Article(id=1200468074949374159, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, issueId=1200468070721508125, articleNumber=null, orderNo=null, doi=10.12284/hyxb2024087, pmid=null, cstr=null, oa=null, hot=null, price=null, onlineType=0, articleFormat=0, articleType=null, articleTypeStr=research-article, receivedDate=1715184000000, receivedDateStr=2024-05-09, revisedDate=1720540800000, revisedDateStr=2024-07-10, acceptedDate=null, acceptedDateStr=null, onlineDate=1764143492685, onlineDateStr=2025-11-26, pubDate=1725033600000, pubDateStr=2024-08-31, doiRegisterDate=null, doiRegisterDateStr=null, onlineIssueDate=1764143492685, onlineIssueDateStr=2025-11-26, onlineJustAcceptDate=null, onlineJustAcceptDateStr=null, onlineFirstDate=null, onlineFirstDateStr=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, createTime=1764143492685, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1764143492685, updator=13701087609, issue=Issue{id=1200468070721508125, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, year='2024', volume='46', issue='8', pageStart='1', pageEnd='142', issueExtLink='null', onlineDate='null', pubDate='null', beforeIssueId=null, nextIssueId=null, price=null, status=1, issueComplete=0, articleOrder=1, issueType=-1, specialIssue=null, createTime=1764143491678, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1764143656095, updator=13701087609, preIssue=null, nextIssue=null, ext={EN=IssueExt(id=1200468760399303166, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, issueId=1200468070721508125, language=EN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=), CN=IssueExt(id=1200468760399303167, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, issueId=1200468070721508125, language=CN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=)}, issueFiles=null}, startPage=108, endPage=120, ext={EN=ArticleExt(id=1200468075377193178, articleId=1200468074949374159, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, language=EN, title=The estimation of Antarctic sea ice thickness from multi-source satellite radar altimeters, columnId=1194652705852465724, journalTitle=Haiyang Xuebao, columnName=Article, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

Antarctic sea ice is a crucial component of the polar climate system, with profound implications for global climate. Sea ice thickness, as one of the key properties of sea ice, holds significant importance for understanding and predicting the influences of climate change by revealing its spatial and temporal distribution patterns and variation trends. However, current monitoring of Antarctic sea ice thickness is constrained by limited ground observations with restricted spatial and temporal coverage or short-term satellite observations, long-term sea ice thickness data remains elusive. To address this issue, this study utilized the continuous satellite radar altimetry data from Envisat and CryoSat-2 and constructed a consistent dataset of radar freeboard of Antarctic sea ice. Then, the penetration depth of radar signals through the snow covers over Antarctic sea ice was quantitatively estimated, and a method applicable to various sea ice-snow scenarios for estimating Antarctic sea ice thickness was developed. The estimated sea ice thickness shows an average absolute bias of approximately 0.28 m compared to in situ measurements from the Australian Antarctic Data Centre, and an average absolute bias of approximately 0.65 m compared to ICESat laser altimeter with a high correlation coefficient of 0.71. Analysis of the spatiotemporal variations of Antarctic sea ice thickness from 2002 to 2023 reveals that thick ice is predominantly concentrated in the western Weddell Sea and Bellingshuan/Amundsen Seas, while ice in other sea sectors is relatively thin. Antarctic sea ice thickness exhibited a slight decreasing trend before 2011, followed by an accelerated decline after 2011 (−0.03 m/a). The distribution and trends of Antarctic sea ice thickness exhibit distinct seasonal and regional characteristics.

, correspAuthors=Xiaoyi Shen, authorNote=null, correspAuthorsNote=null, copyrightStatement=Haiyang Xuebao, copyrightOwner=null, extLink=null, articleAbsUrl=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, pdfUrl=null, pdf=null, pdfFileSize=null, pdfExtLink=null, richHtmlUrl=null, mobilePdfUrl=null, reviewReport=null, pdfFirstPage=null, abstractGraph=null, abstractGraphContent=null, abstractVideo=null, citation=null, cebUrl=null, magXmlContent=null, mapNumber=null, authorCompany=null, fund=null, authors=null, authorsList=Xiaoyi Shen, Changqing Ke, Haili Li), CN=ArticleExt(id=1200468077885387079, articleId=1200468074949374159, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, language=CN, title=基于多源卫星雷达高度计的南极海冰厚度估算, columnId=1149698756456657529, journalTitle=海洋学报, columnName=论文, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

南极海冰是极地气候系统的重要组成部分,对全球气候有着深远影响。海冰厚度作为海冰的关键属性之一,了解其时空分布特征和变化趋势对理解和预估气候变化进程具有重要意义。然而,目前对于南极海冰厚度的监测局限在时空分布有限的实地观测和短时间序列的卫星观测阶段,长时间序列的冰厚数据仍然缺失。针对这一问题,基于时空连续的卫星雷达高度计Envisat和CryoSat-2,构建了一致性较高的雷达干舷高度数据,定量估算了高度计雷达信号在积雪中的穿透深度,发展了一种适用于南极海冰的厚度遥感估算方法。估算的冰厚与Australian Antarctic Data Centre实测数据的平均绝对偏差约为0.28 m;与ICESat激光雷达高度计冰厚的平均绝对偏差约为0.65 m,相关系数为0.71,一致性较高。2002–2023年南极海冰厚度时空变化分析结果表明,厚冰主要分布于西威德尔海和别林斯高晋海/阿蒙森海,其他海域海冰相对较薄。南极海冰厚度在2011年之前呈现轻微降低趋势,在2011年后加速降低(−0.03 m/a)。南极海冰厚度的分布和变化趋势存在明显的季节和区域特征。

