00, Nov. 15, 2007), figureFileSmall=bdoR+u4tty/5sMI0nvW01w==, figureFileBig=NNYf9tT825YPngqZuei3ZQ==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1215313887805751763, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, articleId=1211432601064181830, language=CN, label=图5, caption=锡德热带气旋路径及布里斯瓦尔河口一带水域的高潮位分布(2007年11月15日17时), figureFileSmall=bdoR+u4tty/5sMI0nvW01w==, figureFileBig=NNYf9tT825YPngqZuei3ZQ==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1215313889068237274, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, articleId=1211432601064181830, language=EN, label=Fig. 6, caption=Two representative surge wave oscillations at Buriswar Estuary

c. Solitary wave; d. periodic oscillation. The curve of “tide+wind” is almost covered by that of “tide+wind+wave”due to very minor difference

, figureFileSmall=pPTuirF+2d59ygdws36pCw==, figureFileBig=/nJq0yTyNWmGGdbEWq3HJw==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1215313889152123359, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, articleId=1211432601064181830, language=CN, label=图6, caption=布里斯瓦尔河口两种代表性增水过程

c. 孤立波;d. 周期性振动。图中的“天文潮+风”与“天文潮+风+浪”曲线由于数值非常接近,几乎重叠

, figureFileSmall=pPTuirF+2d59ygdws36pCw==, figureFileBig=/nJq0yTyNWmGGdbEWq3HJw==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1215313889236009448, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, articleId=1211432601064181830, language=EN, label=Fig. 7, caption=Quasi-solitary surge waves at Buriswar Estuary

The curve of “tide+wind” is almost covered by that of “tide+wind+wave” due to very minor difference

, figureFileSmall=HxrpKNCxmcPLGDeu5YQ57A==, figureFileBig=X+opRQUkeMHlktG121AOYw==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1215313889328284142, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, articleId=1211432601064181830, language=CN, label=图7, caption=布里斯瓦尔河口准孤立波增水过程

图中的“天文潮+风”与“天文潮+风+浪”曲线由于数值非常接近,几乎重叠

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figureFileBig=mUc1CNR8nuDxPq5Ufamtrg==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1215313889726743050, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, articleId=1211432601064181830, language=CN, label=图9, caption=“落峰−涨谷”型增−潮相互作用曲线, figureFileSmall=CDNcuOXS//KHgOl2pjC+Ng==, figureFileBig=mUc1CNR8nuDxPq5Ufamtrg==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1215313889814823438, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, articleId=1211432601064181830, language=EN, label=Fig. 10, caption=The development and propagation of trapped edge wave along the head bay by No. 8 cyclone in Nov. 1992, figureFileSmall=28AzmD4D/QjPNlyLkdC7Zg==, figureFileBig=cmYoBBaLTvXeNz3T644Ygg==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1215313889898709523, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, articleId=1211432601064181830, language=CN, label=图10, caption=1992年11月第8号热带气旋登陆前孟加拉湾湾顶增水波形成与传播过程, figureFileSmall=28AzmD4D/QjPNlyLkdC7Zg==, figureFileBig=cmYoBBaLTvXeNz3T644Ygg==, 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孟加拉湾1991−2020年风暴潮模拟及湾顶最大增水的时相特征
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王玉海 1 , 邓安军 1 , 郭传胜 1
海洋学报 | 论文 2023,45(6): 1-12
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海洋学报 | 论文 2023, 45(6): 1-12
孟加拉湾1991−2020年风暴潮模拟及湾顶最大增水的时相特征
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王玉海1 , 邓安军1, 郭传胜1
作者信息
  • 1 中国水利水电科学研究院泥沙研究所,北京 100048
  • 王玉海(1970-),男,山西省襄汾县人,正高级工程师,博士,主要从事河口海岸水动力、岸滩演变及工程泥沙等方面的研究工作。E-mail:

Storm modeling of 1991−2020 tropical cyclones in the Bay of Bengal and the timing of the head-bay maximum surge
Yuhai Wang1 , Anjun Deng1, Chuansheng Guo1
Affiliations
  • 1China Institute of Water Resources and Hydropower Research, Beijing 100048, China
出版时间: 2023-06-30 doi: 10.12284/hyxb2023067
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研究风暴潮期间的增水过程、振幅和时相特征对提高风暴潮实时预报的精度和减轻灾害损失具有重要价值。采用径流、潮汐、风、波浪耦合模型模拟了孟加拉湾1991−2020年期间对湾顶布里斯瓦尔河口一带增水影响最大的28次热带气旋过程。结果显示,由风暴潮总水位减去天文潮位得到的总增水极值相对于天文潮高潮位的出现时刻集中于涨潮阶段,占总次数的89.3%,并且集中于高潮位前的3 h和4 h。增水过程呈现“(准)孤立波”和“(准)周期性振动”两大类型,其中孤立波形式的增水过程有的在涨潮阶段便完成,也有的持续一个完整的涨、落潮阶段。风暴潮增水−天文潮相互作用曲线具有与天文潮同样周期的振动特征,其振幅与潮差的大小相关,呈现出“涨峰−落谷”与“涨谷−落峰”两种类型,二者具有180°的相位差。热带气旋的行进方向与潮流同逆向、登陆时的潮相、海岸陷波(边缘波)的形成与传播等是决定总增水极值时相特征的主要动力机制。

孟加拉湾  /  风暴潮  /  FVCOM  /  最大增水  /  时相  /  增−潮相互作用  /  边缘波

The surge process, magnitude and timing are of critical importance for accurate storm prediction and warning as well as hazard mitigation. A total of 28 tropical cyclones that most affected the head Bay of Bengal during 1991−2020 are selected and simulated with interactive forces including wind, tide, wave and river discharge. The occurrence frequencies of the maximum surge cluster in the rising tide, amounting to 89.3%, mostly 3 h and 4 h before the peak tide. The larger maximum surges are associated with phase shift of storm tide from astronomical tide. The surge processes can be classified into “(quasi-) solitary wave” and “(quasi-) periodic” oscillations. The solitary-wave-like surge may last only the rising tide or both the rising tide and the falling tide. The non-linear interactions between the storm surge and astronomical tide have the same period of a semi-diurnal tide, and their amplitudes are controlled by tidal range. The surge-tide interaction curves demonstrate two types: one is “peak in rising tide and trough in falling tide”, the other is the opposite. They are 180°out of phase, i.e. 6 h for a semi-diurnal tide. The advancing direction of cyclones relative to tidal current, the tidal phase at a cyclone landfall and the formation & propagation of trapped edge surge waves are the dominant mechanism to determine the timing of maximum surges.

