Article(id=1200450370112705016, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, issueId=1200450365842903349, articleNumber=null, orderNo=null, doi=10.12284/hyxb2024065, pmid=null, cstr=null, oa=null, hot=null, price=null, onlineType=0, articleFormat=0, articleType=null, articleTypeStr=research-article, receivedDate=1707148800000, receivedDateStr=2024-02-06, revisedDate=1715875200000, revisedDateStr=2024-05-17, acceptedDate=null, acceptedDateStr=null, onlineDate=1764139271524, onlineDateStr=2025-11-26, pubDate=1719676800000, pubDateStr=2024-06-30, doiRegisterDate=null, doiRegisterDateStr=null, onlineIssueDate=1764139271524, onlineIssueDateStr=2025-11-26, onlineJustAcceptDate=null, onlineJustAcceptDateStr=null, onlineFirstDate=null, onlineFirstDateStr=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, createTime=1764139271524, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1764139271524, updator=13701087609, issue=Issue{id=1200450365842903349, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, year='2024', volume='46', issue='6', pageStart='1', pageEnd='140', issueExtLink='null', onlineDate='null', pubDate='null', beforeIssueId=null, nextIssueId=null, price=null, status=1, issueComplete=0, articleOrder=1, issueType=-1, specialIssue=null, createTime=1764139270505, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1764139468823, updator=13701087609, preIssue=null, nextIssue=null, ext={EN=IssueExt(id=1200451197711806771, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, issueId=1200450365842903349, language=EN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=), CN=IssueExt(id=1200451197711806772, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, issueId=1200450365842903349, language=CN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=)}, issueFiles=null}, startPage=26, endPage=39, ext={EN=ArticleExt(id=1200450370431472139, articleId=1200450370112705016, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, language=EN, title=Simulation error diagnosis of the seasonal evolution of sea ice thickness during MOSAiC in-situ observation, columnId=1194652705852465724, journalTitle=Haiyang Xuebao, columnName=Article, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

The Multidisciplinary drifting Observatory for the Study of Arctic Climate (MOSAiC) was conducted from October 2019 to September 2020, yielding complete observations of atmosphere, ocean, sea ice thickness (SIT), and snow thickness. These observations provide new opportunities for the development of sea ice models. In this study, the seasonal evolution of SIT during MOSAiC was simulated using the ICEPACK sea ice model and atmospheric and oceanic forcing observations from two periods without missing data (from November 1, 2019 to May 7, 2020; from June 26 to July 27, 2020). The simulation was compared with SIT observation and the reasons for SIT simulation errors were diagnosed. The results show that, in the winter and spring seasons, the model can reproduce the increase in SIT, but overestimates the transition from submerged snow to sea ice and its contribution to sea ice mass balance. This causes the overestimation of SIT in spring. During the summer season, the combination of two thermodynamic schemes and three melt pond schemes indicates that the model overestimates the sea ice surface melting, resulting in thinner SIT at the end of simulation period. Our research demonstrates that the MOSAiC atmospheric and oceanic observation with all variables needed to force ICEPACK can be used to diagnose current sea ice models and very useful for their future improvements.

, correspAuthors=Yijun He, authorNote=null, correspAuthorsNote=null, copyrightStatement=Haiyang Xuebao, copyrightOwner=null, extLink=null, articleAbsUrl=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, pdfUrl=null, pdf=null, pdfFileSize=null, pdfExtLink=null, richHtmlUrl=null, mobilePdfUrl=null, reviewReport=null, pdfFirstPage=null, abstractGraph=null, abstractGraphContent=null, abstractVideo=null, citation=null, cebUrl=null, magXmlContent=null, mapNumber=null, authorCompany=null, fund=null, authors=null, authorsList=Yang Lu, Haibo Zhao, Jiawei Zhao, Xiaochun Wang, Yijun He, Ruibo Lei, Xiaoyong Yu), CN=ArticleExt(id=1200450374747411194, articleId=1200450370112705016, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, language=CN, title=MOSAiC现场观测期间海冰厚度季节变化模拟误差分析, columnId=1149698756456657529, journalTitle=海洋学报, columnName=论文, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

北极气候研究多学科漂流观测计划(Multidisciplinary drifting Observatory for the Study of Arctic Climate, MOSAiC)于2019年10月至2020年9月开展,期间获得了变量完整的大气、海洋、海冰厚度及积雪厚度观测,为海冰模式的发展提供了新的契机。本研究利用两个完整观测时段(2019年11月1日至2020年5月7日、2020年6月26日至7月27日)的大气和海洋强迫场,驱动一维海冰柱模式ICEPACK,模拟了MOSAiC期间海冰厚度的季节演变,同海冰厚度观测进行了对比,并诊断分析了海冰厚度模拟误差的原因。结果表明,在冬春季节,模式可以再现海冰厚度增长过程,但由于模式在春季高估了积雪向海冰的转化及对海冰物质平衡的贡献,模拟的春季海冰厚度偏厚。在夏季期间,2种热力学方案及3种融池方案的组合都表明模式高估了海冰表层的消融过程,导致模拟结束阶段的海冰厚度偏薄。我们的研究表明,使用变量完整的MOSAiC大气和海洋强迫场可以诊断目前海冰模式中的问题,为海冰模式的改进奠定基础。

, correspAuthors=何宜军, authorNote=null, correspAuthorsNote=
*何宜军(1963—),男,湖南省临湘市人,教授,博士生导师,研究方向为海洋微波遥感。E-mail:
, copyrightStatement=版权所有©《海洋学报》编辑部 2024, copyrightOwner=null, extLink=null, articleAbsUrl=null, sourceXml=vHnvT1sKMOaRBCRFpWYTxw==, magXml=xeUBrHvEnclIPcel33/9Zw==, pdfUrl=null, pdf=FaxEelLC4re1AzPiMdus3Q==, pdfFileSize=2302596, pdfExtLink=null, richHtmlUrl=null, mobilePdfUrl=null, reviewReport=null, pdfFirstPage=null, abstractGraph=ycXNRK1E3taI5GmiDy4cgg==, abstractGraphContent=null, abstractVideo=null, citation=null, cebUrl=null, magXmlContent=iSM3agYzeLAleInnzpP0+A==, mapNumber=null, authorCompany=null, fund=null, authors=

陆洋(1995—),男,江苏省泰州市人,博士生,主要从事海冰模拟研究。E-mail:

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陆洋(1995—),男,江苏省泰州市人,博士生,主要从事海冰模拟研究。E-mail:

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Surface albedo variation and its influencing factors over costal fast ice around Zhongshan station, Antarcticain austral spring of 2010[J]. 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School of Atmosphere and Remote Sensing, Wuxi University, Wuxi 214105, China), AuthorCompanyExt(id=1200860893274821112, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, articleId=1200450370112705016, companyId=1200860893262238198, language=CN, country=null, province=null, city=null, postcode=null, companyName=null, departmentName=null, remark=4.无锡学院 大气与遥感学院,江苏 无锡 214105)])], figs=[ArticleFig(id=1200860898064716439, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, articleId=1200450370112705016, language=EN, label=Fig. 1, caption=Drift trajectories of MOSAiC atmospheric, oceanic and sea ice observation stations used in this research, figureFileSmall=H1iVFwTbK2HbF2vo1jXxag==, figureFileBig=vOdEQDMb9gCB7BThDQ16Bg==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1200860898161185436, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, articleId=1200450370112705016, language=CN, label=图1, caption=本研究使用的MOSAiC期间大气、海洋、海冰观测点的漂移轨迹, figureFileSmall=H1iVFwTbK2HbF2vo1jXxag==, 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articleId=1200450370112705016, language=EN, label=Fig. 12, caption=Comparison of simulated and observed sea ice albedo from June 26 to July 27, 2020, figureFileSmall=taeLySoiqZnKb58y9lHH+g==, figureFileBig=1bhpKXxR+9WuZ9U1ogfogg==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1200860900623241989, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, articleId=1200450370112705016, language=CN, label=图12, caption=2020年6月26日至7月27日模拟的海冰反照率与观测的对比, figureFileSmall=taeLySoiqZnKb58y9lHH+g==, figureFileBig=1bhpKXxR+9WuZ9U1ogfogg==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1200860900736488200, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, articleId=1200450370112705016, language=EN, label=Table 1, caption=

Configuration of ICEPACK model experiments

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试验名模拟时间范围热力学方案融池方案初始冰厚/m初始雪厚/m初始融池覆盖率/%初始融池深度/m
冬春季节模拟2019-11-01至2020-05-07BL99TOPO0.440.1200.0
MushyTOPO0.440.1200.0
夏季模拟2020-06-26至2020-07-27BL99CESM1.600.06100.1
TOPO1.600.06100.1
LVL1.600.06100.1
MushyCESM1.600.06100.1
TOPO1.600.06100.1
LVL1.600.06100.1
), ArticleFig(id=1200860901906699024, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, articleId=1200450370112705016, language=CN, label=表1, caption=

ICEPACK模式试验设置

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试验名模拟时间范围热力学方案融池方案初始冰厚/m初始雪厚/m初始融池覆盖率/%初始融池深度/m
冬春季节模拟2019-11-01至2020-05-07BL99TOPO0.440.1200.0
MushyTOPO0.440.1200.0
夏季模拟2020-06-26至2020-07-27BL99CESM1.600.06100.1
TOPO1.600.06100.1
LVL1.600.06100.1
MushyCESM1.600.06100.1
TOPO1.600.06100.1
LVL1.600.06100.1
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Root mean square error between simulation and observation of sea ice thickness

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融池方案BL99热力学方案Mushy热力学方案
CESM0.070 m0.066 m
TOPO0.074 m0.088 m
LVL0.067 m0.066 m
), ArticleFig(id=1200860902187717402, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, articleId=1200450370112705016, language=CN, label=表2, caption=

海冰厚度模拟与观测之间的均方根误差

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融池方案BL99热力学方案Mushy热力学方案
CESM0.070 m0.066 m
TOPO0.074 m0.088 m
LVL0.067 m0.066 m
), ArticleFig(id=1200860902380655388, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, articleId=1200450370112705016, language=EN, label=Table 3, caption=

Bias between simulation and observation of cumulative sea ice surface and bottom melting at the end of the summer simulation (positive values represent overestimation of the model, while negative values represent underestimation of the model)

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方案组合表面融化偏差/m底部融化偏差/m
BL99 + CESM0.268−0.137
BL99 + TOPO0.201−0.158
BL99 + LVL0.218−0.134
Mushy + CESM0.183−0.114
Mushy + TOPO0.110−0.127
Mushy + LVL0.235−0.117
), ArticleFig(id=1200860902460347167, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, articleId=1200450370112705016, language=CN, label=表3, caption=

夏季模拟结束时累积表面融化、底部融化模拟与观测之间的偏差(正值代表模式高估,负值代表模式低估)

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
方案组合表面融化偏差/m底部融化偏差/m
BL99 + CESM0.268−0.137
BL99 + TOPO0.201−0.158
BL99 + LVL0.218−0.134
Mushy + CESM0.183−0.114
Mushy + TOPO0.110−0.127
Mushy + LVL0.235−0.117
), ArticleFig(id=1200860902586176294, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, articleId=1200450370112705016, language=EN, label=Table 4, caption=

The summer average of simulated and observed net longwave radiation and net shortwave radiation (downward radiation is positive, upward radiation is negative)

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方案组合净长波辐射/(W/m2)净短波辐射/(W/m2)
BL99 + CESM11.47697.085
BL99 + TOPO19.16888.846
BL99 + LVL9.08991.306
Mushy + CESM13.73184.542
Mushy + TOPO15.31674.751
Mushy + LVL12.32289.113
MOSAiC-8.44776.539
), ArticleFig(id=1200860902774919978, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, articleId=1200450370112705016, language=CN, label=表4, caption=

夏季模拟与观测的净长波辐射、净短波辐射的平均值(向下为正,向上为负)

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
方案组合净长波辐射/(W/m2)净短波辐射/(W/m2)
BL99 + CESM11.47697.085
BL99 + TOPO19.16888.846
BL99 + LVL9.08991.306
Mushy + CESM13.73184.542
Mushy + TOPO15.31674.751
Mushy + LVL12.32289.113
MOSAiC-8.44776.539
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MOSAiC现场观测期间海冰厚度季节变化模拟误差分析
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陆洋 1 , 赵海波 1 , 赵嘉炜 1 , 王晓春 1 , 何宜军 1, 2, * , 雷瑞波 3 , 喻小勇 4
海洋学报 | 论文 2024,46(6): 26-39
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海洋学报 | 论文 2024, 46(6): 26-39
MOSAiC现场观测期间海冰厚度季节变化模拟误差分析
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陆洋1 , 赵海波1, 赵嘉炜1, 王晓春1, 何宜军1, 2, * , 雷瑞波3, 喻小勇4
作者信息
  • 1.南京信息工程大学 海洋科学学院,江苏 南京 210044
  • 2.三亚海洋实验室,海南 三亚 572024
  • 3.中国极地研究中心 自然资源部极地科学重点实验室,上海 200136
  • 4.无锡学院 大气与遥感学院,江苏 无锡 214105
  • 陆洋(1995—),男,江苏省泰州市人,博士生,主要从事海冰模拟研究。E-mail:

通讯作者:

*何宜军(1963—),男,湖南省临湘市人,教授,博士生导师,研究方向为海洋微波遥感。E-mail:
Simulation error diagnosis of the seasonal evolution of sea ice thickness during MOSAiC in-situ observation
Yang Lu1 , Haibo Zhao1, Jiawei Zhao1, Xiaochun Wang1, Yijun He1, 2, * , Ruibo Lei3, Xiaoyong Yu4
Affiliations
  • 1. School of Marine Sciences, Nanjing University of Information Science and Technology, Nanjing 210044, China
  • 2. SANYA Oceanographic Laboratory, Sanya 572024, China
  • 3. Key Laboratory of Polar Science, Ministry of Natural Resources, Polar Research Institute of China, Shanghai 200136, China
  • 4. School of Atmosphere and Remote Sensing, Wuxi University, Wuxi 214105, China
出版时间: 2024-06-30 doi: 10.12284/hyxb2024065
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北极气候研究多学科漂流观测计划(Multidisciplinary drifting Observatory for the Study of Arctic Climate, MOSAiC)于2019年10月至2020年9月开展,期间获得了变量完整的大气、海洋、海冰厚度及积雪厚度观测,为海冰模式的发展提供了新的契机。本研究利用两个完整观测时段(2019年11月1日至2020年5月7日、2020年6月26日至7月27日)的大气和海洋强迫场,驱动一维海冰柱模式ICEPACK,模拟了MOSAiC期间海冰厚度的季节演变,同海冰厚度观测进行了对比,并诊断分析了海冰厚度模拟误差的原因。结果表明,在冬春季节,模式可以再现海冰厚度增长过程,但由于模式在春季高估了积雪向海冰的转化及对海冰物质平衡的贡献,模拟的春季海冰厚度偏厚。在夏季期间,2种热力学方案及3种融池方案的组合都表明模式高估了海冰表层的消融过程,导致模拟结束阶段的海冰厚度偏薄。我们的研究表明,使用变量完整的MOSAiC大气和海洋强迫场可以诊断目前海冰模式中的问题,为海冰模式的改进奠定基础。

MOSAiC观测计划  /  热力学方案  /  融池方案  /  ICEPACK海冰模式  /  海冰厚度  /  积雪深度  /  北冰洋

The Multidisciplinary drifting Observatory for the Study of Arctic Climate (MOSAiC) was conducted from October 2019 to September 2020, yielding complete observations of atmosphere, ocean, sea ice thickness (SIT), and snow thickness. These observations provide new opportunities for the development of sea ice models. In this study, the seasonal evolution of SIT during MOSAiC was simulated using the ICEPACK sea ice model and atmospheric and oceanic forcing observations from two periods without missing data (from November 1, 2019 to May 7, 2020; from June 26 to July 27, 2020). The simulation was compared with SIT observation and the reasons for SIT simulation errors were diagnosed. The results show that, in the winter and spring seasons, the model can reproduce the increase in SIT, but overestimates the transition from submerged snow to sea ice and its contribution to sea ice mass balance. This causes the overestimation of SIT in spring. During the summer season, the combination of two thermodynamic schemes and three melt pond schemes indicates that the model overestimates the sea ice surface melting, resulting in thinner SIT at the end of simulation period. Our research demonstrates that the MOSAiC atmospheric and oceanic observation with all variables needed to force ICEPACK can be used to diagnose current sea ice models and very useful for their future improvements.