, correspAuthors=沈校熠, authorNote=null, correspAuthorsNote=
*沈校熠(1993—),男,江苏省盐城市人,讲师,研究方向为极地遥感。E-mail:
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spatial distributions of averaged sea ice thickness (c) and its uncertainty (d) in different seasons during 2011–2023 (CryoSat-2 period) (the figures 1–4 are in order: spring, summer, autumn and winter), figureFileSmall=UlZX2Jaza46XzEyjs40ZLQ==, figureFileBig=yxpCsmchVlh6Ra9rLWKnIw==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1200860821459947716, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, articleId=1200468074949374159, language=CN, label=图9, caption=2002–2010年Envisat时期不同季节平均海冰厚度(a)及其不确定度(b)的空间分布,2011–2023年CryoSat-2时期不同季节平均海冰厚度(c)及其不确定度(d)的空间分布(1~4依次为春季、夏季、秋季和冬季), figureFileSmall=UlZX2Jaza46XzEyjs40ZLQ==, figureFileBig=yxpCsmchVlh6Ra9rLWKnIw==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1200860821543833798, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, articleId=1200468074949374159, language=EN, label=Fig. 10, caption=The monthly anomaly variations of Antarctic sea ice thickness estimates from 2002 to 2023, figureFileSmall=MVeWPjnj5HjlXNKNb6JWzg==, 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ArticleFig(id=1200860822063927508, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, articleId=1200468074949374159, language=EN, label=Table 1, caption=

The brief introduction of Envisat, CryoSat-2, ICESat and ICESat-2 data

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EnvisatCryoSat-2
传感器Radar Altimeter-2Synthetic Aperture Interferometric
Radar Altimeter
探测波段Ku波段Ku波段
空间分辨率足迹为2~10 km,
足迹间隔约为7 km
沿轨约0.3 km,
跨轨约1.5 km
重访周期35 d30 d
空间范围82°N~82°S88°N~88°S
ICESatICESat-2
传感器Geoscience Laser
Altimeter System
Advanced Terrain Laser
Altimeter System
空间分辨率足迹为70 m,
足迹间隔约为170 m
足迹为17 m,
足迹间隔约为0.7 m
重访周期183 d91 d
空间范围88°N~88°S88°N~88°S
), ArticleFig(id=1200860822252671193, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, articleId=1200468074949374159, language=CN, label=表1, caption=

Envisat、CryoSat-2、ICESat和ICESat-2数据的基本介绍

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
EnvisatCryoSat-2
传感器Radar Altimeter-2Synthetic Aperture Interferometric
Radar Altimeter
探测波段Ku波段Ku波段
空间分辨率足迹为2~10 km,
足迹间隔约为7 km
沿轨约0.3 km,
跨轨约1.5 km
重访周期35 d30 d
空间范围82°N~82°S88°N~88°S
ICESatICESat-2
传感器Geoscience Laser
Altimeter System
Advanced Terrain Laser
Altimeter System
空间分辨率足迹为70 m,
足迹间隔约为170 m
足迹为17 m,
足迹间隔约为0.7 m
重访周期183 d91 d
空间范围88°N~88°S88°N~88°S
), ArticleFig(id=1200860822382694621, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, articleId=1200468074949374159, language=EN, label=Table 2, caption=

The regression coefficients of the penetration depth estimation equations based on OIB airborne measurements in different years

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样本中被去除数据所在的年份斜率截距格网数
20090.76−0.05208
20100.88−0.10196
20120.75−0.09218
20130.510.0098
20140.65−0.04216
20160.68−0.05199
20171.07−0.1879
20180.520.0136
应用所有数据0.73−0.061250
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基于不同年份OIB机载测量数据的穿透深度估算公式回归系数

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
样本中被去除数据所在的年份斜率截距格网数
20090.76−0.05208
20100.88−0.10196
20120.75−0.09218
20130.510.0098
20140.65−0.04216
20160.68−0.05199
20171.07−0.1879
20180.520.0136
应用所有数据0.73−0.061250
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基于多源卫星雷达高度计的南极海冰厚度估算
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沈校熠 1, 2, * , 柯长青 2 , 李海丽 2
海洋学报 | 论文 2024,46(8): 108-120
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海洋学报 | 论文 2024, 46(8): 108-120
基于多源卫星雷达高度计的南极海冰厚度估算
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沈校熠1, 2, * , 柯长青2, 李海丽2
作者信息
  • 1.河海大学 地球科学与工程学院,江苏 南京 211100
  • 2.南京大学 地理与海洋科学学院,江苏 南京 210023

通讯作者:

*沈校熠(1993—),男,江苏省盐城市人,讲师,研究方向为极地遥感。E-mail:
The estimation of Antarctic sea ice thickness from multi-source satellite radar altimeters
Xiaoyi Shen1, 2, * , Changqing Ke2, Haili Li2
Affiliations
  • 1. School of Earth Sciences and Engineering, Hohai University, Nanjing 211100, China
  • 2. School of Geography and Ocean Science, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210023, China
出版时间: 2024-08-31 doi: 10.12284/hyxb2024087
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南极海冰是极地气候系统的重要组成部分,对全球气候有着深远影响。海冰厚度作为海冰的关键属性之一,了解其时空分布特征和变化趋势对理解和预估气候变化进程具有重要意义。然而,目前对于南极海冰厚度的监测局限在时空分布有限的实地观测和短时间序列的卫星观测阶段,长时间序列的冰厚数据仍然缺失。针对这一问题,基于时空连续的卫星雷达高度计Envisat和CryoSat-2,构建了一致性较高的雷达干舷高度数据,定量估算了高度计雷达信号在积雪中的穿透深度,发展了一种适用于南极海冰的厚度遥感估算方法。估算的冰厚与Australian Antarctic Data Centre实测数据的平均绝对偏差约为0.28 m;与ICESat激光雷达高度计冰厚的平均绝对偏差约为0.65 m,相关系数为0.71,一致性较高。2002–2023年南极海冰厚度时空变化分析结果表明,厚冰主要分布于西威德尔海和别林斯高晋海/阿蒙森海,其他海域海冰相对较薄。南极海冰厚度在2011年之前呈现轻微降低趋势,在2011年后加速降低(−0.03 m/a)。南极海冰厚度的分布和变化趋势存在明显的季节和区域特征。

海冰厚度  /  海冰干舷高度  /  穿透深度  /  雷达高度计  /  南极

Antarctic sea ice is a crucial component of the polar climate system, with profound implications for global climate. Sea ice thickness, as one of the key properties of sea ice, holds significant importance for understanding and predicting the influences of climate change by revealing its spatial and temporal distribution patterns and variation trends. However, current monitoring of Antarctic sea ice thickness is constrained by limited ground observations with restricted spatial and temporal coverage or short-term satellite observations, long-term sea ice thickness data remains elusive. To address this issue, this study utilized the continuous satellite radar altimetry data from Envisat and CryoSat-2 and constructed a consistent dataset of radar freeboard of Antarctic sea ice. Then, the penetration depth of radar signals through the snow covers over Antarctic sea ice was quantitatively estimated, and a method applicable to various sea ice-snow scenarios for estimating Antarctic sea ice thickness was developed. The estimated sea ice thickness shows an average absolute bias of approximately 0.28 m compared to in situ measurements from the Australian Antarctic Data Centre, and an average absolute bias of approximately 0.65 m compared to ICESat laser altimeter with a high correlation coefficient of 0.71. Analysis of the spatiotemporal variations of Antarctic sea ice thickness from 2002 to 2023 reveals that thick ice is predominantly concentrated in the western Weddell Sea and Bellingshuan/Amundsen Seas, while ice in other sea sectors is relatively thin. Antarctic sea ice thickness exhibited a slight decreasing trend before 2011, followed by an accelerated decline after 2011 (−0.03 m/a). The distribution and trends of Antarctic sea ice thickness exhibit distinct seasonal and regional characteristics.