Bay of Bengal  /  storm surge  /  FVCOM  /  maximum surge  /  timing  /  tide-surge interaction  /  edge wave
王玉海, 邓安军, 郭传胜. 孟加拉湾1991−2020年风暴潮模拟及湾顶最大增水的时相特征. 海洋学报, 2023 , 45 (6) : 1 -12 . DOI: 10.12284/hyxb2023067
Yuhai Wang, Anjun Deng, Chuansheng Guo. Storm modeling of 1991−2020 tropical cyclones in the Bay of Bengal and the timing of the head-bay maximum surge[J]. Haiyang Xuebao, 2023 , 45 (6) : 1 -12 . DOI: 10.12284/hyxb2023067
风暴潮是受到诸如热带气旋(台风)、温带气旋、寒潮等强烈大气扰动的潮汐传播过程,而风暴潮增水(storm surge)则是海面相对于天文潮位出现升高的现象。如果风暴潮增水叠加天文潮的高潮位,尤其是天文大潮的高潮位,则很可能引发严重的洪涝灾害,给海岸地区的人员和物质财产造成巨大损失。因此,风暴潮的增水过程、振幅和时相特征等,早在20世纪五六十年代就受到研究人员的关注[1-2]。为了提高风暴潮实时预报精度和海洋防灾减灾的需要,近年来更是成为风暴潮相关研究的重要内容之一。
国内外已有的研究表明,风暴潮期间增水的形成与演化并不是一个独立于天文潮的过程,二者之间存在着复杂的非线性相互作用。这种相互作用不仅改变了风暴潮相对于天文潮的相位变化即潮时的变化,同时天文潮水位的变化也对增水过程产生着调制作用[3-5]。因此,风暴潮的总水位由天文潮位、风暴增水以及增水与天文潮的相互作用三者共同组成。
高焕臣[4]基于M2分潮余弦曲线的解析分析,指出风暴潮的增减水曲线也是周期性曲线,周期与天文潮相同。如果风暴潮对天文潮的相位改变角大于0,则增水的峰值出现在天文潮的涨潮半潮波之前。而Horsburgh与Wilson[5]则从风暴增水对天文潮的相位迁移(phase shift)、天文潮对风暴增水的调制作用以及远端风暴增水的输入3个方面解释了风暴潮的总增水(由总水位减去天文潮位)最大值相对于天文潮位变化的4种模式。
风暴潮增水与天文潮之间的相互作用(简称增−潮相互作用,下文同)会促使总增水极值出现时刻集中于高潮位之前的3~5 h[3-5]。但是很多研究人员对沿海验潮站长时间序列潮位观测数据的统计分析结果显示,不同验潮站总增水极值出现的时刻不尽相同。例如,Bernier与Thompson[6]对加拿大东海岸和美国东北海岸11座验潮站1960−2019年潮位观测序列的分析显示总增水极值在各种情形下都有出现。Zhang等[7]对雷州半岛东岸及粤西海岸验潮站水位观测序列的统计分析显示,粤西海岸的验潮站总增水极值多集中出现在落潮阶段,雷州半岛东岸的验潮站涨潮阶段和落潮阶段出现的几率接近,而在海南岛北部总增水极值集中出现在涨潮阶段。
Feng等[8]对中国沿海12座验潮站水位观测序列的分析表明,总增水峰值的时相特征存在3种情形:(1)高潮位前2~4 h;(2)高潮位后2~4 h;(3)涨潮阶段和落潮阶段的概率相当。杨万康[9]通过对铁山湾石头埠站1969−2014年观测水位数据进行统计分析,也发现风暴潮增水峰值出现在涨潮和落潮阶段的次数相差不大,但是出现在低潮位的次数要远大于出现在高潮位的次数。白一冰等[10]对2021年7月“烟花”台风在长江南通以下河口段增水分布情况的数值模拟显示,增水极值主要出现在涨潮阶段,而在北槽则出现在落潮阶段。张西琳等[11]对1509号“灿鸿”台风影响浙江沿海的增水过程的模拟结果显示,增−潮相互作用导致在高潮位时增水值减少,而在低潮位时增水值增大。
Chiu 和Small[12]对孟加拉湾沿岸57个热带气旋的资料分析显示,登陆到孟加拉湾西、西北海岸的气旋所产生的增水值要显著大于登陆到东部海岸的气旋所产生的增水值,并且增水极值几乎没有出现在天文大潮高潮位的案例。Krien等[13]概括了已有的孟加拉湾风暴潮数值模拟研究的制约因素,包括缺乏准确的热带气旋的风场要素输入数据、准确的水下地形数据和潮位观测数据以及对重要海气作用物理机制的了解不够深入等。他们特别强调了准确模拟天文潮对风暴潮增水模拟的重要性,因为增−潮相互作用的效应比较显著[14-18]。但是,已有的采用数值模拟研究孟加拉湾或者其他地区风暴潮增水特征的工作多限于某一场或几场风暴潮[8, 12, 18],缺乏长时间序列的风暴潮增水模拟结果,对增水过程的波形特征、增−潮相互作用的相位及其对总增水的调制作用仍存在着较大争议。本文选取孟加拉湾1991−2020年期间对湾顶恒河三角洲中部海岸的增水影响相对最大的28次热带气旋过程进行数值模拟,并对该海域的总增水极值的时相特征进行统计分析,同时对不同增水模式的动力机制进行探讨。