MOSAiC  /  thermodynamic scheme  /  melt pond scheme  /  ICEPACK sea ice model  /  sea ice thickness  /  snow thickness  /  Arctic Ocean
陆洋, 赵海波, 赵嘉炜, 王晓春, 何宜军, 雷瑞波, 喻小勇. MOSAiC现场观测期间海冰厚度季节变化模拟误差分析. 海洋学报, 2024 , 46 (6) : 26 -39 . DOI: 10.12284/hyxb2024065
Yang Lu, Haibo Zhao, Jiawei Zhao, Xiaochun Wang, Yijun He, Ruibo Lei, Xiaoyong Yu. Simulation error diagnosis of the seasonal evolution of sea ice thickness during MOSAiC in-situ observation[J]. Haiyang Xuebao, 2024 , 46 (6) : 26 -39 . DOI: 10.12284/hyxb2024065
北极海冰是全球气候系统的重要组成部分。近几十年来,北极海冰范围、厚度和多年冰(世界气象组织定义[1]为:至少经历两个融冰期仍存在的海冰)体积都在减小[24],并且这一趋势仍在持续[5]。北极海冰的融化期也在延长[6]。本世纪中期可能出现夏季无冰现象[7]。海冰范围是评估海冰状态的重要指标。根据 1979–2021年北极海冰被动微波遥感观测资料,北极9月海冰范围每10年下降12.7%[8]。2012年和2020年是有卫星观测记录以来北极9月海冰范围最小的两个年份。海冰厚度是评估海冰状态的另一个更重要的指标,结合海冰范围可以指示海冰体积的变化。北极海冰范围减小的同时,厚度和体积也在减小。Lindsay和Schweiger[9]综合使用潜艇测量、浮标测量、飞机及卫星测量数据,发现1975–2012年的平均冰厚从3.59 m降低到1.25 m,降幅达65%。冰厚下降与北冰洋由多年冰主导向一年冰主导的转变是一致的。Kwok[10]利用1958–2000年的潜艇声呐观测记录,和2003–2018年的卫星高度计观测资料,发现北极海冰平均厚度在1980–2018年间减小了约1.75 m。其中,2003–2008年的ICESat(Ice, Cloud, and land Elevation Satellite)记录表明海冰厚度快速下降,冬季下降速率为0.10 m/a,秋季为0.20 m/a。而2011–2018年的CryoSat-2记录表明下降速率减缓,冬季为0.02 m/a,秋季为0.04 m/a[10]
由于观测资料的不足,模式模拟是研究北极海冰的一个重要手段。自40多年前Hibler[11]提出第一个热力–动力学海冰模式以来,现代海冰模式已经发展到可以较好地模拟北极海冰的基本状态和长期变化趋势[1213]。然而,这些海冰模式仍存在一些普遍性的问题,如低估北极海冰的减少速率,以及不同模式之间对北极海冰未来变化趋势的模拟也存在较大差异[14]。第六次耦合模式比较计划(the sixth phase of Coupled Model Intercomparison Project,CMIP6)代表了当前模式发展的先进水平。对CMIP6模式海冰厚度的评估发现,大多数模式可以较好地重现泛北冰洋海冰–海洋模拟与同化系统(Pan-Arctic Ice Ocean Modeling and Assimilation System,PIOMAS)[15]再分析的北极海冰厚度气候态、年变化、年际变化和线性趋势,但依然存在明显的模式间差异,且大多数模式低估北极海冰厚度[16]。对我国CMIP6模式的评估也表明,这些模式普遍低估海冰厚度[17]。由于北极海冰现场观测稀少,目前对与海冰有关的过程和物理机制的理解不够准确。因此,模式中只能采用基于少量观测提出的半经验模型。这是导致模式模拟的海冰厚度与观测之间存在差异的一个重要原因。美国洛斯阿拉莫斯国家实验室研发的大尺度热力–动力学海冰模式CICE(Community Ice CodE)[18]是地球系统模式中广泛使用的海冰分量模式。参与CMIP6的众多地球系统模式选择了CICE作为其海冰分量模式[19]。然而,这些模式具有低估北极中央区夏季海冰厚度的共同倾向[20]。海冰柱模式ICEPACK[21]是CICE 的一维物理子模块,具有进行单点海冰模拟的能力。ICEPACK已经被应用于南极中山站附近的海冰厚度模拟[22]、北极长期冰站融池反照率的模拟[23]和加拿大纳因附近固定冰的海冰厚度模拟[24]等研究。相比大尺度的二维海冰模式,ICEPACK在与单点现场观测对比时,可以避免格点匹配问题。对ICEPACK的改进也可以推广到CICE等二维的海冰模式中。
观测数据对于理解北极气候系统、北极海冰以及改进海冰模式至关重要。但是,北极地区的现场观测非常稀少,海冰厚度的观测尤其缺乏,大多数海冰厚度的现场观测资料存在时间上不连续的问题。尽管卫星可以获取连续、覆盖面广的观测,但其对海冰厚度的反演仍受到冰上积雪、融池以及海冰密度等因素的影响,具有不确定性[25]。同一时间段包括大气、海洋、海冰变量的观测只能通过有组织的现场观测试验获得。2019–2020年北极气候研究多学科漂流观测计划(Multidisciplinary drifting Observatory for the Study of Arctic Climate, MOSAiC)对大气[26]、海冰[27]、海洋[28]开展了比较协调一致的观测。中国参与其中4 个航段的现场观测工作[29],充分利用MOSAiC观测计划得到的资料将推进对北极海冰的机理和数值模拟研究。
MOSAiC期间,变量完整的冰面大气、积雪和海冰厚度观测为海冰模式的改进提供了良好的契机。考虑到MOSAiC观测随海冰漂移的特性,本研究使用MOSAiC大气和海洋变量观测来驱动ICEPACK模式,将模拟的海冰厚度与观测进行对比,并诊断分析误差的原因。在第2节中,介绍了所使用的MOSAiC数据、ICEPACK海冰模式以及数值试验设计。第3节详细描述了用MOSAiC观测驱动的ICEPACK模式模拟的冬春季节和夏季海冰厚度演变情况,以及对模拟误差的诊断分析。第4节为结论与展望。
MOSAiC观测分为5个阶段(Leg1–5,2019年10月4日至2020年9月20日)[26]:第1阶段建立了由冰站加上“极星”船上的设施构成的第1个中心观测区(Central Observatory 1,CO1),同时布置外围浮标阵列分布式观测网(Distributed Network, DN)。DN由部署在中心观测区周围的3~40 km处的自动系统组成。它包含100 多个小型、8 个中型和 3 个大型浮冰观测站,冬季第 2 阶段和春季第 3 阶段在CO1进行观测。“极星”在 2020年5月16日结束第一段载人漂移(Drift 1)并离开浮冰。2020年6月,“极星”回到了原来的浮冰,开始第二段载人漂移(Drift 2)。夏季第4阶段与新的中心观测区CO2一起漂移,直到弗拉姆海峡。2020年7月31日结束了第三段载人漂移。第5阶段,2020年 8月“极星”在北极点附近布置了CO3和DN2,启动了第三段载人漂移(Drift 3)。Drift 3 于 2020年 9月 20日结束,“极星”号开始返航。本研究使用CO1和CO2观测的大气数据作为ICEPACK模式的大气强迫,使用DN观测网中2019O1浮标观测作为模式的海洋强迫,使用DN观测网中2019T66浮标的海冰和积雪观测数据与模式对比。图1展示了本研究所用大气观测、海洋观测、海冰观测点的漂移轨迹。