sea ice thickness  /  sea ice freeboard  /  radar signal penetration depth  /  radar altimeters  /  Antarctica
沈校熠, 柯长青, 李海丽. 基于多源卫星雷达高度计的南极海冰厚度估算. 海洋学报, 2024 , 46 (8) : 108 -120 . DOI: 10.12284/hyxb2024087
Xiaoyi Shen, Changqing Ke, Haili Li. The estimation of Antarctic sea ice thickness from multi-source satellite radar altimeters[J]. Haiyang Xuebao, 2024 , 46 (8) : 108 -120 . DOI: 10.12284/hyxb2024087
海冰是极地环境的关键组成部分,对极地乃至全球气候系统都具有重要影响。随着全球气候变暖的加剧,北极海冰面积呈现持续减少的状态,而南极海冰的变化却较为复杂。卫星观测表明,1979至2017年南极海冰面积以每年1.78 × 104 km2的速度在增加,然而在2017年之后却出现了急剧下降[1]。这种与全球变暖不同步的现象引起了科学界的高度关注,目前还未得到准确的解释。针对这一科学问题,国内外相关研究大多是利用海冰范围或面积开展探索的[18]。然而,海冰范围或面积只能反映海冰的空间分布情况,在揭示海冰体量变化上具有一定的局限性,因此需要结合冰厚数据来进一步分析南极海冰的变化情况。
早期针对南极海冰厚度的观测主要是基于潜艇声呐技术和船载走航观测[912]。这些数据往往时空代表性有限,难以用于分析长时间序列的冰厚变化。尽管航空测量可以获取更大范围的观测数据,例如NASA的“冰桥计划”(Operational IceBridge mission,OIB)等,但其成本通常很高且仅能获取特定时期和区域内的数据。数值模式是评估大范围海冰变化的重要手段。Fichefet等[1314]、Zhang[15]利用海洋–海冰模型重建了数十年的南极海冰体积数据。然而,由于所使用的大气强迫场质量存疑[16],这些重建数据的可靠性并不高。Massonnet等[17]利用海冰密集度数据同化的方法重构了1980–2008年南极海冰厚度和体积数据。但是,该研究在同化模型的设置中存在部分缺点,其冰厚结果具有一定的不确定性。此外,多数CMIP5和CMIP6气候模式尚且无法模拟出南极海冰范围的实际变化趋势[1819]。因此,目前数值模式仍然难以精确模拟南极海冰的厚度变化,现有的模拟结果存在很大的不确定性[20]
卫星遥感技术的发展给获取准确且大尺度的海冰厚度提供了机遇。光学、合成孔径雷达影像均可用于海冰厚度的遥感估算中[2122],但受限于观测范围相对较小等因素,在获取全南极海冰厚度方面仍然存在一定的挑战。相较于其他遥感技术,卫星高度计是获取半球尺度海冰厚度的主要手段[23]。基于激光、雷达高度计的海冰厚度估算已经成功地应用于北极海冰,并且实现了冰厚变化的长时间序列研究。Laxon等[23]利用卫星高度计估算了北极海冰的厚度,后续学者采用了不同的卫星高度计数据或相关改进方法进行了北极海冰厚度的反演研究[2426]。对于南极海冰,Giles等[27]首次将雷达高度计应用于南极海冰表面高程的反演中,证明了其在南极冰厚反演中的潜力。Schwegmann等[28]基于Envisat和CryoSat-2雷达高度计估算了南极海冰厚度;Kwok和Kacimi[29]、陈亦卓等[30]基于CryoSat-2雷达高度计估算了南极海冰的干舷高度或厚度。此外,部分学者利用激光雷达高度计的积雪干舷高度数据,采用不同方法对积雪厚度进行估算并进一步实现对南极海冰厚度的反演[3135]
然而,由于南北极地理和气候条件的差异,常规的卫星高度计冰厚反演方法在估算南极海冰厚度方面存在一定的缺点[27]。南极海冰被南大洋包围,水分较为容易获取,海冰表面积雪通常较厚而海冰较薄。在这种情况下,微波雷达高度计信号往往不能完全穿透积雪从而未在雪–冰分界面发生主散射,所测得的高程并非是海冰表面高程而是处于雪层中的某处,需要进行相应校正以降低后续冰厚估算的误差[36]。尽管激光高度计不受该影响,但ICESat和ICESat-2的观测时长较短,尤其是两者间存在较长的观测空白。另外,较厚的积雪会将海冰表面压至海平面以下,海水浸泡部分积雪形成雪–水混合层,也会影响海冰厚度的估算精度。受限于上述原因,基于雷达高度计的南极海冰厚度长时间序列数据仍然有限[303739],限制了对气候变暖背景下南极海冰厚度变化的科学探讨。
针对上述问题,结合卫星、航空、船载和地面观测数据,基于多源卫星雷达高度计开展了南极海冰厚度的遥感估算方法研究,并基于此进一步揭示了南极海冰厚度变化的时空特征,为分析气候变化下的南极海冰厚度变化以及探索变化的影响因素提供方法和数据基础。
为了生成长时间序列的南极海冰厚度数据,联合Envisat和CryoSat-2两种卫星雷达高度计进行冰厚估算,两种雷达高度计的基本参数如表1所示。相较于Envisat,CryoSat-2采用了合成孔径雷达多视技术,脉冲信号具有更高的信噪比和空间分辨率。分别采用欧洲空间局发布的Envisat RA-2 Sensor Geographical Data Record(SGDR)产品(2002年6月至2012年4月)和CryoSat-2 SAR-Mode L1B产品(2011年1月1日至2023年5月31日)。
采用测高精度更高的ICESat和ICESat-2激光雷达高度计数据对雷达高度计反演的海冰干舷高度进行交叉验证,两种激光雷达高度计的基本参数如表1所示。由于仪器硬件故障,NASA对ICESat的观测计划进行了调整,每年只进行了约6个月的观测。采用NASA Goddard Earth Science Laboratories发布的2003–2008年ICESat积雪干舷高度数据,该数据空间分辨率为50 km。精度验证结果表明,该数据与实测积雪干舷高度偏差约为1.8 cm[40]。采用美国雪冰中心发布的2018–2019年ICESat-2 ATL10数据,ICESat-2与机载积雪干舷高度具有很高的一致性,平均偏差小于5 cm,相关系数大于0.95[4142]
