Article(id=1189609213765607866, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, issueId=1189609210015903945, articleNumber=null, orderNo=null, doi=10.12284/hyxb2025003, pmid=null, cstr=null, oa=null, hot=null, price=null, onlineType=0, articleFormat=0, articleType=null, articleTypeStr=null, receivedDate=1725897600000, receivedDateStr=2024-09-10, revisedDate=1733068800000, revisedDateStr=2024-12-02, acceptedDate=null, acceptedDateStr=null, onlineDate=1761554538432, onlineDateStr=2025-10-27, pubDate=1740672000000, pubDateStr=2025-02-28, doiRegisterDate=null, doiRegisterDateStr=null, onlineIssueDate=1761554538432, onlineIssueDateStr=2025-10-27, onlineJustAcceptDate=null, onlineJustAcceptDateStr=null, onlineFirstDate=null, onlineFirstDateStr=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, createTime=1761554538432, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1761554538432, updator=13701087609, issue=Issue{id=1189609210015903945, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, year='2025', volume='47', issue='2', pageStart='1', pageEnd='130', issueExtLink='null', onlineDate='null', pubDate='null', beforeIssueId=null, nextIssueId=null, price=null, status=1, issueComplete=1, articleOrder=1, issueType=-1, specialIssue=null, createTime=1761554537537, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1761558855524, updator=13701087609, preIssue=null, nextIssue=null, ext={EN=IssueExt(id=1189627321033175670, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, issueId=1189609210015903945, language=EN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=), CN=IssueExt(id=1189627321033175671, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, issueId=1189609210015903945, language=CN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=)}, issueFiles=null}, startPage=41, endPage=55, ext={EN=ArticleExt(id=1189609213996294587, articleId=1189609213765607866, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, language=EN, title=Simulation and projection of Arctic snow ice by the EC-Earth3 climate model, columnId=null, journalTitle=Haiyang Xuebao, columnName=null, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

Snow ice is the product of the transformation from snow into sea ice, which plays an important role in the change of sea ice structure. Studying the spatial and temporal variations of snow ice can provide deep insights into the “snow-ice” transformation process and help understand the evolution of sea ice and polar climate changes. This paper utilizes the EC-Earth3 model to analyze snow ice and its influencing factors in both historical simulations (1990−2014) and Shared Socioeconomic Pathways SSP245 projections (2015−2100). The spatiotemporal evolution of snow ice growth in historical and future periods was investigated by statistical methods such as ensemble averaging, regression analysis, and Mann-Kendall trend test. Compared with the satellite observation sea ice density data of the National Ice and Snow Data Center, the results indicate that the EC-Earth3 model performs well in reconstructing the observed sea ice, and hence provides confidence in projecting the future ice variation. Snow ice primarily forms in winter and spring, with distribution in the Davis Strait, the Nordic Seas, and the northern Barents Sea. The average decrease trend of snow ice growth is 7.4 × 108 kg/a; the change of the average sea ice outer edge line is about 1 kg/m2 in spring and winter; the highest proportion of snow ice is in the southeast of Greenland with an average of about 2%. Increased snowfall, rainfall and rising temperatures are important factors affecting snow ice formation. Future projections suggest that the generation of snow ice is still mainly concentrated in spring and winter, and the total amount of snow ice growth will decrease by 2.6 × 108 kg/a on average; due to the increase of precipitation and temperature increase, the maximum increase trend of snow ice annual in March in the study area is 0.7 kg/m2, and the proportion of snow ice in ice thickness increases year by year. The analysis of future scenario experiment results has important scientific reference value for the development and utilization of Arctic waterway and the design of icebreaker capacity.

, correspAuthors=Jiechen Zhao, authorNote=null, correspAuthorsNote=null, copyrightStatement=Haiyang Xuebao, copyrightOwner=null, extLink=null, articleAbsUrl=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, pdfUrl=null, pdf=null, pdfFileSize=null, pdfExtLink=null, richHtmlUrl=null, mobilePdfUrl=null, reviewReport=null, pdfFirstPage=null, abstractGraph=null, abstractGraphContent=null, abstractVideo=null, citation=null, cebUrl=null, magXmlContent=null, mapNumber=null, authorCompany=null, fund=null, authors=null, authorsList=Xinrui Yang, Jiechen Zhao, Shizhu Wang, Minghuan Xu, Zixuan Zhang, Yuhan Chen, Jingjing Wang, Chen Jiang), CN=ArticleExt(id=1189609562467459163, articleId=1189609213765607866, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, language=CN, title=EC-Earth3气候模式对北极雪冰的模拟及预测, columnId=1149698756456657529, journalTitle=海洋学报, columnName=论文, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

雪冰是雪转化为海冰的产物,对北极海冰结构有重要作用。研究雪冰的时空变化能够深度揭示“雪−冰”转化过程的细节,并帮助理解海冰的演变规律及极地气候变化。本文基于EC-Earth3模式,分析了历史情景模拟实验(1990−2014年)和共享社会经济路径SSP245实验(2015−2100年)中的雪冰及其影响因素的变化。通过集合平均、回归分析、Mann-Kendall趋势检验等统计方法,研究了雪冰生长量在历史时期和未来时期的时空演变过程。与美国国家冰雪数据中心的卫星观测海冰密集度数据对比表明,EC-Earth3模式较好地重建了历史时期海冰演变,为预测未来海冰变化提供了信心。分析显示,雪冰主要在冬季和春季生成,分布在戴维斯海峡、北欧海及巴伦支海北部海域。历史时期雪冰生长量全北极平均减少趋势为7.4 × 108 kg/a;弗拉姆海峡等地区雪冰在春季和冬季年变化呈现约1 kg/m2·a的增加趋势;雪冰占冰厚的比例最高在格陵兰岛东南侧海域,平均约为2%,降雪降雨的增加以及温度升高是促进雪冰生成的重要因素。未来预估显示,雪冰生成仍主要集中在春季和冬季,雪冰生长量全北极平均将减少2.6 × 108 kg/a;受降水增加和温度升高影响,研究区域3月份的雪冰年变化增加趋势最大呈0.7 kg/m2·a,雪冰占冰厚的比例逐年有所增加。未来情景实验结果分析对于北极航道开发利用和破冰船能力设计都具有重要的科学参考价值。

, correspAuthors=赵杰臣, authorNote=null, correspAuthorsNote=
赵杰臣,副教授,主要从事极地海洋环境研究。E-mail:
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杨歆蕊(2002—),女,黑龙江省绥化市人,主要从事极地海洋和气候变化研究。E-mail:

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杨歆蕊(2002—),女,黑龙江省绥化市人,主要从事极地海洋和气候变化研究。E-mail:

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杨歆蕊(2002—),女,黑龙江省绥化市人,主要从事极地海洋和气候变化研究。E-mail:

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In figure a, blue line is EC-Earth3, red line is NSIDC and dashed line is linear regression. In figure b, red line is historical period, blue line is future period and dashed line is linear regression

, figureFileSmall=IDda47LOpZeDk2azIAwadg==, figureFileBig=loPZk6T8hwR9hOyN5DpAqQ==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1189620408157483053, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, articleId=1189609213765607866, language=CN, label=图1, caption=北极地区海冰范围月平均变化的历史时期EC-Earth3、NSIDC对比(a)和全时期EC-Earth3模拟(b)

图a中蓝线为EC-Earth3,红线为NSIDC,虚线为线性回归;图b中红线为历史时期,蓝线为未来时期,虚线为线性回归

, figureFileSmall=IDda47LOpZeDk2azIAwadg==, figureFileBig=loPZk6T8hwR9hOyN5DpAqQ==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1189620408232980526, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, articleId=1189609213765607866, language=EN, label=Fig. 2, caption=Simulations of monthly sea ice concentration for model during the historical period

EC-Earth3 simulation (a), differences between EC-Earth3 and NSIDC data (b). The black line and blue line are the sea ice edges of EC-Earth3 and NSIDC

, figureFileSmall=vfudhgk0pO8beiGEmHmkJA==, figureFileBig=Z4faYAN8D2oswhMUE1AZJw==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1189620408295895087, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, articleId=1189609213765607866, language=CN, label=图2, caption=历史时期模式的月平均海冰密集度模拟情况

EC-Earth3模拟(a),EC-Earth3与NSIDC数据的差异(b);黑色线和蓝色线分别为 EC-Earth3 与 NSIDC 的海冰外缘线

, figureFileSmall=vfudhgk0pO8beiGEmHmkJA==, figureFileBig=Z4faYAN8D2oswhMUE1AZJw==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1189620408367198256, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, articleId=1189609213765607866, language=EN, label=Fig. 3, caption=Average distribution (a) and annual variation trends (b) of snow ice growth mass in historical periods

The black lines are the average sea ice edges, and shaded areas represent passing 99% M-K significance test

, figureFileSmall=Cu+bPLu5B/czZADvKFXZcg==, figureFileBig=noYevaD1uGxUWCAowK7qdw==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1189620408434307121, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, articleId=1189609213765607866, language=CN, label=图3, caption=雪冰生长量在历史时期的平均分布(a)和年变化趋势(b)

黑色线为平均海冰外缘线,阴影区域代表通过 99% 的 M-K 显著性检验

, figureFileSmall=Cu+bPLu5B/czZADvKFXZcg==, figureFileBig=noYevaD1uGxUWCAowK7qdw==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1189620408497221682, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, articleId=1189609213765607866, language=EN, label=Fig. 4, caption=Annual variation trends of sea ice concentration (a) and sea ice thickness (b) in the historical period of model simulations

Shaded areas represent passing 99% M-K significance test

, figureFileSmall=Yr71mVYjBLLPFZD8i97qfg==, figureFileBig=qu3bLzFbeFqrsUR6pdBvtw==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1189620408568524851, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, articleId=1189609213765607866, language=CN, label=图4, caption=模式历史时期海冰密集度(a)和海冰厚度(b)的年变化趋势

阴影区域代表通过99%的M-K显著性检验

, figureFileSmall=Yr71mVYjBLLPFZD8i97qfg==, figureFileBig=qu3bLzFbeFqrsUR6pdBvtw==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1189620408644022324, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, articleId=1189609213765607866, language=EN, label=Fig. 5, caption=Average distribution (a) and annual variation trends (b) of the ratio of snow ice growth thickness to average ice thickness in historical periods

The shaded areas represent passing 99% M-K significance test

, figureFileSmall=TGIj+3FvI9sV3lzEtuyLyQ==, figureFileBig=2ax1ImlvNQxRvIHSHK6HXw==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1189620408715325493, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, articleId=1189609213765607866, language=CN, label=图5, caption=雪冰生长厚度与平均冰厚之比在历史时期的平均分布(a)和年变化趋势(b)

阴影区域代表通过 99% 的 M-K 显著性检验

, figureFileSmall=TGIj+3FvI9sV3lzEtuyLyQ==, figureFileBig=2ax1ImlvNQxRvIHSHK6HXw==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1189620408774045750, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, articleId=1189609213765607866, language=EN, label=Fig. 6, caption=Time series of snow ice growth thickness (a), total snow ice growth mass (b), average sea ice thickness (c), and ratio of snow ice thickness to ice thickness (d) in the study area

The red line is the historical period, and the blue line is the future period

, figureFileSmall=dFjMvwR7ieIHnP9NhXwamg==, figureFileBig=5PDIIIQaiY55wy5oqWLoTQ==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1189620408832766007, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, articleId=1189609213765607866, language=CN, label=图6, caption=研究区域雪冰生长厚度(a)、雪冰月生长总质量(b)、平均海冰厚度(c)和雪冰厚度与冰厚之比(d)的时间序列

红线为历史时期,蓝线为未来时期

, figureFileSmall=dFjMvwR7ieIHnP9NhXwamg==, figureFileBig=5PDIIIQaiY55wy5oqWLoTQ==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1189620408899874872, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, articleId=1189609213765607866, language=EN, label=Fig. 7, caption=Time series of average snow ice growth thickness and average sea ice thickness in full periods

The red line is the historical period, and the blue line is the future period

, figureFileSmall=nvd32WOnlNVpP0p3jY0Emg==, figureFileBig=XErlxdkO79iWeXrGgvCSBg==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1189620408975372345, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, articleId=1189609213765607866, language=CN, label=图7, caption=全时期的平均雪冰生长厚度和平均海冰厚度的时间序列

红线为历史时期,蓝线为未来时期

, figureFileSmall=nvd32WOnlNVpP0p3jY0Emg==, figureFileBig=XErlxdkO79iWeXrGgvCSBg==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1189620409046675514, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, articleId=1189609213765607866, language=EN, label=Fig. 8, caption=Sea ice concentration average distribution (a) andsea ice thickness annual variation trends (b) in the future period

The shaded areas represent passing 99% M-K significance test

, figureFileSmall=zBU3OFJJZburUWt3Gvn0bA==, figureFileBig=B9xJdDQM3F0sRl2i91xTDA==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1189620409130561595, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, articleId=1189609213765607866, language=CN, label=图8, caption=未来时期模式海冰密集度平均分布(a)和海冰厚度年变化趋势(b)

阴影区域代表通过 99% 的 M-K 显著性检验

, figureFileSmall=zBU3OFJJZburUWt3Gvn0bA==, figureFileBig=B9xJdDQM3F0sRl2i91xTDA==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1189620409197670460, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, articleId=1189609213765607866, language=EN, label=Fig. 9, caption=Average distribution (a) and annual variation trends (b) of snow ice growth mass in future periods