MOSAiC大气强迫资料如图2所示。长波辐射和短波辐射存在较长时间缺测,缺测主要集中在2020年5月上旬至6月下旬和7月下旬至8月下旬。MOSAiC原始降水资料的时间分辨率是1 min。本研究从原始降水计算得到每小时累计降水(当降雪时,为降雪水当量[30]),并对缺测的小时进行线性插值,形成时间间隔为1 h的降水强迫数据。模式读入强迫场后,根据强迫场气温判断降水相态。若强迫场气温高于等于冰点,则为降水,反之为降雪。进一步地,若发生降雪,则模式表面新增积雪深度为累计降雪水当量与雪密度之比。图2展示了每小时的10 m风速、温度、湿度、下行短波辐射、长波辐射和累计降水。MOSAiC期间观测风速没有明显季节变化,最大风速有10~14 m/s。冬春季节湿度较低,夏季湿度增大。冬季气温保持在零下20℃下,4月中旬开始增温,到夏季气温维持在0℃附近。Rinke等[31]将MOSAiC期间大气观测与欧洲中期天气预报中心(European Center for Medium Weather Forecasting,ECMWF)第五代大气再分析资料(ECMWF Reanalysis version 5,ERA5)进行了比较,结果表明MOSAiC期间冬春季节气旋活动相对平常年更频繁、更强烈,而夏季气旋活动较弱,但异常温暖潮湿。
MOSAiC海洋强迫资料如图3所示。MOSAiC浮标阵列观测网中2019O1浮标的温盐深测量仪(Conductivity-Temperature-Depthinstrument, CTD)在整个运行期间总体表现良好,观测了不同深度处的海洋温盐数据[32]。浮标下100 m长的电缆上10 m、20 m、50 m、75 m和100 m深度处安装了5台SBE371MP型号的CTD,观测间隔为2分钟一次。本研究选择最接近海冰底部的10 m深度处CTD数据,并对每天所有数据平均,得到每日一次的10 m深度处海水温度、海水盐度,提供给ICEPACK模式作为海洋强迫。
MOSAiC使用冰雪质量平衡浮标阵列(Snow and Ice Mass Balance Array,SIMBA)[33]进行积雪厚度和海冰厚度的测量。单个观测缆绳总长度为5.12 m,每隔0.02 m布置一个热敏电阻,来测量环境温度和对每个传感器微弱加热后热敏电阻周围的温度变化。通过对SIMBA浮标的测量数据进行处理可以得到雪深和冰厚。目前,SIMBA 浮标已经广泛用于极地的海冰厚度测量[3436]。本研究选择的是科考船附近2019T66浮标的观测数据。积雪厚度和海冰厚度的观测时间均为2019年10月10日到2020年8月1日,时间分辨率均为1 d,测量精度均为0.02 m。本研究利用SIMBA浮标观测数据导出MOSAiC期间逐日的海冰表面融化和底部融化。
MOSAiC期间,在CO2观测点进行了夏季融化期融池深度的现场观测(从6月下旬到7月下旬)[37]。测量融池深度时使用了配备 GPS 记录仪的自动雪深探头Magnaprobe。该仪器在冻结海冰上的测量精度为1 cm。CO2测量路径为一个周长约3 km的逆时针不规则圆圈,测量时每1~2步(约1~3 m)采样一个点,一次完整测量中测量点的平均数量约为 1500 个。从 6月 29日到7月26日,每周测量4次,共进行了 18 次完整的测量,而低能见度和北极熊的活动阻碍了 7月 16日、23日、24日 和 27日的完整测量[37]。Niehaus等使用Sentinel-2卫星反演了MOSAiC期间的融池覆盖率[38]。本研究使用Niehaus等反演的融池覆盖率、现场观测融池深度作为ICEPACK模式夏季模拟的融池初始条件。对每天所有采样点的融池深度进行平均得到当天的融池深度。
MOSAiC期间,在CO1和CO2观测点的一年冰冰芯钻取点(MCS-FYI)进行了23次钻取,测量了海冰厚度、吃水深度、盐度、温度和密度[39]。每次取芯使用美国 Kovacs Enterprise 的9 cm(Mark II)或7.25 cm(Mark III)内径的冰芯钻取器提取冰芯。使用Testo720 温度计在钻孔中以 5 cm的垂直分辨率测量冰温。使用 YSI 30 电导率计测量每段5 cm的冰芯切片在融化后的总体盐度。该数据大约一周获取一次,本研究使用与夏季模拟开始时间最接近的6月22日测量的冰内垂直温盐廓线作为夏季模拟的海冰温盐初始条件。
ICEPACK是CICE的一维柱状子模式,其垂向热力学过程与CICE中完全一致。ICEPACK基于海冰厚度分布函数[40],可以将开放水面、薄冰、厚冰等不同厚度类型海冰的面积分数在模式的单点模拟中体现。ICEPACK通过计算大气−海冰边界层和海洋−海冰边界层的能量收支,来更新冰的温度,并以此计算冰的直接增长或融化。此外,降雪可以为海冰上带来积雪,雪在多种作用下可以向冰转化。风吹雪可以造成雪的位移,但ICEPACK没有包含该过程。ICEPACK有3种可选择的热力学方案:零层热力学(0-Layer)[41]、假设冰内盐度剖面固定的Bitz-Lipscomb热力学(简称BL99方案)[42]和冰内盐度剖面随时间演变的糊状层热力学(Mushy Layer,简称Mushy方案)[43]。其中,零层热力学方案过于简化,目前较少被使用。BL99方案将海冰看作单相物质,但海冰中包含大量卤水泡,存储着液态盐水。模式计算中必须考虑这些卤水泡的热力学效应。BL99方案引入盐度修正的热传导系数和比热容来参数化冰内卤水的热力学效应,并依据观测数值预设了冰内盐度廓线。Mushy方案将海冰看作纯冰和卤水组成的混合相糊状物质,用卤水液相比变量来表示卤水在海冰中所占体积比例。Mushy方案与BL99方案主要的不同之处在于前者海冰焓为纯冰焓与卤水焓之和,在温度预报方程中增加了来自冰内卤水流动的热对流项,并新增一个冰内盐度预报方程。BL99方案和Mushy方案都包含了至少1个雪层和多个冰层,默认设置为1个雪层和7个冰层。
ICEPACK中包含了3种融池参数化方案:CESM(Community Earth System Model)方案[44]、TOPO(Topography)方案[4548]和LVL(Level Ice)方案[49]。CESM方案是一个简单的参数化方案,其中融池的形成和变化仅与融池纵横比(融池深度与融池覆盖率之比)有关,不受冰面地形等其他因素的影响。CESM方案计算出总融池体积,然后根据预先设定的融池纵横比常数进行分配。TOPO方案利用海冰厚度来确定冰面地形,再根据冰面地形分配融水。受重力作用影响,融水会首先覆盖最低的冰面,然后覆盖次低的冰面,逐层分配,最后到表层。LVL方案综合了CESM方案和TOPO方案的思想,计算出新增融水体积后,按照一个预先设定的纵横比常数(融池深度的改变和融池覆盖率的改变之比)分配融水体积。并且假定融池只能存在于平整冰上,一旦平整冰变形为冰脊,其上原有的融池水都会流入海洋。通过这样的方式将冰面地形对融池的影响纳入模式。此外,TOPO方案和LVL方案中,均包含海冰微孔隙结构所导致的融池水渗流和垂直冲刷过程,以及融池冰盖过程。本研究试验了不同热力学方案及融池方案的组合来分析这些方案对海冰厚度的模拟效果。