积雪深度(包括不确定度)数据来源于近期发布的南极海冰表面积雪深度产品[43]。该产品基于AMSR-E和AMSR-2的微波辐射计数据,提供了2002年以来逐日的南极海冰表面积雪深度产品,空间分辨率为25 km。该方法反演的积雪深度与实测数据的平均偏差为5.64 cm,明显优于之前的方法(文献[44],平均偏差为14.47 cm)。
采用NASA发布的OIB机载测量数据进行海冰厚度估算方法的构建和精度验证。自2009年开始每年10–11月NASA会进行南极海冰参数的观测工作,主要利用机载地形制图仪(Airborne Topographic Mapper,ATM)获取海冰高程数据。ATM为波长532 nm的激光雷达高度计,足印大小通常为1 m[45],测高精度约为0.1 m[46]。首先基于ATM高程数据估算出积雪干舷高度[4748],之后基于文献[10]提出的方法估算积雪深度。该方法针对南极不同海域分别进行雪深估算,并且已经广泛地应用于南极海冰厚度的研究中[3234]。数据时间为2009–2010年、2012–2014年、2016–2018年10–11月,数据的空间分布如图1所示。
采用Antarctic Sea Ice Processes and Climate(ASPeCt)船载走航观测数据对估算的海冰厚度进行精度验证,该数据集一共包含了1981–2005年81次船载观测记录。海冰厚度通过逐小时在船只半径1 km范围内进行走航观测得到,并且通过删除与上次观测间隔6海里的观测值来去除变化的船舶速度等因素给数据采集带来的偏差[11],同时也保证了每次观测的独立性。采用2002–2005年(2、5–7月无数据)的观测数据并利用文献[11]的方法进行了质量控制,数据的空间分布如图1所示。由于雷达高度计包含了对平整冰和非平整冰的观测,因此采用ASPeCt船载数据中的“平均厚度”进行对比。海冰的“平均厚度”是利用观测到的平整冰的厚度、冰脊的高度和冰脊所占比例进行估算的[11]。由于船只航行通常避免驶入厚冰区,ASPeCt观测的海冰厚度通常较薄。该数据对平整冰厚度的估算偏差可达20%(大于0.3 m),对于非平整冰的偏差可达30%[11]。尽管存在一定的偏差,但其数据分布的空间范围较大,是南极为数不多的实测数据。
采用Australian Antarctic Data Centre(AADC)发布的南极海冰厚度实地测量数据进行估算冰厚的精度验证。该数据集收集了1985–2007年间各个国家在南极科学考察中获取的南极海冰厚度实地测量数据,采用数据的时间为2003(9、10月)和2007年(9、10月),主要分布在东南极和西南极(图1)。数据内容包括了海冰干舷高度和海冰厚度等信息。不同于ASPeCt船载观测数据,ADDC实地测量数据对厚冰也进行了测量,同时包含了薄冰和厚冰的实测结果。
采用浮体法估算南极海冰厚度,主要估算流程与北极海冰类似,包括质量控制、地物分类、重跟踪校正和地理校正、雷达干舷高度计算和海冰厚度估算[36]。为了保证雷达信号的可靠性,仅针对海冰密集度≥75%的区域进行冰厚反演。海冰厚度观测值最终进行50 km的格网化,该大小可以维持格网内具有足够多的质量可靠的雷达高度计测量点,以保证海冰厚度估算结果的可靠性[36]。特别的是,由于南极海冰的特性和长时间序列数据生产的要求,不同雷达高度计之间观测的一致性、雷达信号在积雪中的穿透深度和存在雪–水混合层情况下的冰厚估算都需要给出针对性的解决方案,以生成一致性高、可靠的南极海冰厚度数据集。
在重跟踪校正阶段进行两种高度计观测值的一致性校正。对于CryoSat-2采用50%阈值法进行重跟踪校正;对于Envisat采用文献[36]提出的动态阈值法。该方法考虑到Envisat的波形采样较为稀疏,为了保证重跟踪的准确性,以同时期的CryoSat-2高程为参照分析了与其高程差最小所采用的阈值与波形参数之间的关系,构建了基于波形参数的最优阈值计算公式,实现了高精度的波形重跟踪并且兼顾了与CryoSat-2观测结果的一致性。结果表明,两种高度计的雷达干舷高度平均差值不超过3 cm,相关性不低于0.85(图2),一致性很高。
由于南极海冰表面积雪较厚,高度计雷达信号并不能完全穿透积雪[27],并且雷达信号在积雪中的传播速度会发生变化[49],因此要同时对获取的雷达干舷高度进行穿透深度和传播速度的校正以获取高精度的海冰干舷高度:
$ h_f=h_r-(h_s-h_t)+h_t\times h_c, $
其中,
$ h_c=1-\displaystyle\frac{c_{{\mathrm{snow}}}}{c}, $
$ c_{{\mathrm{snow}}}=\frac{c}{\sqrt{1+1.7\rho_s+0.7\rho_s^2}}, $
式中,hf为海冰干舷高度,hr为雷达干舷高度,hs为积雪深度。ht为雷达高度计信号在积雪中的穿透深度,hc为速度校正因子,csnow为雷达信号在积雪中的传播速度,c为雷达信号在真空中的传播速度,ρs为积雪密度(取值300 g/cm3)。
过去的研究并未对雷达高度计信号在南极海冰表面积雪中的穿透情况进行探究,因此相应的穿透情况仍然未知。雷达信号在积雪中的穿透深度可以通过积雪深度进行估算[50]。为了探究穿透深度与积雪深度之间的定量关系,采用2009–2018年共计8 a(2011年和2015年无数据)的OIB机载测量数据(包括积雪深度和积雪干舷高度)和同期的Envisat、CryoSat-2数据进行数值分析。将同一月份内的OIB机载测量数据与雷达高度计数据进行空间匹配,对每个雷达高度计雷达干舷高度格网(50 km × 50 km)内的所有OIB机载测量数据(包括积雪干舷高度和积雪深度)进行平均,完成与雷达高度计数据的空间匹配后计算其穿透深度(共计1250个格网)。结果表明,积雪深度与穿透系数之间存在较好的线性关系(图3),相关系数为0.85(通过置信度为99%的双侧显著性检验),可以用于估算穿透深度:
$ h_t=-0.06+0.73 h_s, $
式中,ht为穿透深度,hs为积雪深度,单位为m。完成穿透深度校正后,通过公式(1)~(3)即可估算出海冰干舷高度。
通常而言,表面覆盖积雪的海冰在海水中处于静力平衡状态,结合浮体法存在以下关系[23]图4a):