The shaded areas represent passing 99% M-K significance test

, figureFileSmall=0iRdBSQy1e769nioec+jQQ==, figureFileBig=DdGvRxSUMg3MeQzAAWVcjQ==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1189620409256390717, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, articleId=1189609213765607866, language=CN, label=图9, caption=雪冰生长量在未来时期的平均分布(a)和年变化趋势(b)

阴影区域代表通过 99% 的 M-K 显著性检验

, figureFileSmall=0iRdBSQy1e769nioec+jQQ==, figureFileBig=DdGvRxSUMg3MeQzAAWVcjQ==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1189620409319305278, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, articleId=1189609213765607866, language=EN, label=Fig. 10, caption=Average distribution (a) and annual variation trends (b) of the radio of snow ice growth thickness to ice thickness in future periods

The shaded areas represent passing 99% M-K significance test

, figureFileSmall=8uOJrD2I2A85BoDeKJY8XA==, figureFileBig=ugyQDS214VxDvg0yoVfPRQ==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1189620409382219839, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, articleId=1189609213765607866, language=CN, label=图10, caption=雪冰生长厚度与冰厚之比在未来时期的平均分布(a)和年变化趋势(b)

阴影区域代表通过 99% 的 M-K 显著性检验

, figureFileSmall=8uOJrD2I2A85BoDeKJY8XA==, figureFileBig=ugyQDS214VxDvg0yoVfPRQ==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1189620409453523008, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, articleId=1189609213765607866, language=EN, label=Fig. 11, caption=Of snowfall, average distribution (a) and annual variation trends (b) in historical periods, and average distribution (c) and annual variations trends (d) in future periods

The shaded areas represent passing 99% M-K significance test

, figureFileSmall=ui6O025NCG0KQnNlGZhX0g==, figureFileBig=jOjVCkbZd17iYZwJATxLdQ==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1189620409520631873, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, articleId=1189609213765607866, language=CN, label=图11, caption=降雪量在历史时期的平均分布(a)、年变化趋势(b)和在未来时期的平均分布(c)、年变化趋势(d)

阴影区域代表通过 99% 的 M-K 显著性检验

, figureFileSmall=ui6O025NCG0KQnNlGZhX0g==, figureFileBig=jOjVCkbZd17iYZwJATxLdQ==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1189620409583546434, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, articleId=1189609213765607866, language=EN, label=Fig. 12, caption=Of liquid precipitation, average distribution (a) and annual variation trends (b) in historical periods, and average distribution (c) and annual variations trends (d) in future periods

The shaded areas represent passing 99% M-K significance test

, figureFileSmall=RvRQeKdXMwAUpeeUenQ4LA==, figureFileBig=p8hdW22Mb2jqRPztzM9Avw==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1189620409646460995, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, articleId=1189609213765607866, language=CN, label=图12, caption=液态降水在历史时期的平均分布(a)、年变化趋势(b)和在未来时期的平均分布(c)、年变化趋势(d)

阴影区域代表通过 99% 的 M-K 显著性检验

, figureFileSmall=RvRQeKdXMwAUpeeUenQ4LA==, figureFileBig=p8hdW22Mb2jqRPztzM9Avw==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1189620409709375556, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, articleId=1189609213765607866, language=EN, label=Fig. 13, caption=Of near-surface air temperature, average distribution (a) and annual variation trends (b) in historical periods, and average distribution (c) and annual variations trends (d) in future periods

The shaded areas represent passing 99% M-K significance test

, figureFileSmall=J5pSzOp0705HadacRkVx5A==, figureFileBig=CCcT/tZPdsDAHsl29zRRYA==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1189620409776484421, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, articleId=1189609213765607866, language=CN, label=图13, caption=近地表2 m气温在历史时期的平均分布(a)、年变化趋势(b)和在未来时期的平均分布(c)、年变化趋势(d)

阴影区域代表通过 99% 的 M-K 显著性检验

, figureFileSmall=J5pSzOp0705HadacRkVx5A==, figureFileBig=CCcT/tZPdsDAHsl29zRRYA==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1189620409864564806, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, articleId=1189609213765607866, language=EN, label=Table 1, caption=

The EC-Earth3 model data used in this paper

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
实验筛选 两个实验的变量 水平网格数
(经度 × 纬度)
历史实验(1990−2014年)、共
享社会经济路径(2015−2100年)
海冰密集度(siconc) 362 × 292
海冰厚度(sithick) 362 × 292
雪冰生长量(sidmasssi) 362 × 292
降水通量(pr) 512 × 256
降雪通量(prsn) 512 × 256
近地表2 m气温(tas) 512 × 256
海洋格点面积(areacello) 362 × 292
), ArticleFig(id=1189620409931673671, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1149651085930835976, articleId=1189609213765607866, language=CN, label=表1, caption=

本文使用的EC-Earth3模式数据

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
实验筛选 两个实验的变量 水平网格数
(经度 × 纬度)
历史实验(1990−2014年)、共
享社会经济路径(2015−2100年)
海冰密集度(siconc) 362 × 292
海冰厚度(sithick) 362 × 292
雪冰生长量(sidmasssi) 362 × 292
降水通量(pr) 512 × 256
降雪通量(prsn) 512 × 256
近地表2 m气温(tas) 512 × 256
海洋格点面积(areacello) 362 × 292
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EC-Earth3气候模式对北极雪冰的模拟及预测
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杨歆蕊 1, 2 , 赵杰臣 2, 3, 4, * , 王世柱 4 , 许明环 1, 2 , 张自轩 1, 2 , 陈禹汗 1, 2 , 王晶净 1, 2 , 姜晨 1, 2
海洋学报 | 论文 2025,47(2): 41-55
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海洋学报 | 论文 2025, 47(2): 41-55
EC-Earth3气候模式对北极雪冰的模拟及预测
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杨歆蕊1, 2 , 赵杰臣2, 3, 4, * , 王世柱4, 许明环1, 2, 张自轩1, 2, 陈禹汗1, 2, 王晶净1, 2, 姜晨1, 2
作者信息
  • 1 哈尔滨工程大学 青岛创新发展基地,山东 青岛 266000
  • 2 青岛海洋科技中心 区域海洋动力学与数值模拟功能实验室,山东 青岛,266000
  • 3 联合国海洋十年海洋与气候协作中心(DCC-OCC),山东 青岛 266000
  • 4 自然资源部 第一海洋研究所,山东 青岛 266061
  • 杨歆蕊(2002—),女,黑龙江省绥化市人,主要从事极地海洋和气候变化研究。E-mail:

通讯作者:

赵杰臣,副教授,主要从事极地海洋环境研究。E-mail:
Simulation and projection of Arctic snow ice by the EC-Earth3 climate model
Xinrui Yang1, 2 , Jiechen Zhao2, 3, 4, * , Shizhu Wang4, Minghuan Xu1, 2, Zixuan Zhang1, 2, Yuhan Chen1, 2, Jingjing Wang1, 2, Chen Jiang1, 2
Affiliations
  • 1Qingdao Innovation and Development Base of Harbin Engineering University, Qingdao 266000, China
  • 2Laboratory for Regional Oceanography and Numerical Modeling, Qingdao Marine Science and Technology Center, Qingdao 266000, China
  • 3UN Decade Collaborative Centre on Ocean-Climate Nexus and Coordination Amongst Decade Implementing Partners in P.R.China, Qingdao 266000, China
  • 4First Institute of Oceanography, Ministry of Natural Resources, Qingdao 266061, China
出版时间: 2025-02-28 doi: 10.12284/hyxb2025003
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雪冰是雪转化为海冰的产物,对北极海冰结构有重要作用。研究雪冰的时空变化能够深度揭示“雪−冰”转化过程的细节,并帮助理解海冰的演变规律及极地气候变化。本文基于EC-Earth3模式,分析了历史情景模拟实验(1990−2014年)和共享社会经济路径SSP245实验(2015−2100年)中的雪冰及其影响因素的变化。通过集合平均、回归分析、Mann-Kendall趋势检验等统计方法,研究了雪冰生长量在历史时期和未来时期的时空演变过程。与美国国家冰雪数据中心的卫星观测海冰密集度数据对比表明,EC-Earth3模式较好地重建了历史时期海冰演变,为预测未来海冰变化提供了信心。分析显示,雪冰主要在冬季和春季生成,分布在戴维斯海峡、北欧海及巴伦支海北部海域。历史时期雪冰生长量全北极平均减少趋势为7.4 × 108 kg/a;弗拉姆海峡等地区雪冰在春季和冬季年变化呈现约1 kg/m2·a的增加趋势;雪冰占冰厚的比例最高在格陵兰岛东南侧海域,平均约为2%,降雪降雨的增加以及温度升高是促进雪冰生成的重要因素。未来预估显示,雪冰生成仍主要集中在春季和冬季,雪冰生长量全北极平均将减少2.6 × 108 kg/a;受降水增加和温度升高影响,研究区域3月份的雪冰年变化增加趋势最大呈0.7 kg/m2·a,雪冰占冰厚的比例逐年有所增加。未来情景实验结果分析对于北极航道开发利用和破冰船能力设计都具有重要的科学参考价值。

北极海冰  /  雪冰演变  /  EC-Earth3模式  /  历史时期  /  未来情景

Snow ice is the product of the transformation from snow into sea ice, which plays an important role in the change of sea ice structure. Studying the spatial and temporal variations of snow ice can provide deep insights into the “snow-ice” transformation process and help understand the evolution of sea ice and polar climate changes. This paper utilizes the EC-Earth3 model to analyze snow ice and its influencing factors in both historical simulations (1990−2014) and Shared Socioeconomic Pathways SSP245 projections (2015−2100). The spatiotemporal evolution of snow ice growth in historical and future periods was investigated by statistical methods such as ensemble averaging, regression analysis, and Mann-Kendall trend test. Compared with the satellite observation sea ice density data of the National Ice and Snow Data Center, the results indicate that the EC-Earth3 model performs well in reconstructing the observed sea ice, and hence provides confidence in projecting the future ice variation. Snow ice primarily forms in winter and spring, with distribution in the Davis Strait, the Nordic Seas, and the northern Barents Sea. The average decrease trend of snow ice growth is 7.4 × 108 kg/a; the change of the average sea ice outer edge line is about 1 kg/m2 in spring and winter; the highest proportion of snow ice is in the southeast of Greenland with an average of about 2%. Increased snowfall, rainfall and rising temperatures are important factors affecting snow ice formation. Future projections suggest that the generation of snow ice is still mainly concentrated in spring and winter, and the total amount of snow ice growth will decrease by 2.6 × 108 kg/a on average; due to the increase of precipitation and temperature increase, the maximum increase trend of snow ice annual in March in the study area is 0.7 kg/m2, and the proportion of snow ice in ice thickness increases year by year. The analysis of future scenario experiment results has important scientific reference value for the development and utilization of Arctic waterway and the design of icebreaker capacity.