本研究的海冰厚度模拟试验使用ICEPACK进行单点积分,模式时间步长为1 h。考虑到MOSAiC长波和短波辐射在5–6月存在长时间缺测、浮标海冰厚度的观测到8月初,本研究利用MOSAiC观测的大气和海洋强迫场,分别进行了两段时间的模拟。第1段模拟时间选择2019年11月1日至2020年5月7日,第2段模拟时间选择2020年6月26日至7月27日。这两个时段正好分别处在第一段漂流(Drift 1)和第二段漂流(Drift 2)期间,可以分别代表冬春季节和夏季的海冰厚度变化。下文也称为冬春季节模拟和夏季模拟。在冬春季节,使用两种热力学方案进行模拟(BL99和Mushy)。由于融池方案并不会对冬春季节模拟有显著影响,这一时段的模拟将融池方案固定为TOPO方案。在夏季,由于融池的存在,模拟时考虑了不同的融池参数化方案的影响。使用两种热力学方案(BL99和Mushy)分别搭配3种融池参数化方案(CESM、TOPO和LVL)进行模拟。模式中海冰厚度、积雪厚度、融池覆盖率、融池深度、夏季海冰内部温度和盐度廓线的初始条件使用模拟开始时的观测值。其它模式参数使用ICEPACK的默认设置值。模式试验设置参见表1
MOSAiC的第一段漂流(Drift 1)从2019年10月4日开始,到2020年5月16日结束。本研究使用ICEPACK模式模拟2019年11月1日至2020年5月7日MOSAiC观测站点在冬春季节的海冰变化情况。图4对比了ICEPACK模拟和MOSAiC观测的海冰厚度。ICEPACK可以模拟出冬春季节海冰厚度逐渐增长的趋势,但厚度数值存在误差。BL99方案模拟的海冰增长和观测更为接近,而Mushy方案在2019年11月初、2020年2月下旬、3月中旬和4月下旬与观测之间存在较大差异。模拟结束时,BL99方案比观测偏薄0.025 m,而Mushy方案比观测偏厚0.098 m。整个模拟时段,BL99方案模拟的海冰厚度与观测之间的均方根误差为0.018 m,而Mushy方案模拟的海冰厚度与观测之间的均方根误差为0.062 m,高于BL99方案。
ICEPACK模式中导致海冰厚度减少的原因有升华、顶部融化和底部融化;导致海冰厚度增加的原因有凝华、周围海水冻结生成的新生冰、底部海水垂向冻结和雪–冰转化。为了探究Mushy方案在2019年11月初、2020年2月下旬、3月中旬和4月下旬海冰厚度较观测偏大的原因,本研究计算了冬季累积的升华、顶部融化、底部融化、凝华、新生冰、底部的垂向冻结和雪–冰转化造成的海冰厚度变化(图5ab)。两种热力学方案模拟出的海冰减少主要是由于海冰表面的升华。另外,Mushy方案在2020年3月、4月和5月初均有少量的底部融化。总体上冬季海冰以增长为主,虽然存在厚度减小的情况,但仅在10−3 m/d的量级,对整体厚度影响不大。2019年11月至2020年3月模拟的海冰厚度增长主要来自海冰底部冻结带来的垂向增长。2020年3–5月模拟的海冰厚度增长主要来自于雪–冰转化。
当海冰上积雪堆积过多时,海冰会被压低,雪的底部有可能被压低到海平面以下。被海水浸湿的雪会转化为冰,这一过程称为雪–冰转化过程。图5对比了冬春季节两种热力学方案模拟的每天海冰厚度变化(图5cd)与每天积雪转化成的海冰厚度(图5ef)。在海冰厚度变化明显的3–5月期间,海冰厚度变化与积雪转化成海冰的厚度在时间和数值上都非常接近。值得注意的是,Mushy方案的积雪转化的冰厚远高于BL99方案,这表明3–5月期间Mushy方案与MOSAiC观测、BL99方案的差异主要来自于雪–冰转化这一过程。
两种热力学方案对雪–冰转化过程的描述存在差异,因此模拟的积雪转换成海冰的厚度也不同。雪–冰转化过程发生在雪的底部被海水淹没的情况下。文献[24]中对两种热力学的雪–冰转化过程进行了描述。根据阿基米德浮力定律,当雪的底部与海平面齐平时,平衡关系如下:
$ {\rho _{\text{i}}}{h_{\text{i}}} + {\rho _{\text{s}}}{h_{\text{s}}} = {\rho _{\text{w}}}{h_{\text{i}}} ,$
式中,$ {\rho _{\text{i}}} $$ {\rho _{\text{s}}} $分别为海冰和积雪的密度,$ {h_{\text{i}}} $$ {h_{\text{s}}} $分别为海冰和积雪的厚度,$ {\rho _{\text{w}}} $为海水密度。若积雪过多,压低海冰到海面以下,雪的底部将被海水淹没,此时在水下部分的雪厚度$ {h^*} $
$ h^*=h_{\text{s}}-\frac{(\rho_{\text{w}}-\rho_{\text{i}})h_{\text{i}}}{\rho_{\text{s}}} > 0. $
BL99方案在质量守恒条件下,将海面以下的雪转化成冰,使得雪的底部重新抬升到海平面:
$ \delta {h_{\text{s}}} = \frac{{ - {\rho _{\text{i}}}{h^*}}}{{{\rho _{\text{w}}}}}, $
$ \delta {h_{\text{i}}} = \frac{{{\rho _{\text{s}}}{h^*}}}{{{\rho _{\text{w}}}}}, $
式中,$ \delta {h_{\text{s}}} $为雪层厚度的改变,$ \delta {h_{\text{i}}} $为冰层厚度的改变。两者是不等的,冰层厚度的改变$ \delta {h_{\text{i}}} $小于雪层厚度的改变$ \delta {h_{\text{s}}} $。Mushy热力学方案对于雪的底部被海水淹没的情况的处理与BL99方案不同。Mushy方案中,当雪的底部被海水淹没时,海水横向平流或渗透穿过冰层,通过填充雪层的孔隙增加雪和冰的整体质量:
$ \delta {h_{\text{i}}} = - \delta {h_{\text{s}}} = \frac{{{m_{{\text{fb}}}}}}{{{\rho _{\text{w}}} - {\rho _{\text{s}}} + {\rho _{{\text{snice}}}}}}, $
式中,$ {m_{{\text{fb}}}} = {\rho _{\text{i}}}{h_{\text{i}}} + {\rho _{\text{s}}}{h_{\text{s}}} - {\rho _{\text{w}}}{h_{\text{i}}} $,为雪–冰转化发生之前,超过浮力平衡的雪和冰的总质量。
$ {\rho _{{\text{snice}}}} = {\rho _{\text{w}}}{\phi _{{\text{snice}}}} + {\rho _{\text{i}}}(1 - {\phi _{{\text{snice}}}}) $,为新生成的雪冰的密度,$ {\phi _{{\text{snice}}}} = 1 - {\rho _{\text{s}}}/{\rho _{\text{i}}} $,为新生成的雪冰的液相比。Mushy热力学方案用海水填充雪层孔隙,把海面以下的雪转换为同样厚度的冰,使雪的底部到达海平面。与BL99方案相比,Mushy方案模拟的积雪转换成海冰的厚度更大,因此海冰厚度的模拟误差也变大。MOSAiC研究人员未发布雪冰厚度数据,理论上可通过SIMBA浮标观测的温度梯度反演雪冰厚度,但这一算法[24]尚未在MOSAiC期间SIMBA观测中得到使用。