$ {h_i} = \frac{{{\rho _w}}}{{{\rho _w} - {\rho _i}}} \cdot {h_f} + \frac{{{\rho _s}}}{{{\rho _w} - {\rho _i}}} \cdot {h_s} ,$
式中,hi为海冰厚度,ρwρsρi依次为海水密度、积雪密度和海冰密度,分别取固定值1023.9 kg/m³,300.0 kg/m³和915.1 kg/m³[36]。然而,在部分月份(7–10月份)南极海冰表面的积雪较厚,会出现积雪将海冰表面压至海表面以下的情形(图4b)。此时海表面以下的积雪与海水混合形成雪–水混合层,该层属性与积雪和海冰不同,且海冰干舷高度为负,因此公式(5)已不能适用于此时的情况。这里,考虑积雪、雪–水混合层和海冰三者呈现静力平衡状态,此时的海冰厚度估算公式可表示为[10]
$ h_i=\frac{(\rho_{{\mathrm{slh}}}-\rho_i-\rho_s)}{\rho_w-\rho_i}\cdot h_{{\mathrm{slh}}}+\frac{\rho_s}{\rho_w-\rho_i}\cdot h_s, $
其中,
$ h_{{\mathrm{slh}}}=-\text{ }h_f, $
式中,hslh为雪–水混合层的厚度,ρslh为雪–水混合层的密度(940 kg/m3[10])。
基于高斯误差传播方法计算海冰厚度的不确定度,分别考虑高程、密度参数和格网化等过程的影响。对于Envisat雷达高度计,所测地物高程和海表面高程异常的不确定度为0.15 m($ \sigma _{{\mathrm{ELE}}}^{} $$ \sigma _{{\mathrm{SSA}}}^{} $);对于CryoSat-2雷达高度计,所测地物高程和海表面高程异常的不确定度为0.10 m[36]。积雪密度和海冰密度的不确定度($ \sigma _{{\rho _s}}^{} $$ \sigma _{{\rho _i}}^{} $)为20 kg/m3,雪–水混合层密度的不确定度($ \sigma _{{\rho _{{\mathrm{slh}}}}}^{} $)为20 kg/m。海水密度的不确定度不作考虑。针对式(5)和式(6),对于每个雷达高度计测量点,分别有如下海冰厚度不确定度的计算公式:
$ \sigma_{{\mathrm{SIT}}}\text{ = }\sqrt{G_{1,1}^2\sigma_{h_f}^2+G_{2,1}^2\sigma_{\rho_i}^2+G_{3,1}^2\sigma_{h_s}^2+G_{4,1}^2\sigma_{\rho_s}^2}, $
$ \sigma_{{\mathrm{SIT}}}\text{ = }\sqrt{G_{1,2}^2\sigma_{h_f}^2+G_{2,2}^2\sigma_{\rho_i}^2+G_{3,2}^2\sigma_{h_s}^2+G_{4,2}^2\sigma_{\rho_s}^2+G_{5,2}^2\sigma_{\rho_{{\mathrm{slh}}}}^2}, $
其中,对于公式(8)有:
$ {G}_{1\text{,}1}^{}\text=\frac{\partial {\mathrm{SIT}}}{\partial {h}_{f}^{}}=\frac{{\rho }_{w}}{{\rho }_{w}-{\rho }_{i}}, $
$ {G}_{2\text{,}1}^{}\text=\frac{\partial {\mathrm{SIT}}}{\partial {\rho }_{i}}=\frac{{h}_{f}\cdot {\rho }_{w}+{h}_{s}\cdot {\rho }_{s}}{{({\rho }_{w}-{\rho }_{i})}^{2}}, $
$ {G}_{3\text{,}1}^{}\text=\frac{\partial {\mathrm{SIT}}}{\partial {h}_{s}}=\frac{{\rho }_{s}}{{\rho }_{w}-{\rho }_{i}} ,$
$ {G}_{4\text{,}1}^{}\text=\frac{\partial {\mathrm{SIT}}}{\partial {\rho }_{s}}=\frac{{h}_{s}}{{\rho }_{w}-{\rho }_{i}} ,$
对于公式(9)有:
$ {G}_{1\text{,}2}^{}\text=\frac{\partial {\mathrm{SIT}}}{\partial {h}_{f}^{}}=\frac{{\rho }_{i}+{\rho }_{s}-{\rho }_{\mathrm{slh}}}{{\rho }_{w}-{\rho }_{i}}, $
$ {G}_{2\text{,}2}^{}\text=\frac{\partial {\mathrm{SIT}}}{\partial {\rho }_{i}}=\frac{{h}_{f}\cdot ({\rho }_{w}+{\rho }_{s}-{\rho }_{\mathrm{slh}})+{\rho }_{s}\cdot {h}_{s}}{{({\rho }_{w}-{\rho }_{i})}^{2}} ,$
$ {G}_{3\text{,}2}^{}\text=\frac{\partial {\mathrm{SIT}}}{\partial {h}_{s}}=\frac{{\rho }_{s}}{{\rho }_{w}-{\rho }_{i}}, $
$ {G}_{4\text{,}2}^{}\text=\frac{\partial {\mathrm{SIT}}}{\partial {\rho }_{s}}=\frac{{h}_{f}\text+{h}_{s}}{{\rho }_{w}-{\rho }_{i}} ,$
$ {G}_{5\text{,}2}^{}\text=\frac{\partial {\mathrm{SIT}}}{\partial {\rho }_{\mathrm{slh}}}=\frac{-{h}_{f}}{{\rho }_{w}-{\rho }_{i}} ,$