Arctic sea ice  /  snow ice evolution  /  EC-Earth3 model  /  historical period  /  future scenario
杨歆蕊, 赵杰臣, 王世柱, 许明环, 张自轩, 陈禹汗, 王晶净, 姜晨. EC-Earth3气候模式对北极雪冰的模拟及预测. 海洋学报, 2025 , 47 (2) : 41 -55 . DOI: 10.12284/hyxb2025003
Xinrui Yang, Jiechen Zhao, Shizhu Wang, Minghuan Xu, Zixuan Zhang, Yuhan Chen, Jingjing Wang, Chen Jiang. Simulation and projection of Arctic snow ice by the EC-Earth3 climate model[J]. Haiyang Xuebao, 2025 , 47 (2) : 41 -55 . DOI: 10.12284/hyxb2025003
北极地区作为地球主要冷源之一,与全球气候变化密切相关。北极对全球变暖高度敏感,增暖趋势显著高于全球其他区域,增暖速度几乎是全球平均水平的4倍,这一现象被称为“北极放大现象”[1]。海冰作为北极气候系统的重要组成部分,其季节性和年际尺度的变化规律是反映北极气候变化及环境特征的重要指标。北冰洋部分地区常年被冰雪覆盖,雪在海冰演化过程中扮演了关键角色[2],“雪−冰”转化过程在海冰研究中尤为重要。
雪冰(snow ice)是“雪−冰”转化过程的产物,由海冰上的积雪转化形成,对海冰结构的变化有重要作用。相较于冻结冰(congelation ice)的柱状晶体结构,雪冰的透明度较低、气泡较多,微观结构为多孔颗粒状,这种结构会降低反照率,增强消光作用,进而影响海冰的热力学过程和能量平衡[3]。此外,雪冰还会改变海冰的力学性质,使海冰塑性增强、脆性减弱,从而不易破碎[4]
以往研究表明,“雪−冰”转化过程主要有两种机制:其一,当冰上积雪的重量超过海冰的浮力时,冰面会低于水面,海水上涌淹没冰雪界面,积雪被打湿形成雪泥,经过重新冻结后生成雪冰[5];其二,当温度升高时,积雪融水及液态降水渗透至雪层中,混合形成淡水湿雪层,重新冻结后生成雪冰,这种雪冰也称为附加冰(superimposed ice),有助于海冰厚度的增加[6]。雪冰的形成受到温度、降雪等多种因素的影响。北极气旋活动频繁,总降水量充足,海冰表面的积雪较厚,因此容易满足雪冰的形成条件。
雪冰的形成中,积雪的存在十分重要。尽管积雪的低导热性会减缓冻结冰的增长,但可以通过雪冰的形成增加冰厚度[7]。研究表明,雪冰的生长对年平均海冰厚度有显著贡献[89]。Ohata等[10]指出,雪对冰厚度的贡献在29%至73%之间,Merkouriadi等[11]发现较厚的雪可以限制海冰的传热过程,并形成雪冰促进海冰的生长。而Perovich等[12]观察到,由雪融化再冻结成的雪冰会降低表面反照率,从而延缓海冰融化。Merkouriadi等[13]还发现,雪冰在北冰洋的水平冰层中广泛存在,特别是在积雪厚度、降水量最大的格陵兰海;此外,雪冰的形成还受到多年冰厚度和一年冰形成时间的影响,一年冰的增长对雪冰体积的贡献促进了多年海冰系统的年轻化,更容易满足雪冰和附加冰的形成条件。
过去几十年,北极海冰范围、厚度和多年冰的比例显著减小[14]。已有研究主要基于热力学模型评估雪对海冰的影响。例如,Cheng等使用一维海冰热力学模式和现场数据对附加冰的形成和融化进行建模,结果表明雪−冰界面雪向冰的转化是附加冰形成的主要来源[15]。一维高分辨雪/冰模式(HIGHTSI)广泛应用于研究雪和海冰的热交换及质量平衡,其模拟结果显示该模式在积雪厚度演变和融雪准确性方面表现良好,同时能够再现附加冰的形成和冰融化过程[16]。结合HIGHTSI,杨清华等[17]评估了常用的反照率参数化方案,发现降雪和吹雪过程显著影响反照率;Zhao等[18]通过观测积雪深度和冰厚度结合HIGHTSI确定了雪对冰厚度增长的贡献。“雪−冰”转化过程在南极海冰结构中广泛存在,雪冰和附加冰是重要组分,前人在南极不同海区都进行了观测。然而针对北极雪冰生成机制及相应海洋和气候要素的变化的系统分析相对较少。随着全球气候变暖,研究雪冰的变化及其预估,可以为海冰结构的研究提供参考,对于理解北极海冰的复杂变化具有重要意义。
本文旨在分析EC-Earth3模式模拟的雪冰生长量的时空变化规律,并将其与美国国家冰雪中心(National Snow and Ice Data Center, NSIDC)的观测数据进行对比,以评估模型的模拟能力。通过分析历史模拟实验和共享社会经济路径SSP245实验中的雪冰生长量在不同时间段和月份(如3月、6月、9月和12月)的空间变化,以及相关气候要素的变化,预估到2100年的未来时期雪冰的变化,为未来进一步研究提供参考,并为准确认识北极海冰的变化机制提供支持。
本文使用了EC-Earth3模拟的雪冰生长量、海冰密集度、海冰厚度、降雪、总降水、地表气温等模式数据,以及NSIDC提供的海冰密集度观测数据,以北冰洋的大西洋扇区为主要研究区域。
EC-Earth3气候模式是第六次国际耦合模式比较计划(CMIP6)中由欧洲研究联盟EC-Earth-Consortium发布的地球系统模型(https://aims2.llnl.gov/),该模式的核心由大气、海洋和海冰的组件模型组成[19]。其中,大气模块是欧洲天气预报中心(European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts, ECMWF)开发的Integrated Forecast System(IFS),水平网格T255分辨率约80 km;海洋模块则是3.6版本的Nucleus for European Modelling of the Ocean(NEMO3.6),包括海冰模式Louvain-la-Neuve Sea Ice Model(LIM3),NEMO-LIM3.6配置为1°分辨率的全球海洋三极水平网格ORCA1[19];大气−陆地和海洋−海冰部分通过OASIS(Ocean, Atmosphere, Sea Ice, Soil)耦合。EC-Earth3在海冰的模拟上表现良好,能够较好地捕捉海冰的季节性变化及其与气候系统的相互作用,提供高分辨率的数据模拟雪冰的动态变化。研究已验证EC-Earth3在气候预测中的可靠表现,以及在雪冰模拟方面的有效性。EC-Earth3所使用的海冰模块能够很好地模拟海冰,NEMO-LIM3.6在海冰范围、浓度和厚度方面与观测结果十分吻合[1920],这对准确模拟北极海冰变化和雪冰演化至关重要,因此本研究选择该模式为研究对象。
在LIM3海冰模式中,热力学过程引起冰质量增加的原因包括:开阔水域形成新冰、冰底凝结、冰面形成雪冰,以及海水的夹带和冻结等;而减少的原因则主要是表面和底部的融化[21]。模式认为雪冰的形成是由雪在雪冰界面上转化成冰的结果。LIM3模式定义生成雪冰厚度如下:
$ \Delta h^{\mathrm{i},\mathrm{si}}=\frac{\rho_{\mathrm{s}}h^{\mathrm{s}}-\left(\rho_{\mathrm{w}}-\rho_{\mathrm{i}}\right)h^{\mathrm{i}}}{\rho_{\mathrm{s}}+\rho_{\mathrm{w}}-\rho_{\mathrm{i}}}, $
式中: $ {\rho }_{{\mathrm{s}}} $ $ {\rho }_{{\mathrm{w}} } $ $ {\rho }_{{\mathrm{i}}} $分别为雪、海水和冰的参考密度, $ {h}^{{\mathrm{s}}} $为雪厚度, $ {h}^{{\mathrm{i}}} $为冰厚度。表明雪对雪冰的直接影响,降雪时雪深增加,而由于雪冰的形成、升华和融化,雪深减小[21]。新形成的冰的温度为冰海界面温度,盐度为 $ {S}^{{\mathrm{si}}} $
$ S^{{\mathrm{s i}}}=\left(\rho_{{\mathrm{i}}}-\rho_{{\mathrm{s}}}\right) / \rho_{{\mathrm{i}}} S^{{\mathrm{w}}} .$
模式计算雪冰盐度是雪和海水贡献的加权平均值[21],如公式(2)所示, $ {S}^{{\mathrm{w}} } $为海面盐度。此外,模式中在计算降雪率时引入了温度参数化,将降水归类为固体或液体,温度的升高会导致地表融化,因此降水和温度也是雪冰生成中需要关注的重要因素[2122]
本文对EC-Earth3模式的模拟结果进行分析。在1990−2014年的历史气候模拟(historical)实验、以及2015−2100年的情景模式比较计划(ScenarioMIP)共享社会经济路径(SSP245)实验中分别随机选择4个进行了初始扰动的集合样本的模拟结果,求取集合平均进行本文分析,变量见表1。1990−2014年期间的模拟数据来源于历史模拟实验,因此定义为历史时期,而2015−2100年期间的未来预估则基于SSP245情景的外部强迫驱动,因此定义为未来时期,模拟数据为月平均值。同时,本文还应用NSIDC发布的25 km分辨率海冰密度数据集(ftp://sidads.colorado.edu/pub/DATASETS/nsidc0051_gsfc_nasateam_seaice/),对EC-Earth3的海冰模拟结果进行评估,该数据集提供时间范围为1979−2020年,以日平均方式发布。文中所用的数据覆盖1990−2020年。
模式数据预处理方面,模拟的气候变化的大小可以受到许多因素的影响,如内部的自然变率、模型数值实现、参数化、模型分辨率等。首先,将EC-Earth3模式在历史和未来时期下随机选取的4个集合样本做集合平均,以消除内部变率和对初始条件随机扰动的影响。表1中EC-Earth3的模式数据网格有两种,分为海洋和大气网格,其中sidmasssi、siconc、sithick等海冰数据都在海洋网格上。以海洋网格为标准,把降雪等大气结果插值到海洋网格上,使数据空间分辨率保持统一。此外,由于模式模拟为月平均数据,将NSIDC的海冰密集度的日平均数据以每月为单位求和做平均,求得月平均结果,统一时间尺度,便于在时间和空间上与模式模拟数据进行对比。
统计学方法方面,运用加权平均、线性回归分析方法、Mann-Kendall(M-K)趋势显著性分析等计算大气、海洋要素的时间变化趋势,从时间和空间两个角度分析海冰及气候要素变化数据。海冰范围是计算海冰密集度大于15%的网格面积总和。变量sidmasssi物理意义为积雪向海冰转化引起的海冰质量变化除以网格单元面积的通量,即雪冰生长量,记为 $ {{\mathrm{SI}}}_{{\mathrm{d}}} $,单位kg/(m2·s),需要进行单位的转换:
$ M=C\cdot {{\mathrm{SI}}}_{{\mathrm{d}}}\cdot t ,$
$ D=\frac{\mathrm{SI}_{\mathrm{d}}\cdot t}{\rho}. $
在空间分布图上该数据处理采用两种方式:一是求得雪冰质量的月变化M,如公式(3);二是计算雪冰月厚度变化D,如公式(4)。
同时,由于模式输出为非均匀网格,要用加权平均的方法解决不同面积网格的权重问题:
$ H=\frac{t\cdot \displaystyle\sum\limits _{i=1,j=1}^{i=m,j=n}C(i,j)\cdot {{\mathrm{SI}}}_{{\mathrm{d}}}(i,j)}{\rho \cdot \displaystyle\sum\limits _{i=1,j=1}^{i=m,j=n}C(i,j)},\quad i,j\in Q $
公式(5)在计算北极平均雪冰生长量月厚度H的时间序列时,考虑网格的权重,C为模式的网格面积,t为时间,雪冰密度为ρ(雪冰和附加冰的密度比冻结冰略小,取参考密度为850 kg/m3 [23]),模型经纬度网格划分为 $ m\times n $,随机网格位置对应为(i, j)。
$ P=\frac{{\mathrm{Pr}}-{\mathrm{Prsn}}}{\rho }t .$
公式(6)为月降雨量公式,液态降水用总降水与固态降水之差求得,其中Pr为包含固态和液态降水的通量,Prsn为包含所有固态降水的通量。
M-K检验法[24],是一种气候诊断与预测技术,是世界气象组织推荐的非参数检验方法,亦称无分布检验,广泛应用于实际研究,是时间序列趋势检测分析方法之一,优点是不需要样本遵从一定的分布,也不受其他异常值的干扰,更适用于类型变量和顺序变量,可以判断气候序列中是否存在气候突变。计算方法如下:
$ S=\sum_{j=1}^{n-1}\sum_{i=j+1}^n\mathrm{sgn}\left(x_i-x_j\right), $
$ \mathrm{VAR}\left(S\right)=\frac{1}{18}n\left(n-1\right)\left(2n+5\right), $
$ Z_{MK}=\left\{\begin{array}{ll}\dfrac{S-1}{\sqrt{\mathrm{VAR}\left(S\right)}} & S > 0, \\ 0 & S=0, \\ \dfrac{S+1}{\sqrt{\mathrm{VAR}\left(S\right)}} & S < 0.\end{array}\right. $
公式(7)中定义M-K统计量为 $ S $,当 $ {x}_{i}-{x}_{j} $小于、等于或大于0时, $ \mathrm{s}\mathrm{g}\mathrm{n} $分别为−1、0或1。公式(8)计算方差,公式(9)对统计量进行检验,表示当S大于、等于或小于0时, $ {Z}_{{\mathrm{MK}}} $为正值表示增加趋势, $ {Z}_{{\mathrm{MK}}} $为负值表示减少趋势, $ {Z}_{{\mathrm{MK}}} $绝对值大于等于2.32表示通过了信度99%的显著性检验。