MOSAiC现场观测的积雪维持在一定厚度,而ICEPACK模拟的积雪厚度却持续增加,与观测有较大误差(图6)。MOSAiC观测中积雪厚度的稳定维持可能是受到积雪密实化过程和风吹雪过程的控制。本研究使用的ICEPACK模式版本缺少对这两个过程的考虑。模式的积雪密度被设定为常数,这一做法忽略了积雪密度随气温和风等因子变化的细节[50]。因此,模式中更容易出现积雪堆积时,海平面以下的积雪转换成海冰的情况,从而导致积雪厚度和海冰厚度模拟的误差。张慧敏等[51]使用拉格朗日冰上积雪模式Snow Model-LG(Lagrangian Snow-evolution Model)进行的试验表明,采用变密度的参数化方案可以模拟出更加合理的积雪厚度,且能捕捉到积雪厚度短时间内上升和下降的高频变化。尹豪等[52]使用变密度参数化方案的一维高分辨率冰雪热力学模式HIGHTSI的模拟中,使用新、旧雪层深度对压实增密进行了处理,较好地避免了积雪深度过度积累的问题。由于MOSAiC实测数据并不包含积雪的密度,我们无法定量计算ICEPACK对积雪的模拟误差。ICEPACK等单柱模式通常在再分析大气强迫数据的驱动下进行模拟。Gu等[22]对分别使用ERA5大气再分析和现场观测数据驱动ICEPACK的2016年4–11月中山站海冰厚度模拟进行比较后发现,ERA5降水的显著偏差对海冰厚度和积雪厚度模拟误差的贡献最大,可以造成10 cm以上的厚度误差。本研究使用现场观测数据驱动ICEPACK模式,避免了再分析降水带来的误差,但仍然存在较大的海冰厚度和积雪厚度误差。模式本身对积雪密实化、风吹雪和雪冰转化过程的表述仍需要进一步改进。
两种热力学方案模拟的海冰表面热通量非常接近。在冬春季节,潜热通量和感热通量相对较小(图略),而短波和长波辐射是影响海冰厚度的主要热力学因素。图7比较了冬春季节模拟和观测的净长波辐射和净短波辐射。图中正值代表向下的辐射通量,负值代表向上的辐射通量。在冬春季节,模拟的净长波辐射和净短波辐射都接近MOSAiC观测数据。2019年12月至2020年1月下旬,向上长波辐射缺少观测,因此MOSAiC净长波辐射在这段时间缺失。2020年3月下旬,开始观测到短波辐射,海冰吸收的短波辐射随时间逐渐增加。BL99方案冬春季平均的净短波辐射为4.536 W/m2,Mushy方案为4.537 W/m2,MOSAiC观测为5.081 W/m2。BL99方案冬春季平均的净长波辐射为−29.351 W/m2,Mushy方案为−29.689 W/m2,MOSAiC观测为−29.397 W/m2。总体而言,冬春季模拟的净短波辐射略小于观测值,而净长波辐射接近观测值。
净短波辐射由入射短波辐射根据海冰表面反照率计算得到。图8对比了2020年春季(4–5月)反照率的模拟与观测值。模拟与观测的反照率均为24 h平均值。MOSAiC的反照率使用上行的短波辐射除以下行的短波辐射计算得到。春季,两种热力学方案下的反照率模拟结果十分接近,模拟的反照率在大多数时间高于观测。这与模式对净短波辐射的低估相一致。观测的反照率随时间有一定变化,变化范围为0.75至0.85。然而,模拟的反照率随时间变化不大,一直维持在0.85左右。这和ICEPACK模式的参数设置有关。在春季初期,海冰表面主要被积雪覆盖,积雪反照率对总的海冰表面反照率贡献很大。积雪反照率受雪的状态和入射光谱的共同影响,而在模式中,雪的状态主要由雪粒半径决定。雪粒半径分布受到表面温度的影响。直到模拟结束的5月7日,表面大气温度才升高到−8.2℃,没有达到模式中设置的雪粒半径开始变化的温度(−1.5℃),更没有达到积雪融化的温度。模式中的雪粒半径不变,积雪也没有融化,因此海冰表面的反照率变化不大。这说明,模式中用于计算积雪反照率的参数需要进一步调整。
MOSAiC的第二段漂流从2020年6月19日开始,7月31日结束。本研究选择的夏季模拟时段为6月26日至7月27日,处于第二段漂流的时间范围内。在6月27日,MOSAiC浮标观测到积雪完全融化,此时的海冰表面类型为裸冰和融池。融池会显著降低海冰表面的反照率。ICEPACK提供的3种融池参数化方案对融池演变过程的描述各不相同。因此,模拟夏季海冰时试验了不同融池方案的影响。
本研究使用BL99和Mushy热力学方案分别搭配CESM、TOPO和LVL这3种融池方案,共计形成6种组合,用于模拟夏季海冰厚度。这6种组合的模拟结果如图9所示。总体而言,这6种组合可以模拟出MOSAiC夏季海冰厚度减小的趋势,但不能很好地模拟海冰厚度的数值。在模拟过程中,大部分时间内,所有组合的海冰厚度偏厚,而模拟结束时,其中有5组的海冰厚度偏薄。表2展示了这6种组合与观测之间的均方根误差,模拟的均方根误差在0.066~0.088 m之间。使用Mushy方案的3种组合在模拟结束时海冰厚度平均值为0.908 m,略厚于使用BL99方案的3种组合的平均值0.878 m。两种热力学方案搭配TOPO方案模拟的海冰厚度,在模拟结束时也厚于它们搭配CESM方案和LVL方案时的模拟结果。但6种组合的模拟结果没有明显地按照热力学方案分成两类。值得注意的是,Mushy热力学方案搭配TOPO融池方案模拟的海冰厚度是6种组合中唯一偏厚的,在模拟结束时与观测最为接近,表明该组合在夏季海冰厚度模拟中具有一定潜力。
在MOSAiC观测中,对夏季海冰厚度影响最大的是表面融化和底部融化,且表面融化大于底部融化(图10)。本研究计算了使用6种方案组合时,ICEPACK中不同物理过程对海冰厚度变化的贡献。在6月26日至7月27日,模拟的海冰厚度增长以凝华为主,仅在10−4 m/d的量级,可以忽略(图略)。模拟的海冰厚度减小以表面融化为主,其次是底部融化。图10将模拟的累积表面融化、底部融化与MOSAiC观测进行了对比。6种方案组合模拟的表面融化在模拟结束时均大于MOSAiC观测。7月4日之前,模式模拟的表面融化小于观测,可能是由于模式中积雪完全融化的时间晚于观测。表面融化模拟的均方根误差在0.048~0.119 m之间。其中,Mushy热力学方案搭配TOPO融池方案模拟的表面融化最接近观测。6种方案组合对底部融化的模拟均小于MOSAiC观测,均方根误差在0.080~0.104 m之间。夏季模拟结束时表面融化、底部融化的模拟与观测之间的偏差见表3。所有6种组合高估了表面融化,低估了底部融化。表面融化偏差大于底部融化偏差,对海冰厚度模拟误差的贡献更大。
图11比较了模拟与观测海冰表面的净长波辐射和净短波辐射。图中正值代表向下的辐射通量,负值代表向上的辐射通量。夏季净短波辐射对海冰融化起到了主要贡献。模式净短波辐射较观测偏多,这可能是导致模拟表面融化偏多的原因之一。表4展示了模拟与观测的净长波辐射、净短波辐射的夏季平均值。观测的净长波辐射平均值为负值,对海冰起到冷却作用。而模拟的净长波辐射平均值为正值,对海冰起到加热作用。模拟的净长波辐射对海冰表面融化偏大也有贡献。