对于公式(10)~(18)有:
$ {h_f}{\text{ = }}{h_r} - {h_s} + (1 + {h_c}) \cdot {h_t}, $
$ {\sigma _{{h_f}}}{\text{ = }}\sqrt {\sigma _{{h_r}}^2 + \sigma _{{h_s}}^2 + {{(1 + {h_c})}^2}\sigma _{{h_t}}^2} ,$
$ {\sigma _{{h_f}}}{\text{ = }}\sqrt {\sigma _{{\mathrm{ELE}}}^2 + \sigma _{{\mathrm{SSA}}}^2} ,$
$ {\sigma _{{h_t}}}{\text{ = }}\sqrt {\sigma _{{\text{intersect}}}^2 + \sigma _{{\text{slope}}}^2 \cdot {h_s}^2 + {\text{slope}} \cdot \sigma _{{h_s}}^2}, $
这里,slope = 0.73,$ \sigma _{{\text{slope}}}^{} $ = 0.01,$ \sigma _{{\text{intersect}}}^{} $ = 0.01。公式斜率和截距的不确定度为其线性拟合结果的标准差。
对于格网化后的海冰厚度,其不确定度的计算公式为[49]
$ \overline {{\sigma _{{\mathrm{SIT}}}}} {\text{ = }}\sqrt {\frac{1}{{\displaystyle\sum\nolimits_{{\text{ }}i = 1}^{{\text{ }}N} {{\text{ }}\frac{1}{{\sigma _{{\mathrm{SIT}}}^2}}} }}} ,$
式中,$ \overline {{\sigma _{SIT}}} $是格网化后海冰厚度的不确定度,$ \sigma _{SIT}^{} $是每个雷达高度计测量点处的海冰厚度不确定度,N是每个海冰厚度格网内所包含的雷达高度计测量点数目。
(1)穿透深度估算方法的自验证
为了证明提出的穿透深度估算公式的稳健性,利用不同年份组合的OIB积雪厚度数据分别进行回归分析,探讨公式回归系数的变化情况。同时,为了保证分析结果的可靠性,仅针对格网数超过80的结果进行分析。对于2009–2018年(2011年、2015年无数据)每7 a的OIB积雪深度数据的组合,共得到了8个回归系数(表2),估算公式系数的不确定度可通过多个回归系数的标准差进行评估。不同年份穿透深度估算公式的斜率变化介于0.51~0.88之间,基于所有数据获取的斜率为0.73,斜率的不确定度为0.12,引起的穿透深度偏差小于4 cm。截距变化介于−0.10和0之间,基于所有数据获取的截距为0.06,截距的不确定度为0.04。斜率和截距的不确定度较小,没有明显的年际差异,因此该估算公式具有一定的稳健性。
采用2016年OIB机载测量数据作为验证数据进行精度自验证,利用基于其余年份的OIB机载测量数据所获取的穿透深度估算公式(公式系数见表2)进行2016年海冰干舷高度的估算。选择2016年数据的原因一方面是具有一定的随机性,另一方面也是考虑其数据量较大。结果表明,经过穿透深度校正的海冰干舷高度的精度得到较大提升,平均绝对差值由原先的14 cm降低到8 cm。不进行穿透深度校正会导致十几厘米的偏差,严重影响海冰厚度估算的准确性。
(2)与AADC实测数据的对比
将雷达高度计和AADC实测的海冰干舷高度数据进行时空匹配,即对同一月份内每个雷达高度计海冰干舷高度格网内所有的AADC海冰干舷高度进行平均,然后进行比较。结果表明,经过穿透深度校正的海冰干舷高度平均绝对误差为0.06 m,小于未进行校正的0.10 m。尽管可用于验证的数据较少,但分布较为随机,保证了评价结果的客观性。
(3)与激光雷达高度计数据的对比
将海冰干舷高度和积雪厚度相加获取积雪干舷高度,并与ICESat和ICESat-2激光雷达高度计获取的结果进行对比,间接地评估干舷高度的反演精度。根据ICESat的运行时段选择相应时段内的Envisat雷达高度计数据进行干舷高度的时空匹配和比较。图5显示了在ICESat运行的13个时段内,两种积雪干舷高度数据之间的差异。相较于未进行穿透深度校正的积雪干舷高度,进行穿透深度校正的积雪干舷高度与ICESat积雪干舷高度差异明显减小,平均差值由24 cm减小到5 cm。图6显示了在2019年基于CryoSat-2雷达高度计估算的积雪干舷高度与ICESat-2积雪干舷高度的差异。进行穿透深度校正的积雪干舷高度与ICESat-2积雪干舷高度平均差值约为6 cm,大多数月份的差值小于7 cm且不超过12 cm。未经过穿透深度校正的积雪干舷高度与ICESat-2积雪干舷高度的平均差值约为25 cm,最大差值达34 cm,精度明显低于经穿透深度校正的结果。
(1)与船载和实测数据的对比
以ASPeCt船载观测数据和AADC实地测量数据为参考数据,经时空匹配后对估算的海冰厚度进行精度验证。与ASPeCt船载观测数据的比较结果表明,估算的海冰厚度平均绝对差值约为0.56 m,该误差已经与北极海冰厚度的估算误差相当[51]。此外,由于ASPeCt海冰厚度存在20%~30%的估算误差[11],因此实际的海冰厚度偏差可能更低。相较于ASPeCt船载观测数据,AADC实地测量数据具有更高的精度。与AADC实地测量数据的对比结果表明,估算的海冰厚度精度较高,平均绝对差值约为0.28 m。
(2)与前人研究的对比
相较于雷达高度计,激光雷达高度计不受信号穿透的影响,估算的海冰厚度准确性通常更高,是目前估算南极海冰厚度的主要卫星数据来源。为了进一步说明本文海冰厚度估算的可靠性,将其与国际上两种基于ICESat估算的海冰厚度(文献[34]和[52])进行比较(图7图8)。估算的海冰厚度与两种ICESat海冰厚度具有相似的时序变化特征,海冰厚度的变化范围也与两者相当,具有很高的一致性。与文献[34]的结果相比,估算的海冰厚度与其平均差值约为0.02 m,与文献[52]的平均差值约为0.26 m。总体而言,与ICESat冰厚的平均绝对偏差约为0.65m,相关系数为0.71。在不同季节,海冰厚度差异具有不同的表现。在冬、春季,估算的海冰厚度与ICESat海冰厚度的差异较小;在夏季海冰厚度差异较大,这可能是因为夏季海冰表面融化影响了雷达高度计信号的稳定性。