孟加拉湾位于印度洋的北部。由恒河(Ganges)、布拉马普特拉河(Brahmaputra)和梅格纳河(Meghna)冲积而形成的恒河三角洲平原,是世界第一大三角洲。恒河的年均径流量约11 300 m3/s,布拉马普特拉河的年均径流量约20 200 m3/s,由恒河与布拉马普特拉河汇聚而成的帕德玛河(Padma)年均径流量约30 000 m3/s,上梅格纳河的年均径流量约4 600 m3/s[19]。帕德玛河与上梅格纳河汇流后通过梅格纳河口注入孟加拉湾。总体而言,恒河三角洲河网密布,地势低平,极易遭受热带气旋的侵袭,发生严重的洪涝灾害。孟加拉湾的潮汐为半日潮[20]。海岸从西到东的平均潮差在2~4 m之间变化[21]
本文采用的模拟天文潮和风暴潮的数值模型为FVCOM(Ver2.7.1)[22],波浪模型为第三代风浪模式SWAN(Ver.41.01)[23]。模拟范围如图1所示。南部开边界位于3.5°N附近,西部开边界位于77.5°E附近,东部开边界位于100°E附近。模型的北部包括恒河三角洲网河的主要水系,最北端位于干流帕德玛河的麻瓦断面附近(23.5°N,90.3°E)。模型的模拟区域共剖分三角形单元132 496个,节点数72 486个。三角形网格的最大尺度在100 km左右,位于南部开边界。由于登陆孟加拉湾顶的热带气旋路程相对较短,部分持续时间较长的气旋多发源于海湾中部的安达曼群岛附近海域。模型的南部开边界距离这些气旋的距离足够的远,边界网格尺度对气旋风圈模拟精度的影响有限。模型对河网区的网格进行了加密,最小尺度在100 m左右。SWAN与FVCOM使用同一套三角形网格和水下地形。二者进行实时耦合模拟,FVCOM为SWAN提供水位、水流等参数,而SWAN则为FVCOM提供波高、周期及波向等。
风暴潮的气压场模型采用藤田−高桥模式[24]
$ \left\{ \begin{array}{ll} \dfrac{{P(r) - {P_0}}}{{{P_n} - {P_0}}} = 1 - \dfrac{1}{{\sqrt {1 + 2{{(r/{R_w})}^2}} }}& 0 < r \leqslant 2{R_w} \text{,} \\ \dfrac{{P(r) - {P_0}}}{{{P_n} - {P_0}}} = 1 - \dfrac{1}{{1 + r/{R_w}}}& 2{R_w} < r < \infty \text{,} \end{array} \right. $
式中,$ {P}_{0} $是气旋中心的气压(hPa);$ P\left(r\right) $是距气旋中心距离$ r $处的气压;$ {P}_{n} $是气旋外围的大气压,取值1 010 hPa;$ {R}_{w} $是最大风速半径;$ r $$ {R}_{w} $的单位是m。
相应的气旋梯度风的模式为
$ \left\{ \begin{gathered} {V_g}(r) = {\left[ {\frac{{{f^2}}}{4} + {{10}^3}\frac{2}{{{\rho _{\rm{a}}}R_w^2}}({P_n} - {P_0}){{\left(1 + 2\frac{{{r^2}}}{{R_w^2}}\right)}^{ - \frac{3}{2}}}} \right]^{\frac{1}{2}}} - \frac{f}{2}{\kern 1pt} {\kern 1pt} {\kern 1pt} {\kern 1pt} {\kern 1pt} {\kern 1pt} {\kern 1pt} {\kern 1pt} {\kern 1pt} {\kern 1pt} {\kern 1pt} {\kern 1pt} {\kern 1pt} {\kern 1pt} {\kern 1pt} {\kern 1pt} {\kern 1pt} {\kern 1pt} {\kern 1pt} {\kern 1pt} {\kern 1pt} {\kern 1pt} {\kern 1pt} {\kern 1pt} {\kern 1pt} {\kern 1pt} {\kern 1pt} {\kern 1pt} {\kern 1pt} {\kern 1pt} 0 < r \leqslant 2{R_w} \text{,} \\ {V_g}(r) = {\left[ {\frac{{{f^2}}}{4} + {{10}^3}\frac{{({P_n} - {P_0})}}{{{\rho _{\rm{a}}}}}\frac{1}{{{{(1 + r/{R_w})}^2}{R_w}r}}} \right]^{\frac{1}{2}}} - \frac{f}{2}{\kern 1pt} {\kern 1pt} {\kern 1pt} {\kern 1pt} {\kern 1pt} {\kern 1pt} {\kern 1pt} {\kern 1pt} {\kern 1pt} {\kern 1pt} {\kern 