Article(id=1321967798998385220, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1220038251117760515, issueId=1321967675631317438, articleNumber=null, orderNo=null, doi=10.11868/j.issn.1001-4381.2025.000719, pmid=null, cstr=32421.14.j.issn.1001-4381.2025.000719, oa=null, hot=null, price=null, onlineType=0, articleFormat=0, articleType=null, articleTypeStr=research-article, receivedDate=1765209600000, receivedDateStr=2025-12-09, revisedDate=null, revisedDateStr=null, acceptedDate=1767542400000, acceptedDateStr=2026-01-05, onlineDate=1793111284254, onlineDateStr=2026-10-27, pubDate=1779206400000, pubDateStr=2026-05-20, doiRegisterDate=null, doiRegisterDateStr=null, onlineIssueDate=1793111284254, onlineIssueDateStr=2026-10-27, onlineJustAcceptDate=null, onlineJustAcceptDateStr=null, onlineFirstDate=null, onlineFirstDateStr=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, createTime=1793111284254, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1793111284254, updator=13701087609, issue=Issue{id=1321967675631317438, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1220038251117760515, year='2026', volume='54', issue='5', pageStart='1', pageEnd='271', issueExtLink='null', onlineDate='null', pubDate='1779206400000', pubDateStr='2026-05-20', beforeIssueId=null, nextIssueId=null, price=null, status=1, issueComplete=1, articleOrder=1, issueType=-1, specialIssue=0, createTime=1793111254842, creator='13701087609', updateTime=1793111405793, updator='13701087609', preIssue=null, nextIssue=null, articleTotal=null, ext={EN=IssueExt(id=1321968309042532665, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1220038251117760515, issueId=1321967675631317438, language=EN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=), CN=IssueExt(id=1321968309042532666, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1220038251117760515, issueId=1321967675631317438, language=CN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=)}, issueFiles=null, downloadFileDto=null}, startPage=221, endPage=232, ext={EN=ArticleExt(id=1321967799224877637, articleId=1321967798998385220, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1220038251117760515, language=EN, title=Optimization of process parameters for laser powder bed fusion of K439B superalloy, columnId=1220689384450478826, journalTitle=Journal of Materials Engineering, columnName=RESEARCH ARTICLE, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

K439B nickel-based alloy is a novel high-temperature material capable of operating at 800 ℃, which has been widely used in critical components such as combustion chamber housings for aerospace engines. However, the traditional casting process struggles to meet the high qualification rate requirement for high-precision forming of thin-walled complex components. In this study, laser powder bed fusion (LPBF) technology is used to process samples. By adjusting the laser power (140-220 W) and scanning speed (600-1400 mm/s), and using characterization techniques including optical microscopy, scanning electron microscopy, and electron backscatter diffraction, the effects of process parameters of LPBF on the relative density and microstructure are analyzed. The processing window (laser power:160-220 W, scanning speed:1000-1200 mm/s) for manufacturing K439B superalloy via LPBF is summarized, and two process parameters (160 W-1000 mm/s and 220 W-1200 mm/s) within the window are selected to process samples for tensile tests at room-temperature and 800 ℃. The results show that irregular pores and Ti-C carbides are prone to form under the 160 W-1000 mm/s (volume energy density(VED) = 66.67 J/mm³) parameter. In contrast, the samples processed under 220 W-1200 mm/s (VED = 114.58 J/mm³) have a uniform microstructure without carbide, whose ultimate tensile strength at room temperature is over 1 GPa and elongation is over 25%. However, at 800 ℃, all LPBF samples exhibit brittleness (with an elongation after fracture of approximately 0.5%), which is mainly attributed to the lack of γ' phases and dissolution of cellular substructures inside the grains.This study provides process guidance and theoretical support for the engineering application of LPBF fabricated K439B alloy.