图12对比了模拟与观测的海冰反照率。根据MOSAiC观测,海冰反照率随时间减小。尽管ICEPACK模拟了这种变化趋势,但总体数值较观测值偏低。两种热力学方案对融池垂直冲刷过程的描述有一定差异[53]。BL99方案中融池水冲刷不会影响海冰盐度。与之不同,Mushy方案中,融池水冲刷可以促使下方海冰中卤水排出,改变海冰焓值和盐度。此外,Mushy方案中融池水还可通过海冰中孔洞直接流向海洋,BL99方案则没有包含该过程。两种热力学方案对融池垂直冲刷过程的建模差异可能导致模拟融池体积的差异,使Mushy方案融池体积偏少,反照率偏高,表面融化偏少(图10),最终使模拟海冰厚度偏厚(图9)。Mushy方案搭配TOPO方案的组合模拟的反照率最高,这可能是图9中该组合模拟的海冰厚度最高的原因之一。
天气也会影响观测到的海冰反照率,而模式未必能充分考虑天气的变化。MOSAiC期间6–7月在160 m高度处的云量观测[26]表明,这1个月的云量偏多。云层可吸收太阳光中的近红外辐射,而积雪和海冰对近红外波段的吸收较强。因此,多云天气观测到的反照率会高于晴朗天气。Brandt等[54]研究发现南极阴天时的干雪和湿雪反照率分别比晴天时高0.07和0.06。杨清华等[55]对短期冰站实测数据的分析也提到,相似冰雪表面在阴天的反照率比晴天高0.03到0.09不等。因此,未能考虑观测期间的天气,可能也是导致模拟反照率小于观测的原因之一。曹淑涛等[23]的研究中指出考虑天气情况,并尽可能在模式中准确地设置可见光与近红外入射辐射的比例、直射与漫射入射辐射的比例,可以提高反照率模拟的准确性。与上文冬春季辐射过程的模拟相比,夏季辐射过程的模拟更有挑战性。
本研究将MOSAiC大气和海洋观测数据作为强迫场,使用ICEPACK一维海冰模式对MOSAiC期间的海冰厚度变化进行了模拟。由于大气强迫场的缺测,本研究中的模拟分为北极冬春季节和夏季,分别对应海冰增长和融化时期。冬春季节模拟从2019年11月1日到2020年5月7日,夏季模拟从2020年6月26日到2020年7月27日。模拟试验设计考虑了不同参数化方案的组合。春季直到2020年5月7日,积雪还未开始融化。所以,对冬春季节的模拟没有考虑融池方案的影响,分别使用了BL99和Mushy热力学方案进行模拟。夏季融池对海冰反照率的影响较大。因此,对夏季海冰模拟时选择了BL99、Mushy这2种热力学方案分别搭配CESM、TOPO、LVL这3种融池方案的6种组合。由于观测为单点,本研究主要分析单点海冰过程对模拟误差的影响,得到了以下结论:
(1)冬春季节,ICEPACK可以模拟出MOSAiC观测中海冰厚度的增长趋势,但在具体数值方面存在误差。海冰厚度模拟主要的误差来自2019年11月初、2020年2月下旬、3月中旬和4月下旬。在海冰的增长期间,误差产生的主要原因是模式对积雪模拟不准确。这4个时期降雪量较多,模式缺少积雪密实化过程和风吹雪过程的参数化方案,导致模拟积雪堆积过多,浸没在海水里的雪转化成的海冰偏多,导致海冰厚度偏厚。两种热力学参数化方案对雪–冰转化过程描述的不同,导致海冰厚度偏差不同。冬春季节长波辐射模拟基本接近观测,春季模拟反照率高于观测,净短波辐射低于观测。另外,观测海冰反照率有明显的时间变化。但在ICEPACK模拟中,冬春季节有积雪覆盖,且大气温度低于使积雪雪粒半径改变的温度,导致海冰反照率基本保持不变。模式对积雪和反照率的模拟需要进一步改进。
(2)夏季期间,ICEPACK基本可以模拟出MOSAiC观测中海冰厚度的减少趋势,但厚度模拟误差相对较大。6种参数化方案组合中,有5种在夏季模拟结束时海冰厚度偏薄。具体而言,6种组合模拟的表面融化均偏大,底部融化均偏小。模拟中表面融化偏大的原因可能在于夏季海冰的表面反照率较低,导致海冰吸收了较多的短波辐射。目前短波辐射方案中的参数需要进一步调整。
海冰厚度偏薄是我国CMIP6模式共性的问题。本研究发现,在大气和海洋强迫准确的情况下,使用ICEPACK模式模拟的夏季海冰厚度同样偏薄。模拟误差的分析表明,目前ICEPACK版本中存在积雪和反照率模拟的问题。使用变量完整的MOSAiC大气和海洋强迫场,可以诊断目前海冰模式中的问题,为海冰模式的改进奠定基础。未来可以使用新版本的ICEPACK模式,验证改进的参数化方案对海冰厚度的影响,使用MOSAiC观测数据对积雪和反照率参数化方案中的不确定性参数进行优化,以期改进这些参数化方案,优化海冰模式。
致谢:感谢国家重大科技基础设施项目“地球系统数值模拟装置”提供支持。
  • 国家重点研发计划(2021YFC2803301)
  • 国家重点研发计划(2018YFA0605904)
  • 国家自然科学基金委项目(42376200)
  • 高分辨率南海海洋动力环境要素构建技术研究(SOLZSKY2024005)
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2024年第46卷第6期
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doi: 10.12284/hyxb2024065
  • 接收时间:2024-02-06
  • 首发时间:2025-11-26
  • 出版时间:2024-06-30
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  • 收稿日期:2024-02-06
  • 修回日期:2024-05-17
基金
国家重点研发计划(2021YFC2803301)
国家重点研发计划(2018YFA0605904)
国家自然科学基金委项目(42376200)
高分辨率南海海洋动力环境要素构建技术研究(SOLZSKY2024005)
作者信息
    1.南京信息工程大学 海洋科学学院,江苏 南京 210044
    2.三亚海洋实验室,海南 三亚 572024
    3.中国极地研究中心 自然资源部极地科学重点实验室,上海 200136
    4.无锡学院 大气与遥感学院,江苏 无锡 214105

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*何宜军(1963—),男,湖南省临湘市人,教授,博士生导师,研究方向为海洋微波遥感。E-mail:
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2种不同金属材料的力学参数

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genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of
total species (%)

Genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of total
species (%)
鹅膏菌科Amanitaceae 2 11 5.26 鹅膏菌属 Amanita 10 4.78
小菇科 Mycenaceae 2 12 5.74 丝盖伞属 Inocybe 5 2.39
多孔菌科 Polyporaceae 8 14 6.70 蜡蘑属 Laccaria 5 2.39
红菇科 Russulaceae 3 23 11.00 小皮伞属 Marasmius 6 2.87
小菇属 Mycena 11 5.26
光柄菇属 Pluteus 5 2.39
红菇属 Russula 17 8.13
栓菌属 Trametes 5 2.39
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