海冰密集度和海冰范围是海冰特征的重要参数。在全球变暖的大背景下,北极地区的海冰融化现象日益严重。从时间尺度来看, 1990−2014年NSIDC卫星观测的海冰减少趋势为5.2 × 103 km2/月,而模拟的海冰减少趋势为8.4 × 103 km2/月,EC-Earth3模式模拟的历史时期9月海冰范围平均偏高1.4 × 106 km2图1a)。在2000年之前,模型模拟的冬季海冰范围偏多,但自2000年起,尤其是2007年以后,模拟的冬季海冰范围出现偏少现象。同时,未来时期2015−2100年的海冰范围呈现4.3 × 103 km2/月的显著下降趋势,预计2060年前后EC-Earth3模拟的北极夏季将出现无冰现象(图1b)。
在空间分布上,选取3月、6月、9月和12月作为春、夏、秋、冬4个季节的代表性月份进行分析。结果显示,模拟的海冰分布与观测较为接近,模拟的海冰外缘线较观测值稍微向南扩展,这一现象在Rousset等的研究中也有所提及[22]。在冬季,海冰向南延伸较多,覆盖了格陵兰海的大部分区域。在9月,北冰洋靠近阿拉斯加和东西伯利亚海的区域海冰密集度偏高,此外,模拟的北冰洋中心区域与观测数据的差异在冬春季节大部分地区可达到−5%~5%(图2)。模拟的冰面积全年较观测值偏高,尤其是9月的海冰面积要高于NSIDC的观测数据,这与图1a的结果相一致。偏高的原因尚不明确,可能与强迫因素或动力学效应有关,Rousset等注意到ORCA2-LIM3模式中北大西洋洋流提供的热量偏低,且通过弗拉姆海峡等地输出的冰量被高估,这可能解释了一些偏差[22]。总体而言,从时间和空间两个维度来看,EC-Earth3模式能够较为合理地模拟北极海冰的时空分布特征。
模拟结果显示,在历史时期,雪冰生成过程主要发生在北冰洋的大西洋扇区一侧。冬季(12月)和春季(3月),丹麦海峡−格陵兰海及挪威海北部(即北欧海[25])、巴伦支海北部和戴维斯海峡东部,雪向冰的转化显著增加,整体雪冰生长量提升。在楚科奇海也观察到略微正向趋势(见图3a3b)。统计数据显示,3月的雪冰生长量普遍高于12月;在靠近格陵兰岛东岸的海域及戴维斯海峡,月雪冰生长量最高可超过20 kg/m²。相比之下,9月的雪冰转化几乎为0,因温度升高导致海冰剧烈融化,只有在格陵兰岛边缘存在少量生成,符合北极海冰的季节变化规律。
雪冰生长量是“雪−冰”转化过程发生位置的重要指示,主要集中在北极半开阔海域的海冰外缘线附近(见图3)。LIM3海冰模式中由平流引起的最大厚度变化发生在冰边缘附近,在雪足够厚的地方容易形成雪冰[22]。在春季和冬季,海冰流速较小,洋流锋面往往不明显,气温较低,这些因素有利于浮冰的堆积和再冻结[25];北欧海的环流相互作用使得寒暖流交汇,弗拉姆海峡是海冰碎块和大块浮冰进入格陵兰海的主要入口,东格陵兰寒流经过弗拉姆海峡后流入格陵兰海和丹麦海峡,沿格陵兰岛东岸南下,绕行格陵兰岛南端,与挪威暖流在北欧海交汇[26],有利于这些地区的降雪和降雨发生,诱发雪冰形成。此外,风场的影响也不可忽视,例如,牟龙江和赵进平[27]研究发现,格陵兰海盛行的北风促使海冰在每年初春和冬末向岸边靠拢,从而促进了海冰外缘线的变化和冰间湖面积的增大。
在北欧海域、格陵兰岛东南侧、巴伦支海,海冰外缘线外侧的海冰密集度呈现减小的趋势,尤其在冬季和春季。这一现象反映了1990−2014年间气候变暖导致北极海冰融化,海冰密集度和厚度均显著下降,海冰外缘线也逐渐北退(图4)。因此,这些区域基本在夏季无冰,无法提供雪转冰的条件,导致雪冰生长的趋势为负。同时雪冰月生长量占平均海冰厚度的百分比平均为1.62%,最高可达2%(图5)。
未来时期SSP245实验模拟的北极地区生成的雪冰厚度、雪冰质量和海冰厚度均为下降趋势(图6)。历史时期雪冰每月最大生长厚度为5~6 cm,而未来时期大多数时间每月生长厚度最多为3 cm。同时,雪冰月生长量占平均海冰厚度百分比的线性回归趋势为正,表明北极海冰厚度缩减速度快于雪冰生长量的缩减速度。
为更清晰地呈现变化趋势,对生成雪冰厚度和海冰厚度在3月、6月、9月、12月的年变化时间序列进行分析发现,1990−2014年间3月雪冰生长量约为4~5 cm,但自2015年后很少有年份达到该值。3月和12月的雪冰生长量明显有下降趋势,分别为平均0.16 mm/a、0.19 mm/a;9月雪冰生成量极少,预计2050年前后9月北极将出现无冰状态(图7)。
在未来时期的模拟中,海冰密集度相较于历史时期同月多年平均值降低,海冰外缘线更为紧缩,回缩至少5个纬度;9月多年平均海冰密集度模拟最大值仅为50%(图8)。从海冰厚度趋势图可以看出,北极全区域有海冰的地方厚度的线性回归趋势均为负、西半球区域的海冰厚度显著减小,研究区域甚至会是夏季无冰的状态,表明海冰范围变小,海冰减少。
将海冰密集度多年平均分布(图8a)与雪冰生长量的年变化趋势图对应,发现冬春季节在挪威海、丹麦海峡、格陵兰海北部、巴伦支海北部等地区的海冰外缘线外侧区域,雪冰生成量呈年减小趋势,其原因同历史时期相同,即由于海冰融化,海冰外缘线逐渐北退,最终这些区域在冬季也几乎无冰,无法提供雪转冰的条件(图9)。3月雪冰生长量增加而海冰厚度减小,转化的雪冰占海冰厚度的比例增多,主要分布在靠近格陵兰岛东岸的海域和戴维斯海峡,约为2%,在未来时期显著增加,趋势为0.2%/a;12月在格陵兰岛东侧、70°~80°N纬圈附近,月雪冰生长厚度占月平均海冰厚度的比例年变化趋势为正(图10)。因此EC-Earth3模式SSP245模拟结果显示2015−2100年间北极雪冰主要在冬、春季节生成,3月生成量更多。
在历史时期,受极地东风的影响,北大西洋暖流上空的暖湿水汽被吹向格陵兰岛,并经由东格陵兰寒流上空冷却,有利于在格陵兰岛附近区域形成降雪。根据EC-Earth3历史时期对降雪的模拟结果,冬、春季的降雪量比夏、秋季多,在12月、3月,丹麦海峡、格陵兰海、巴伦支海等地区多年平均的月降雪量可达60 mm,为降雪集中地区,其中巴伦支海的年变化趋势为正,降雪显著增多。12月,格陵兰海北部、挪威海北部和巴伦支海北部的降雪通量均有所增加,主要集中在海冰外缘线附近(图11)。夏季降雪集中在格陵兰岛东南侧。降雪的增多有利于积雪层的补充和雪冰的转化,平均海冰外缘线以南地区降雪减少、而以北大部分地区显著增多,有利于雪转冰过程向极区中心的扩展。
此外还有液态降水的影响。从1990年至2014年的多年平均液态降水通量来看,EC-Earth3历史模拟显示,格陵兰海、挪威海、巴伦支海等冰岛以北地区在夏秋季的液态降水量高于冬春季,月总量可达80 mm;而液态降水主要集中在冰岛以南地区,12月的最大值已超过160 mm(图12)。同时,丹麦海峡、格陵兰海、挪威海和巴伦支海大部分地区的液态降水量年变化趋势为正,降水量在12月、3月显著增加。冬春季节的降水增加在雪表面向下渗透,形成淡水湿雪层并促进再冻结,有利于增加雪冰(图12)。
未来时期格陵兰海西部、丹麦海峡−格陵兰岛地区仍将是降雪量较大的地区,3月、12月平均降雪量超过60 mm,大西洋暖流带来的水汽对当地降水具有重要作用。降雪主要集中在冬春季节,挪威海北部、格陵兰海和巴伦支海等地区的月总降雪量多年平均超过40 mm。在未来冬季,以平均海冰边缘作为界限,以北有海冰区域,尤其是巴伦支海的降雪通量年变化趋势为正,降雪量增加,有利于积雪层的补充和雪冰的转化(图11),但其增加幅度没有历史时期大;而在平均海冰外缘线以南,降雪量显著下降。