1pt} {\kern 1pt} {\kern 1pt} {\kern 1pt} {\kern 1pt} {\kern 1pt} {\kern 1pt} {\kern 1pt} {\kern 1pt} {\kern 1pt} {\kern 1pt} {\kern 1pt} {\kern 1pt} {\kern 1pt} {\kern 1pt} {\kern 1pt} {\kern 1pt} {\kern 1pt} {\kern 1pt} {\kern 1pt} {\kern 1pt} {\kern 1pt} {\kern 1pt} {\kern 1pt} {\kern 1pt} {\kern 1pt} {\kern 1pt} 2{R_w} < r < \infty \text{,} \\ \end{gathered} \right. $
式中,$ {f} $是科氏力系数,f =2 ω sin $ \phi$ω是地球自转角速度,$\omega = 7.272\;205\;4 \times {10^{ - 5}}$ rad/s;$ \mathrm{\phi } $是纬度;${\rho }_{{\rm{a}}}$为空气密度,取值1.15 kg/m3
将式(2)计算的气旋梯度风场与气旋的移行速度叠加后得到的合成梯度风场再与背景风场进行合成。合成方式如下[13]
$ {V_t}(r) = \left\{ \begin{array}{ll} {V_M}(r)& r \leqslant {R_w} \text{,} \\ (1 - \varepsilon ){V_M}(r) + \varepsilon {V_Q}(r)& {R_w} < r \leqslant 2{R_w} \text{,} \\ {V_Q}(r)& r > 2{R_w} \text{,} \end{array} \right. $
式中,$ {V}_{M} $是叠加了气旋移速的合成梯度风场;$ {V}_{Q} $是背景风场;$ \varepsilon $ 是权重系数,$ \varepsilon = (r - {R_w})/{R_w}{\kern 1pt} $
已有的关于孟加拉湾风暴潮数值模拟的工作表明[13-14, 16],由全球大气数值模型提供的再分析海表风场数据在很多情形下对水位、波高等要素的模拟精度要优于参数模型的理想风场,尤其是后者难以准确刻画气旋中心附近的非对称风场结构。因此,适当缩小参数模型风场的范围是必要的。但是对于再分析数据所表达的背景风场也不是直接引用,而是根据模型的验证结果进行适当的修正后再与参数风场合成。
进入孟加拉湾的热带气旋的路径、中心最低气压、最大风速等资料从印度气象局(Indian Meteorological Department, IMD, http://www.rsmcnewdelhi.imd.gov.in)下载提取。相应气旋的移速取自美国环境信息中心提供的IBTrACs(International Best Track Archive for Climate Stewardship)数据[25]。最大风速半径采用Willoughby等[26]基于IBTrACs大量数据提出的回归公式:
$ {R_w} = 46.4\exp ( - 0.015\;5{V_{\max }} + 0.016\;9\varphi ) \text{,} $
式中,$ {V_{\max }} $是最大风速,单位是m/s;$ \varphi $是纬度;$ {R_w} $的单位是km。
据IMD统计(https://rsmcnewdelhi.imd.gov.in/uploads/climatology/annualcd.pdf),1891−2021年期间出现在孟加拉湾的强度弱于气旋风暴(Vmax在17~34 kn之间)的热带气旋总数为1 228个,年均9.4个;而强度超过气旋风暴(Vmax$\geqslant $34 kn)的热带气旋总数为763个,年均5.8个。
本文依据热带气旋的等级(中心最低气压)、路径、邻近性等标准选取了1991−2020年期间对孟加拉湾湾顶布里斯瓦尔(Buriswar)河口水域增水影响程度最大的28个热带气旋,其路径分布见图2(绿色线)。需要说明的是,能够对布里斯瓦尔河口增水产生最大影响的气旋并不一定是该年份的最强气旋;如果某一年份发生等级相当或者接近的强气旋风暴,则选择登陆路径位于布里斯瓦尔河口左侧的气旋,即该河口处于气旋向岸风场作用的范围。
在这28次热带气旋活动过程中,发生次数最多的是10月份,总计9次,占32.1%;其次是5月份,共计次,占25.0%;发生于11月份的有6次,占21.4%;9月份和4月份各发生2次,7月份和6月份各发生1次。总体而言,发生于雨季(6−10月)的有13次,发生于旱季的有15次。
孟加拉湾的背景风场资料从欧洲中期天气预报中心(ECMWF)的ERA5再分析数据库(DOI: 10.24381/cds.adbb2d47)下载,其空间分辨率是 0.25°,时间分辨率是1 h。