, authors=Jialong SONG1, Dafan DU1, Anping DONG1, 2, Qing LI3, Yulong CHEN4, Qiaomu LIU4, Chengbo XIAO3, Baode SUN1, 2, authorsList=Jialong SONG, Dafan DU, Anping DONG, Qing LI, Yulong CHEN, Qiaomu LIU, Chengbo XIAO, Baode SUN, authorCompany=null, correspAuthors=Dafan DU, Anping DONG, authorNote=null, correspAuthorsNote=null, copyrightStatement=null, copyrightOwner=null, extLink=null, articleAbsUrl=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, pdfUrl=null, pdf=null, pdfFileSize=null, pdfExtLink=null, richHtmlUrl=null, mobilePdfUrl=null, reviewReport=null, pdfFirstPage=null, abstractGraph=null, abstractGraphContent=null, abstractVideo=null, citation=null, cebUrl=null, magXmlContent=null, mapNumber=null, fund=null), CN=ArticleExt(id=1321967800814518870, articleId=1321967798998385220, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1220038251117760515, language=CN, title=K439B高温合金激光粉末床熔融工艺参数优化, columnId=1220689384622445292, journalTitle=材料工程, columnName=研究论文, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

K439B镍基合金是一种服役温度达800 ℃的新型高温材料,已广泛用于航空发动机燃烧室壳体等关键部件,但目前铸造工艺难以满足薄壁复杂构件高精度成型的高合格率需求。本研究采用激光粉末床熔融(laser powder bed fusion,LPBF)技术,通过调整激光功率(140~220 W)与扫描速率(600~1400 mm/s),采用光学显微镜、扫描电镜、电子背散射衍射等表征技术,分析工艺参数对构件致密度和微观组织的影响。总结得到了LPBF技术制造K439B高温合金的工艺窗口(激光功率:160~220 W,扫描速率:1000~1200 mm/s),在窗口内选择2个参数(160 W-1000 mm/s和220 W-1200 mm/s)加工样品并开展室温和800 ℃高温拉伸实验。结果表明,160 W-1000 mm/s(体积能量密度VED=66.67 J/mm³)工艺参数制备的样品组织中出现不规则孔隙与Ti-C碳化物,而220 W-1200 mm/s(VED=114.58 J/mm³)成型样品组织均匀无碳化物,且室温抗拉强度超过1 GPa,断后伸长率达到25%。但在800 ℃环境下,所有LPBF构件均表现出脆性(断后伸长率约0.5%),主要因为LPBF过程中快速冷却条件导致γ′强化相缺失及晶粒内部的胞状亚结构发生完全消解。本研究为K439B合金LPBF成型的工程应用提供工艺依据与理论支撑。

, authors=宋嘉龙1, 杜大帆1, 董安平1, 2, 李青3, 陈玉龙4, 刘巧沐4, 肖程波3, 孙宝德1, 2, authorsList=宋嘉龙, 杜大帆, 董安平, 李青, 陈玉龙, 刘巧沐, 肖程波, 孙宝德, authorCompany=null, correspAuthors=杜大帆, 董安平, authorNote=null, correspAuthorsNote=
杜大帆(1987—),男,副教授,博士,研究方向为高温合金精密铸造和增材制造,联系地址:上海市东川路800号上海交通大学材料B楼411(200240),E-mail:
董安平(1977—),男,特聘教授,博士,研究方向为高温合金精密铸造和增材制造,联系地址:上海市东川路800号上海交通大学材料A楼305A(200240),E-mail:
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refType=null, unstructuredReference=陈晶阳,任晓冬,张明军,等.铸造镍基高温合金K439B的组织及典型性能[J].金属热处理,2023,48(1):100-104., articleTitle=铸造镍基高温合金K439B的组织及典型性能, refAbstract=null), Reference(id=1321967817298133730, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1220038251117760515, articleId=1321967798998385220, doi=null, pmid=null, pmcid=null, year=2023, volume=48, issue=1, pageStart=100, pageEnd=104, url=null, language=null, rfNumber=[38], rfOrder=50, authorNames=CHEN J Y, REN X D, ZHANG M J, journalName=Heat Treatment of Metals, refType=null, unstructuredReference=CHEN J Y, REN X D, ZHANG M J,et al.Microstructure and typical properties of cast Ni-based superalloy K439B[J].Heat Treatment of Metals,2023,48(1):100-104., articleTitle=null, refAbstract=null)], funds=[Fund(id=1321967809819689645, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1220038251117760515, articleId=1321967798998385220, awardId=ZZCX-2022-040, language=CN, fundingSource=中国航空发动机集团有限公司自主创新专项基金(ZZCX-2022-040), fundOrder=null, country=null), 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tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1220038251117760515, articleId=1321967798998385220, language=EN, label=Fig.1, caption=Schematic diagram of process and tested specimens