综合上述验证结果可以发现,无论是相较于船载和地面实测数据,还是激光雷达高度计数据,本文方法在海冰干舷高度和厚度的反演精度上均优于原先方法。这些均表明本文所提出的厚度反演方法适用于南极海冰,可以有效地估计雷达高度计信号在南极海冰表面积雪中的穿透深度,从而进一步准确地反演海冰干舷高度和厚度。然而,需要指出的是,用于获取穿透深度估算公式的机载OIB数据主要分布在西南极地区,并且集中在10–11月份,可能无法完全代表其他地区或者月份的情况。用于验证的实测数据和激光雷达高度计数据具有更为广泛的空间和时间分布,较好的验证结果也表明该方法在南极其他地区和月份依然可用。尽管如此,该方法更加适用于春季西南极海冰。未来在获取更多其他地区和月份的观测数据后可以进一步更新该方法。
基于发展的南极冰厚遥感估算方法,生成了2002–2023年南极海冰厚度逐月数据。图9展示了在Envisat时期和CryoSat-2时期各季节平均海冰厚度及其不确定度的空间分布。在两个卫星时期,海冰厚度分布具有明显的空间特征,厚冰主要分布在西威德尔海和别林斯高晋海/阿蒙森海,也是有较多多年冰分布的海域。其他海域以一年冰为主,海冰厚度也相对较薄。南极海冰厚度空间分布特征在不同季节大体类似,但薄冰的面积存在较大变化。在两个卫星时期,海冰厚度不确定度的空间分布特征类似,都是夏季冰、厚冰的不确定度较大,此外CryoSat-2的冰厚不确定度相对较小。
图10显示了南极和各子海域海冰厚度的月异常变化。月异常数据减少了因季节差异带来的影响,可以较好地揭示海冰厚度的时序变化情况。2002–2023年南极海冰厚度总体上呈现轻微的降低趋势。其中,2002–2010年海冰厚度没有明显的变化特征,但是2011年之后海冰厚度呈现明显的加速降低趋势(0.03 m/a),降低速度是2002–2010年降低速度的6倍左右。此外,海冰厚度的变化特征存在较大的区域差异。
图11显示了2002–2023年各季节海冰厚度的空间变化趋势。在春、夏季,威德尔海和别林斯高晋海/阿蒙森海海冰厚度呈现增长趋势,在其他海域变化趋势不明显。在秋、冬季,西威德尔海和罗斯海海冰厚度的变化趋势呈现相反的分布特征,西威德尔海海冰厚度增长而罗斯海海冰厚度降低。特别的是,在冬、春两季,海冰厚度的增长区域主要分布在冰架周边,例如靠近南极半岛冰架、西南极冰架、印度洋海域冰架和太平洋海域冰架的区域。这些冰架受到全球变暖的影响正处于融化和崩解的状态[5354],因此冰架融水可能对海冰变化存在一定的影响。
针对南极海冰厚度卫星雷达高度计估算中存在的难点,校正了多源雷达高度计海冰干舷高度的一致性,定量估算了雷达信号在积雪中的穿透深度,给出了不同情形下的海冰厚度估算方法。结果表明,月际尺度上两种高度计反演的雷达干舷高度差异不超过3 cm,一致性很高。经过穿透深度校正的海冰干舷高度相较于未校正的结果精度提升了近1倍,平均绝对误差由0.10 m降低到0.06 m。估算的海冰厚度与实测数据的平均绝对偏差约为0.28 m,精度较高。估算了2002–2023年南极海冰厚度并分析了时空变化特征。厚冰通常分布在西威德尔海区域,其他区域海冰相对较薄。南极海冰厚度总体呈现轻微降低的趋势,变化趋势在2011年之前并不明显,但是自2011年之后开始加速降低。海冰厚度的增长主要在西威德尔海,降低主要在罗斯海,该现象在冬、春两季更为明显。南极海冰厚度的分布和变化存在空间上的差异性,后续开展南极海冰厚度变化机制分析时需着重考虑海域间的差异。
  • 国家自然科学基金(42206174)
  • 江苏省自然科学基金(BK20210193)
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2024年第46卷第8期
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doi: 10.12284/hyxb2024087
  • 接收时间:2024-05-09
  • 首发时间:2025-11-26
  • 出版时间:2024-08-31
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  • 收稿日期:2024-05-09
  • 修回日期:2024-07-10
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国家自然科学基金(42206174)
江苏省自然科学基金(BK20210193)
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    1.河海大学 地球科学与工程学院,江苏 南京 211100
    2.南京大学 地理与海洋科学学院,江苏 南京 210023

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*沈校熠(1993—),男,江苏省盐城市人,讲师,研究方向为极地遥感。E-mail:
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2种不同金属材料的力学参数

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鹅膏菌科Amanitaceae 2 11 5.26 鹅膏菌属 Amanita 10 4.78
小菇科 Mycenaceae 2 12 5.74 丝盖伞属 Inocybe 5 2.39
多孔菌科 Polyporaceae 8 14 6.70 蜡蘑属 Laccaria 5 2.39
红菇科 Russulaceae 3 23 11.00 小皮伞属 Marasmius 6 2.87
小菇属 Mycena 11 5.26
光柄菇属 Pluteus 5 2.39
红菇属 Russula 17 8.13
栓菌属 Trametes 5 2.39
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