孟加拉湾沿岸验潮站的潮位观测数据从美国夏威夷大学海平面研究中心(http://uhslc.soest.hawaii.edu/data/download/)下载,包括赫普帕拉(Khepupara)站(21.833°N,89.833°E)1987−2000年和吉大港(Chittagong)站(22.247°N,91.825°E)2007−2018年的逐时水位观测数据。两座验潮站的位置见图1
此外,海洋气象公司(www.oceanweather.com)全球波浪模型提供的距离布里斯瓦尔河口约65 km处的波浪后报点(21.375°N,89.875°E)(图1)以及欧洲中期天气预报中心(ECMWF)的ERA5 再分析数据库在临近部位后报的相关热带气旋活动期间的波要素数据用作波浪模型验证之用。开边界节点的潮汐条件由MIKE21软件的潮汐预报模块[27]提供并在潮位率定过程中适当调整。
恒河、布拉马普特拉河和梅格纳河上游入口处依据热带气旋活动的月份输入相应的多年平均月径流量[19]
水下地形资料由孟加拉国水利发展委员会(BWDB)提供的网河区部分河道断面测量数据、河口局部区域的2D水下地形测量数据、近岸水域的海图等插补组成,同时参考了部分文献中的地形资料[28-29];外海的水下地形则来自分辨率为15弧秒的GEBCO数据 (GEBCO_2021 Grid,www.gebco.net)。
利用MIKE21软件的潮汐调和分析模块[27]对观测水位进行分析得到主要分潮的振幅和相位角,然后利用潮汐预报模块获得相应时期的天文潮水位。将观测水位减去预报的天文潮水位便得到增水。而计算的增水过程则是将风、浪、流耦合模拟计算得到的总水位减去计算的天文潮水位得到的。模型对热带气旋影响下的水位、增水及波高变化过程的验证结果见图3
吉大港验潮站2007年锡德(Sidr)气旋与2013年菲林(Phailin)气旋的计算水位变化过程与观测水位总体符合良好。两次热带气旋的观测增水过程与计算增水过程均出现了周期性的振动,二者的振幅和相位基本符合。经统计,2007年11月锡德气旋的计算水位与观测水位之间的相关系数和均方根误差分别是0.97、0.49 m,同期的计算增水与观测增水之间的相关系数和均方根误差分别是0.87、0.19 m。2013年菲林气旋的计算水位与观测水位之间的相关系数和均方根误差分别是0.98、0.34 m,而计算增水与观测增水之间的相关系数和均方根误差分别是0.61、0.25 m。
计算的增水过程所表现出的周期性振动是由计算的总水位减去计算的天文潮位得到的,二者在开边界上的潮汐条件相同。这种周期性过程不是计算水位与观测水位之间由于潮相的偏差而产生的周期性误差,而是与增水和天文潮之间的非线性相互作用有关,在后文中将进一步分析。另外需要说明的是,潮汐调和分析中由于难以完全消除风暴潮水位以及局地因子(岸线、地形、工程建设等)对潮汐传播速度的迟滞影响,从而造成分潮的振幅和相位角存在一定程度的误差。由此预报的天文潮即使存在较小的潮相偏差,也会导致较大的观测增水误差。另一方面,由于缺乏与潮位观测时期相匹配的精准的水下地形、岸线等资料,再加上气旋风场输入的误差等因素都会导致数值模拟结果出现一定程度的误差。但是总体而言,模型对孟加拉湾不同路径、强度气旋的水位、增水变化过程的模拟精度是有保证的。
图3c图3d显示模型计算的2005年第7号气旋与2014年哈德气旋活动期间波浪后报点的有效波高的变化过程与OWI的数据符合良好,但是与ERA5的后报结果符合相对较差。本文采用的时间是UTC,水位均是相对于平均海面而言。
赫普帕拉验潮站(平均潮差约1.89 m)位于布里斯瓦尔河口西南岸。首先针对该验潮站1987年1月至2000年12月的潮位观测数据,利用MIKE21软件的潮汐调和分析模块和潮汐预报模块得到该验潮站的总增水序列。经统计,该验潮站的总增水极值的发生时刻集中在高潮位前的3 h和4 h,二者分别占30.5%、28.7%;发生在涨潮阶段的合计占81.4%,在落潮阶段的合计占15.0%,而发生在高潮位时刻的占3.6%(图4a)。
与此同时,吉大港站位于孟加拉湾的东北部,距离布里斯瓦尔河口约185 km,平均潮差约3.75 m。根据该验潮站2007−2018年的水位观测资料所做的统计结果显示,总增水极值的时相分布特征与赫普帕拉站类似。主要集中在涨潮阶段,以高潮位前的3 h和4 h居多,发生于涨潮阶段的占68.4%,发生于落潮阶段的占29.4%,而发生在高潮位的占2.2%。
Antony 和 Unnikrishnan[30]对位于赫普帕拉站西南侧约43 km处的希隆点(Hiron Point,平均潮差1.73 m)验潮站观测资料的统计分析表明,增水极值发生的时刻同样集中在涨潮阶段,合计占68.5%左右,以高潮位前的4 h的次数最多,没有发生在高潮位的案例。上述3座验潮站的观测资料统计分析结果显示,在孟加拉湾湾顶海岸从西到东增水极值出现的时刻均以涨潮阶段为主,并且集中在高潮位前的3 h和4 h。