(a)LPBF process;(b)laser scan strategy;(c)bulk samples formed via different process parameters;

(d)fabricated samples with different thicknesses

, figureFileSmall=31avHFHhiXrRGpCQocFc8w==, figureFileBig=pLukmV/88Ds4tleSo1HOOQ==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1321967808074859160, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1220038251117760515, articleId=1321967798998385220, language=CN, label=图1, caption=工艺及测试样品示意图

(a)LPBF工艺;(b)激光扫描策略;(c)不同工艺参数成型的块状样品;(d)2种厚度的制备样品

, figureFileSmall=31avHFHhiXrRGpCQocFc8w==, figureFileBig=pLukmV/88Ds4tleSo1HOOQ==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1321967808230048409, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1220038251117760515, articleId=1321967798998385220, language=EN, label=Fig.2, caption=Effect of processing parameters on microstructure

(a)OM images of polished samples with different process parameters;(b)influence of VED on porosity;(c)relative density heat map

, figureFileSmall=RElfl6ERrkSuwx1hxTJXeg==, figureFileBig=vP4hq+GWLI/i5zm4wkTVVA==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1321967808305545882, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1220038251117760515, articleId=1321967798998385220, language=CN, label=图2, caption=工艺参数对组织的影响

(a)不同参数加工样品磨抛后的光学显微镜结果;(b)VED值对孔隙率的影响;(c)致密度热力图

, figureFileSmall=RElfl6ERrkSuwx1hxTJXeg==, figureFileBig=vP4hq+GWLI/i5zm4wkTVVA==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1321967808389431963, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1220038251117760515, articleId=1321967798998385220, language=EN, label=Fig.3, caption=OM microstructures of K439B alloys with different printing parameters and thicknesses

(a)160 W-1000 mm/s,1 mm;(b)160 W-1000 mm/s,2 mm;(c)220 W-1200 mm/s,1 mm;(d)220 W-1200 mm/s,2 mm

, figureFileSmall=d97jE4o9oLuN55JzkC2F4g==, figureFileBig=EZGq2Nym0Xf6P+G0IUikSQ==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1321967808456540828, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1220038251117760515, articleId=1321967798998385220, language=CN, label=图3, caption=不同打印参数和厚度K439B合金样品的金相组织

(a)160 W-1000 mm/s,1 mm;(b)160 W-1000 mm/s,2 mm;(c)220 W-1200 mm/s,1 mm;(d)220 W-1200 mm/s,2 mm

, figureFileSmall=d97jE4o9oLuN55JzkC2F4g==, figureFileBig=EZGq2Nym0Xf6P+G0IUikSQ==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1321967808519455389, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1220038251117760515, articleId=1321967798998385220, language=EN, label=Fig.4, caption=SEM microstructures of K439B alloys with different printing parameters and thicknesses

(a)160 W-1000 mm/s,1 mm;(b)160 W-1000 mm/s,2 mm;(c)220 W-1200 mm/s,1 mm;(d)220 W-1200 mm/s,2 mm