2015−2100年,北极大部分地区平均降雨量均有所增加,比历史时期稍多,同月相比在范围和量上均表现出更大的增幅。冰岛以北9月总降水量最多,可达120 mm;冰岛以南降水更多,几乎以平均海冰外缘线为分界,12月最大值超过160 mm(图12)。在丹麦海峡、格陵兰海、挪威海北部和巴伦支海大部分地区,12月和3月的液态降水量年变化趋势为正,降水显著增加,有利于雪冰的生成。
同时历史时期近地表2 m月气温的多年平均与年变化趋势可以看出,气温升高为普遍现象,但12月和3月格陵兰海北部、挪威海北部、巴伦支海北部气温年变化显著增加,以上地区冬春季气温显著增加使得积雪融化更多,融水渗透雪层,在冬春季0~15℃的平均气温下重新冻结,有利于雪冰增加(图13)。因此冬春季节的雪冰生成情况受到多种海洋气象要素的共同影响,尤其是在格陵兰海北部、挪威海北部和巴伦支海北部等平均海冰外缘线以北地区。随着降雪量增加、降雨量增加、温度上升以及海冰减少等变化,共同导致月生成雪冰总量逐年增加,春季的生长量尤为显著。
展望未来,在未来的3月、12月,巴伦支海北部近地表温度将展现出更为显著的上升趋势,平均气温仍低于0℃(图13)。气温的升高将进一步推动海冰的减少(图8)。模拟结果中,3月北冰洋大西洋扇区沿着平均海冰外缘线的格陵兰海北部、挪威海北部和巴伦支海北部等区域,降雪和降雨量均有所增加,伴随温度的上升,雪冰生长显著增加。相比之下,12月雪冰的生长量主要集中在靠近格陵兰岛东侧的区域,年变化趋势略有增加(见图9)。因此从现在到2100年,3月比12月雪冰的生长量和范围均更广泛。此外,3月在戴维斯海峡的雪冰生长量也有所上升,这可能与平均海冰外缘线向该地区的收缩密切相关。
为进一步厘清北极海冰结构中雪冰在历史时期和未来情境下的演变规律和成因,本文基于EC-Earth3气候模式数据和NSIDC数据探讨了1990−2100年北极生成雪冰的演变情况及影响因素的变化。结果显示EC-Earth3模式与观测数据计算出的海冰范围时间序列相似,模式模拟的夏季海冰范围平均偏高1.4 × 106 km2。此外,模拟的海冰密集度多年平均空间分布与观测数据相近,海冰的整体模拟效果良好,符合预期,具有较高的可信度。
EC-Earth3模式历史时期雪冰演变的时空变化结果表明,历史时期雪冰生长量全北极平均减少趋势为7.4 × 108 kg/a。1990−2014年间,雪冰生成主要发生在冬季和春季,其中春季的雪冰生成量较为显著,而在9月仅在格陵兰岛边缘观察到小范围的生成。冬春季节在丹麦海峡、格陵兰海北部、巴伦支海北部、挪威海北部及戴维斯海峡东部,雪冰的生长量年变化显著增加,呈现约1 kg/m2的增加趋势。月雪冰生长量占月平均海冰厚度的比例最高在格陵兰岛东南侧,平均约为2%。2015−2100年,未来的雪冰生成同样主要集中在冬季和春季,雪冰生长量全北极平均将减少2.6 × 108 kg/a。预测3月时,靠近格陵兰岛东岸海域的雪冰生长量最多,仅在该地和格陵兰海北部、戴维斯海峡的一小部分区域雪冰生长量呈多年上升趋势,雪冰年变化增加趋势最大呈0.7 kg/m2;同时海冰厚度将减小,雪冰在海冰中的比例最高在2%左右。12月,雪冰生成仅在格陵兰岛东侧的沿岸区域。
结合EC-Earth3模式对雪冰演变过程的模拟,分析了多种气象要素对雪冰演变机制的影响发现,在北极靠近大西洋扇区的海域,雪冰生长量较多,因为该地区,冬春季降雪、降雨及温度均较为显著增加,满足雪冰生成的条件,使得3月的雪冰增长量显著增加。
本文发现海冰外缘线附近,生成雪冰更多,但未能进一步探讨其相关性。另外,平均海冰外缘线以南的降雪年变化趋势为负,这可能与受到的大气和海洋强迫有关;而冬、春季在海冰外缘线后退经过的地区,雪冰年变化趋势则为明显负值,因为随着北极海冰融化,海冰外缘线北退,无浮冰区缺乏雪转冰所需条件。本文探讨的雪冰演变对北极航道开发利用和破冰船设计有重要的科学价值,随着极地科考、卫星遥感技术的进步,未来将有更多的现场观测数据、卫星遥感数据和数值模拟数据得以互相验证,推动对北极海冰的更加全面和准确理解。另外,本研究也将为北极海冰的热力学及能量变化的进一步研究提供依据。
  • 国家自然科学基金(42376241);中央级公益性科研院所基本科研业务费专项资金(2023Q01);国家自然科学基金(42276251, 42211530033);山东省泰山学者工程(2023)。
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doi: 10.12284/hyxb2025003
  • 接收时间:2024-09-10
  • 首发时间:2025-10-27
  • 出版时间:2025-02-28
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  • 收稿日期:2024-09-10
  • 修回日期:2024-12-02
基金
国家自然科学基金(42376241);中央级公益性科研院所基本科研业务费专项资金(2023Q01);国家自然科学基金(42276251, 42211530033);山东省泰山学者工程(2023)。
作者信息
    1 哈尔滨工程大学 青岛创新发展基地,山东 青岛 266000
    2 青岛海洋科技中心 区域海洋动力学与数值模拟功能实验室,山东 青岛,266000
    3 联合国海洋十年海洋与气候协作中心(DCC-OCC),山东 青岛 266000
    4 自然资源部 第一海洋研究所,山东 青岛 266061

通讯作者:

赵杰臣,副教授,主要从事极地海洋环境研究。E-mail:
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2种不同金属材料的力学参数

Family
属数
Number of
genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of
total species (%)

Genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of total
species (%)
鹅膏菌科Amanitaceae 2 11 5.26 鹅膏菌属 Amanita 10 4.78
小菇科 Mycenaceae 2 12 5.74 丝盖伞属 Inocybe 5 2.39
多孔菌科 Polyporaceae 8 14 6.70 蜡蘑属 Laccaria 5 2.39
红菇科 Russulaceae 3 23 11.00 小皮伞属 Marasmius 6 2.87
小菇属 Mycena 11 5.26
光柄菇属 Pluteus 5 2.39
红菇属 Russula 17 8.13
栓菌属 Trametes 5 2.39
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