将风、径流、潮汐、波浪耦合计算得到的水位称为全水位(${\zeta _{{\rm{all}}}}$),将仅有天文潮与径流驱动计算得到的水位称为天文潮水位(${\zeta _{\rm{T}}}$),将没有天文潮驱动,在平均海面条件下仅有气旋风场驱动(无浪)和河道径流注入计算得到的水位称为纯风暴增水(${\zeta _{\rm{S}}}$)。因而,模拟的总增水可以通过${\zeta _{\rm{R}}} = {\zeta _{{\rm{all}}}} - {\zeta _{\rm{T}}}$得到,风暴增水与天文潮之间的相互作用可以通过${\zeta _{{\rm{TS}}}} = {\zeta _{{\rm{all}}}} - {\zeta _{\rm{T}}} - {\zeta _{\rm{S}}}$得到。本文针对图2中的每个热带气旋均开展了上述3种情景的模拟计算,同时,为了对比,还模拟计算了每个热带气旋没有耦合波浪场仅有径流、风、潮汐作用下的水位过程。
数值模拟的布里斯瓦尔河口特征点位(21.964°N,90.062°E,见图1中五角星所示)1991−2020年期间28次热带气旋的总增水极值相对于临近天文潮高潮位的时刻发生频率见图4b。从图中可见,总增水极值的发生时刻主要集中于高潮位前的3 h和4 h,二者分别占39.3%、25.0%;发生于高潮位前1 h和2 h的比例也相对较大,合计占21.4%;发生于涨潮阶段的热带气旋占89.3%;总增水极值发生于落潮阶段的共计10.7%;发生于涨潮阶段的增水极值较大,出现在落潮阶段的增水极值相对较小。从图4可以看出,布里斯瓦尔河口的总增水极值的分布特征与赫普帕拉验潮站的分布特征总体一致。
模拟结果还显示,布里斯瓦尔河口总增水超过1.0 m的热带气旋分别发生在2020年(1.51 m)、2016年(1.86 m)、2013年(1.32 m)、2009年(2.28 m)、2007年(3.02 m)、2003年(1.30 m)、1996年(1.49 m)。这些总增水极值均出现在涨潮阶段;同时,相对于天文潮,风暴潮的相位均超前了0.5~2 h,以1 h居多。尤其是2007年11月的锡德热带气旋,是近30年正面登陆孟加拉湾顶部位势力最强的气旋,登陆时中心最低气压为942 hPa,最大风速达61.9 m/s(图5)。在其登陆过程中,不仅产生的增水幅度是最大的,风暴潮的相位超前天文潮2 h;而且在河口水域产生了1 m左右的大浪。波浪辐射应力的作用所产生的增水幅度达到了0.22 m,其余的热带气旋的波浪场所引起的增水幅度大多在0.02 m左右,可以忽略不计。与没有耦合波浪场的风暴潮水位过程相比,锡德热带气旋登陆过程中较强的波浪辐射应力在水流动量方程中进一步促使最高水位提前了1 h,但是相邻的最低水位的相位二者之间并无差异。登陆时适逢天文中潮,风、浪、流作用下的河口区域风暴潮总水位达到了3.49 m(图5),为该年度极值高水位。
对于以1 h为输出单位的增水计算结果,如果相位迁移角等于零,则进一步模拟计算了该气旋以0.5 h为输出单位的活动过程。结果显示,对于出现在涨潮阶段的总增水极值小于1 m的,除了2000年第4号热带气旋(0.53 m)产生相位超前0.5 h之外,其余的均没有相位超前发生。与此相对应,总增水极值出现在落潮阶段的总共有3次,分别是2008年(0.4 m)、1997年(0.12 m)、1992年(0.57 m),幅度均较小。这3次热带气旋过程风暴潮均相对于天文潮相位滞后0.5 h。
由于计算量巨大,本文没有进一步计算更小输出单位的相位迁移情况,不排除会出现20 min、15 min、10 min、5 min甚至更小时间单位的相位迁移,但是时间单位越小就越容易与数值模拟的误差相混淆。尽管如此,现有的计算结果表明,如果总增水极值相对较大,例如涨潮阶段超过0.5 m,落潮阶段超过0.1 m,就会发生相位超前或者滞后;总增水极值的幅度越大,相位迁移的量值也相对越大。
高焕臣[4]指出由气象扰动产生的对天文潮的相位改变量不为零是产生增水的必要条件。而Horsburgh与Wilson[5]解析分析表明,增水作用导致天文潮的相位改变与天文潮水位变化对增水过程的调制作用共同促使增水极值倾向分布于涨潮阶段,但是相位迁移角不为零并不是产生这种分布特征的必要条件。本文的数值模拟结果也表明对于增水极值相对较小的气旋,相位迁移角为0。此外,Horsburgh与Wilson[5]还指出,增水极值出现在高潮位时刻是一种特殊的情形,不仅相位迁移角要等于0,而且需要由远端风场产生的增水波恰好在高潮位后的3 h抵达本地。可能由于缺乏这种特殊情形,本次数值模拟的结果并没有增水极值出现在高潮位的案例。