, figureFileSmall=Jz63sgS0HsK/js8H8yR1pA==, figureFileBig=YBpu6B1gsup8Z9oEKncXhw==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1321967808582369950, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1220038251117760515, articleId=1321967798998385220, language=CN, label=图4, caption=不同打印参数和厚度K439B合金样品SEM组织

(a)160 W-1000 mm/s,1 mm;(b)160 W-1000 mm/s,2 mm;(c)220 W-1200 mm/s,1 mm;(d)220 W-1200 mm/s,2 mm

, figureFileSmall=Jz63sgS0HsK/js8H8yR1pA==, figureFileBig=YBpu6B1gsup8Z9oEKncXhw==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1321967808645284511, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1220038251117760515, articleId=1321967798998385220, language=EN, label=Fig.5, caption=EBSD results of K439B alloys with different printing parameters and thicknesses

(a)160 W-1000 mm/s,1 mm;(b)160 W-1000 mm/s,2 mm;(c)220 W-1200 mm/s,1 mm;(d)220 W-1200 mm/s,2 mm

, figureFileSmall=7/xtQHIxdcGmmsPF5oiTgQ==, figureFileBig=qhp1Lwkx4ggkN2vHH56+bA==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1321967808708199072, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1220038251117760515, articleId=1321967798998385220, language=CN, label=图5, caption=不同打印参数和厚度K439B合金样品EBSD结果

(a)160 W-1000 mm/s,1 mm;(b)160 W-1000 mm/s,2 mm;(c)220 W-1200 mm/s,1 mm;(d)220 W-1200 mm/s,2 mm

, figureFileSmall=7/xtQHIxdcGmmsPF5oiTgQ==, figureFileBig=qhp1Lwkx4ggkN2vHH56+bA==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1321967808787890849, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1220038251117760515, articleId=1321967798998385220, language=EN, label=Fig.6, caption=Engineering stress-strain curves of K439B alloys with different printing parameters and thicknesses at different temperatures

(a)room temperature[12];(b)800 ℃[38]

, figureFileSmall=0vJ88Kj0T9yZNg5xV7skyQ==, figureFileBig=1Wd4GxJN+DtCowFiseGdTw==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1321967808863388322, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1220038251117760515, articleId=1321967798998385220, language=CN, label=图6, caption=不同温度下不同的打印参数和厚度K439B合金样品工程应力-应变曲线

(a)室温[12];(b)800 ℃[38]

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Chemical compositions of K439B alloy(mass fraction/%)

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
CrCoTiAlTaNbSiCWMnZrNi
22.2218.843.761.911.580.990.050.012.150.010.01Bal.
), ArticleFig(id=1321967809370899112, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1220038251117760515, articleId=1321967798998385220, language=CN, label=表1, caption=

K439B合金化学成分(质量分数/%)

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
CrCoTiAlTaNbSiCWMnZrNi
22.2218.843.761.911.580.990.050.012.150.010.01Bal.
), ArticleFig(id=1321967809450590889, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1220038251117760515, articleId=1321967798998385220, language=EN, label=Table 2, caption=

Process parameters of LPBF

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
Laser power/WScan speed/(mm·s-1)VED/(J·mm-3)
140600,800,1000,1200,140097.22,72.92,58.33,48.61,41.67
160600,800,1000,1200,1400111.11,83.33,66.67,55.56,47.62
180600,800,1000,1200,1400125.00,93.75,75.00,62.50,53.57
200600,800,1000,1200,1400138.89,104.17,83.33,69.44,59.52
220600,800,1000,1200,1400152.78,114.58,91.67,76.39,65.48
), ArticleFig(id=1321967809538671274, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1220038251117760515, articleId=1321967798998385220, language=CN, label=表2, caption=