数值模拟的布里斯瓦尔河口特征点位的增水从发生、增长到消亡的过程随着热带气旋的强度、路径、登陆时的潮相等要素的不同而呈现出多样性的特征。但是总体而言,呈现出两大类型,一类是孤立波的过程,即在气旋行进的较长时段内增水的振幅都较小,伴随着热带气旋的登陆过程,增水幅度迅速增大,随着气旋登陆结束,增水的幅度也迅速下降甚至转为减水过程(图6c)。第二类增水过程则呈现出周期性的振动,持续的时间较长,随着气旋登陆过程的临近更多地受到纯风暴增水的影响而水位逐渐抬升(图6d)。当然,严格呈现这两种类型的增水过程比较少,大部分都是呈现出准孤立波或者准周期性的特点(图7),也有的呈现出非规则的特征。孤立波式增水有的仅在涨潮阶段便完成,例如2016年罗阿努(Roanu)热带气旋(图6c),而有的则持续一个涨、落潮过程,例如2008年拉什米(Rashmi)热带气旋(图7c)。罗阿努的孤立波增水表现为单峰型,拉什米气旋的孤立波增水表现为双峰型,而具有周期性振动特征的增水则符合已有文献中的多峰型波动特征[9, 11]
需要说明的是,图6d显示在平均海面条件下菲林气旋行进过程中的纯风暴增水出现大致以3 h为周期的微幅高频振动,而如果是在平均高水位和平均低水位条件下模拟的纯风暴增水这一高频振动则消失。根据已有的研究成果[31-32]判断,这个3 h周期的波动不是数值“伪震荡”,可能是在平均海面这一特定水深条件由海岸线与三角洲河网结构所形成的河口陷波(trapped wave)或者河口共振现象。另外,2013年菲林气旋在孟加拉湾西部海岸登陆,登陆时中心距离布里斯瓦尔河口超过500 km,但是该气旋达到了超强气旋风暴(强台风)的级别,最大风速达62.2 m/s,中心最低气压为940 hPa,来自IBTrACs的数据显示34 kn风圈的直径达400 km左右。IMD数值模拟预报[33]的孟加拉国海岸的最大增水在1.0~1.5 m,而本文计算的布里斯瓦尔河口的增水极值为1.38 m,与IMD的预报值一致,进一步说明了本文数值模拟结果的可靠性。
本文提取了每个热带气旋的增−潮相互作用${\zeta _{{\rm{TS}}}}$,其变化特征呈现出两大类型。一类是增−潮相互作用曲线的波峰出现在涨潮阶段而波谷位于落潮阶段,对于孤立波和周期性增水过程均如此(图8)。这类“涨峰−落谷”型增−潮相互作用具有半日潮的振动周期,其振幅并不是随着纯风暴增水增大,而是与天文潮的潮差相关。天文潮的潮差越大,增−潮相互作用的振幅就越大。另一类增−潮相互作用曲线的波峰出现在落潮阶段,而波谷出现在涨潮阶段(图9)。这类“落峰−涨谷”型增−潮相互作用的振幅通常较小,与第一类型的增−潮相互作用曲线的相位滞后约180°,相当于半日潮周期的6 h左右。伴随这类增−潮相互作用的总增水极值均出现在落潮阶段。这两种类型的增−潮相互作用曲线的相位与相应天文潮的相位大致相差90°。
“涨峰−落谷”型增−潮相互作用一般伴随着增水极值出现在涨潮阶段。这类热带气旋的登陆路径以西北向和北向为主(图2)。在其行进过程中,位于气旋路径右侧的风场与涨潮流的方向大致一致,而这能够促使该区域风暴潮发生相位超前和总增水极值集中出现在涨潮阶段。相反地,总增水极值出现在落潮阶段的热带气旋较多地登陆孟加拉湾东北岸,此时布里斯瓦尔河口位于气旋路径的左侧。本文以2008年10月拉什米热带气旋和1992年11月第8号热带气旋的增水过程为例进行具体分析。
虽然2008年拉什米热带气旋登陆布里斯瓦尔河口西侧(图7a),但是由于随着气旋临近,河口当地风速持续增大;风暴增水过程不仅持续了一个涨、落潮阶段,而且随着气旋登陆,风速也在落潮阶段达到了峰值,因而总增水极值出现在落潮阶段(图7c)。这类总增水极值的大小及出现时刻完全由当地的风场变化所控制。
与其不同的是,1992年第8号热带气旋于11月19日6:00至20日6:00势力达到最强阶段,中心附近最大风速达102 kn,中心最低气压在954 hPa左右;该气旋于21日0:00左右在缅甸海岸登陆时中心附近最大风速90 kn,中心最低气压在972 hPa左右,登陆后势力迅速减弱为低压系统(图7b)。受其影响,20日6:00−10:00在布里斯瓦尔河口出现的大风过程在涨潮阶段产生了0.28 m的总增水,但是在随后的落潮阶段虽然风速下降了,但是却出现了幅度达0.57 m的总增水(图7d)。这一较大幅度的增水并不是由“落峰−涨谷”型增−潮相互作用所决定的,其幅度仅有0.1 m左右(图9)。
布里斯瓦尔河口位于1992年第8号热带气旋登陆路径的左侧,受到持续的偏东风场的控制。图10展示了11月20日6:00−21:00一个半日潮涨、落潮过程中不同时刻孟加拉湾湾顶沿岸增水波的形成与传播过程。从图中可以观察到,东侧梅格纳河口与布里斯瓦尔河口之间在这一时期的涨、落潮阶段均处于增水状态,而西侧胡格利(Hooghly)河口在20日6:00−9:00落憩阶段前后出现减水,同期的昌达巴利(Chandabali)海岸一带则持续处于增水状态并且幅度较大(位置见图10a)。随着涨潮阶段的进行,从涨中12:00到涨憩14:00,东侧和西侧两处的增水幅度不断增大。进入落潮阶段后,位于昌达巴利海岸一带的增水波开始向东传播并逐渐与梅格纳河口一带的增水波相遇;在此过程中,胡格利河口一带的减水波也逐渐消失。至落潮阶段的18:00,两列增水波在布里斯瓦尔河口一带遭遇,因而出现较大程度的增水。至落憩21:00,河口内增水波的幅度减小了43.9%左右。从图10中还可以观察到,昌达巴利海岸的南侧在涨、落潮阶段均出现了尺度和幅度都较小的增水波,这些增水波沿逆时针方向向西南方向传播,与布里斯瓦尔河口的增水过程无关。