LPBF工艺参数

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
Laser power/WScan speed/(mm·s-1)VED/(J·mm-3)
140600,800,1000,1200,140097.22,72.92,58.33,48.61,41.67
160600,800,1000,1200,1400111.11,83.33,66.67,55.56,47.62
180600,800,1000,1200,1400125.00,93.75,75.00,62.50,53.57
200600,800,1000,1200,1400138.89,104.17,83.33,69.44,59.52
220600,800,1000,1200,1400152.78,114.58,91.67,76.39,65.48
), ArticleFig(id=1321967809614168747, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1220038251117760515, articleId=1321967798998385220, language=EN, label=Table 3, caption=

Results of grain boundaries from EBSD

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Process parameter

High angle grain

boundary/%

Low angle grain

boundary/%

160 W-1000 mm/s, 1 mm80.719.3
160 W-1000 mm/s, 2 mm78.321.7
220 W-1200 mm/s, 1 mm68.431.6
220 W-1200 mm/s, 2 mm65.237.5
), ArticleFig(id=1321967809706443436, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1220038251117760515, articleId=1321967798998385220, language=CN, label=表3, caption=

EBSD实验晶界的统计结果

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
Process parameter

High angle grain

boundary/%

Low angle grain

boundary/%

160 W-1000 mm/s, 1 mm80.719.3
160 W-1000 mm/s, 2 mm78.321.7
220 W-1200 mm/s, 1 mm68.431.6
220 W-1200 mm/s, 2 mm65.237.5
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K439B高温合金激光粉末床熔融工艺参数优化
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宋嘉龙 1 , 杜大帆 1 , 董安平 1, 2 , 李青 3 , 陈玉龙 4 , 刘巧沐 4 , 肖程波 3 , 孙宝德 1, 2
材料工程 | 研究论文 2026,54(5): 221-232
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材料工程 |研究论文 2026 , 54 (5) : 221 -232
K439B高温合金激光粉末床熔融工艺参数优化
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宋嘉龙1, 杜大帆1 , 董安平1, 2 , 李青3, 陈玉龙4, 刘巧沐4, 肖程波3, 孙宝德1, 2
作者信息
  • 1.上海交通大学 上海市先进高温材料及其精密成形重点实验室,上海 200240
  • 2.上海交通大学;金属基复合材料国家重点实验室,上海 200240
  • 3.中国航发北京航空材料研究院 先进高温结构;材料重点实验室,北京 100095
  • 4.中国航发四川燃气涡轮研究院 先进动力总体部,成都 610500
通讯作者:
杜大帆(1987—),男,副教授,博士,研究方向为高温合金精密铸造和增材制造,联系地址:上海市东川路800号上海交通大学材料B楼411(200240),E-mail:
董安平(1977—),男,特聘教授,博士,研究方向为高温合金精密铸造和增材制造,联系地址:上海市东川路800号上海交通大学材料A楼305A(200240),E-mail:
Optimization of process parameters for laser powder bed fusion of K439B superalloy
Jialong SONG1, Dafan DU1 , Anping DONG1, 2 , Qing LI3, Yulong CHEN4, Qiaomu LIU4, Chengbo XIAO3, Baode SUN1, 2
Affiliations
  • 1.Shanghai Key Lab of Advanced High-temperature Materials and Precision Forming,Shanghai Jiao Tong University,Shanghai 200240,China
  • 2.State Key Lab of Metal Matrix Composites,Shanghai Jiao Tong University,Shanghai 200240,China
  • 3.Science and Technology on Advanced High Temperature Structural Materials Laboratory,AECC Beijing Institute of Aeronautical Materials,Beijing 100095,China
  • 4.Advanced Power General Department,AECC Sichuan Gas Turbine Establishment,Chengdu 610500,China
出版时间: 2026-05-20 doi: 10.11868/j.issn.1001-4381.2025.000719
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K439B镍基合金是一种服役温度达800 ℃的新型高温材料,已广泛用于航空发动机燃烧室壳体等关键部件,但目前铸造工艺难以满足薄壁复杂构件高精度成型的高合格率需求。本研究采用激光粉末床熔融(laser powder bed fusion,LPBF)技术,通过调整激光功率(140~220 W)与扫描速率(600~1400 mm/s),采用光学显微镜、扫描电镜、电子背散射衍射等表征技术,分析工艺参数对构件致密度和微观组织的影响。总结得到了LPBF技术制造K439B高温合金的工艺窗口(激光功率:160~220 W,扫描速率:1000~1200 mm/s),在窗口内选择2个参数(160 W-1000 mm/s和220 W-1200 mm/s)加工样品并开展室温和800 ℃高温拉伸实验。结果表明,160 W-1000 mm/s(体积能量密度VED=66.67 J/mm³)工艺参数制备的样品组织中出现不规则孔隙与Ti-C碳化物,而220 W-1200 mm/s(VED=114.58 J/mm³)成型样品组织均匀无碳化物,且室温抗拉强度超过1 GPa,断后伸长率达到25%。但在800 ℃环境下,所有LPBF构件均表现出脆性(断后伸长率约0.5%),主要因为LPBF过程中快速冷却条件导致γ′强化相缺失及晶粒内部的胞状亚结构发生完全消解。本研究为K439B合金LPBF成型的工程应用提供工艺依据与理论支撑。