昌达巴利海岸一带的增水波最大幅度在0.63 m左右,其变化周期是在半日潮周期基础上叠加了一系列的高频振动,周期为2~7 h,既能向风场的下游方向传播,也能向风场的上游方向传播,符合海岸陷波(trapped edge wave)的特征[31]
上述观察表明,热带气旋前进过程中在浅海水域形成的包括海岸陷波(边缘波)、开尔文波等增水长波的传播过程能够对局地的增水过程产生显著的影响。受这类长波的影响,总增水极值有较大可能出现在落潮阶段。另外,驻波型潮波[1, 34]、风吹流与涨潮流的顶托作用[35]也是总增水极值出现在落潮阶段的可能原因。与此相反,风吹流与涨潮流方向一致是促使总增水极值出现在涨潮阶段的必要条件。由于气旋最大风速、半径、移速、路径的多样性和海岸线形态及水下地形等条件的复杂性,某一岸段的增水过程的形成与变化是由当地风场所强迫的水位和远端风场驱动的增水长波的叠加所致,实际情形要复杂的多。
本文采用风、潮、波、径流耦合方式模拟了孟加拉湾1991−2020年期间对湾顶布里斯瓦尔河口水域增水影响最大的28次热带气旋过程,然后统计了总水位减去天文潮潮位后得到的总增水极值出现时刻的频率分布。结果表明总增水极值主要出现在涨潮阶段,合计占到89.3%,尤其以高潮前的3 h和4 h居多,分别占39.3%和25.0%,与临近验潮站赫普帕拉1987−2020年水位观测序列的增水分布特征一致。较大的总增水幅度均与风暴潮相位相对于天文潮相位发生超前或者滞后有关,总增水极值的幅度越大,相位超前或者滞后的量值也越大。
布里斯瓦尔河口的增水过程主要呈现“(准)孤立波”和“(准)周期性振动”两种类型。孤立波形式的增水过程有的仅在涨潮阶段便得以完成,有的则是持续一个涨、落潮过程。
风暴潮增水与天文潮的相互作用既反映了风暴潮增水对天文潮相位的迁移作用,也包含了天文潮水位变化过程对增水过程的调制作用。数值模拟结果显示,增−潮相互作用的幅度与潮差有关,其曲线呈现出“涨峰−落谷”和“落峰−涨谷”两种类型:前者的峰值出现在涨潮阶段,波谷出现在落潮阶段;而后者的变化过程则相反。二者都具有半日潮的周期,但是后者较前者的相位差在180°,即6 h左右。
风吹流与涨潮流方向一致会产生“涨峰−落谷”相互作用并促使总增水极值集中出现在涨潮阶段。在孟加拉湾湾顶一带,气旋直接登陆时的潮相以及海岸陷波(边缘波)的形成与传播对局地的增水过程影响显著,是增水极值出现在落潮阶段的重要动力机制。
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2023年第45卷第6期
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doi: 10.12284/hyxb2023067
  • 接收时间:2022-08-15
  • 首发时间:2025-12-26
  • 出版时间:2023-06-30
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  • 收稿日期:2022-08-15
  • 修回日期:2022-12-12
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孟加拉湾复杂河网区火电站取水防沙及航道维护关键技术研究(HT-18-BARISAL-HT-087)。
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    1 中国水利水电科学研究院泥沙研究所,北京 100048
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2种不同金属材料的力学参数

Family
属数
Number of
genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of
total species (%)

Genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of total
species (%)
鹅膏菌科Amanitaceae 2 11 5.26 鹅膏菌属 Amanita 10 4.78
小菇科 Mycenaceae 2 12 5.74 丝盖伞属 Inocybe 5 2.39
多孔菌科 Polyporaceae 8 14 6.70 蜡蘑属 Laccaria 5 2.39
红菇科 Russulaceae 3 23 11.00 小皮伞属 Marasmius 6 2.87
小菇属 Mycena 11 5.26
光柄菇属 Pluteus 5 2.39
红菇属 Russula 17 8.13
栓菌属 Trametes 5 2.39
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