镍基高温合金  /  激光粉末床熔融  /  微观组织  /  工艺优化  /  力学性能

K439B nickel-based alloy is a novel high-temperature material capable of operating at 800 ℃, which has been widely used in critical components such as combustion chamber housings for aerospace engines. However, the traditional casting process struggles to meet the high qualification rate requirement for high-precision forming of thin-walled complex components. In this study, laser powder bed fusion (LPBF) technology is used to process samples. By adjusting the laser power (140-220 W) and scanning speed (600-1400 mm/s), and using characterization techniques including optical microscopy, scanning electron microscopy, and electron backscatter diffraction, the effects of process parameters of LPBF on the relative density and microstructure are analyzed. The processing window (laser power:160-220 W, scanning speed:1000-1200 mm/s) for manufacturing K439B superalloy via LPBF is summarized, and two process parameters (160 W-1000 mm/s and 220 W-1200 mm/s) within the window are selected to process samples for tensile tests at room-temperature and 800 ℃. The results show that irregular pores and Ti-C carbides are prone to form under the 160 W-1000 mm/s (volume energy density(VED) = 66.67 J/mm³) parameter. In contrast, the samples processed under 220 W-1200 mm/s (VED = 114.58 J/mm³) have a uniform microstructure without carbide, whose ultimate tensile strength at room temperature is over 1 GPa and elongation is over 25%. However, at 800 ℃, all LPBF samples exhibit brittleness (with an elongation after fracture of approximately 0.5%), which is mainly attributed to the lack of γ' phases and dissolution of cellular substructures inside the grains.This study provides process guidance and theoretical support for the engineering application of LPBF fabricated K439B alloy.

nickel-based superalloy  /  LPBF  /  microstructure  /  parameter optimization  /  mechanical property
宋嘉龙, 杜大帆, 董安平, 李青, 陈玉龙, 刘巧沐, 肖程波, 孙宝德. K439B高温合金激光粉末床熔融工艺参数优化. 材料工程, 2026 , 54 (5) : 221 -232 . DOI: 10.11868/j.issn.1001-4381.2025.000719
Jialong SONG, Dafan DU, Anping DONG, Qing LI, Yulong CHEN, Qiaomu LIU, Chengbo XIAO, Baode SUN. Optimization of process parameters for laser powder bed fusion of K439B superalloy[J]. Journal of Materials Engineering, 2026 , 54 (5) : 221 -232 . DOI: 10.11868/j.issn.1001-4381.2025.000719
镍基高温合金以其卓越的高温强度和耐腐蚀性,在航空航天领域得到了广泛的应用[1-11]。K439B作为新型析出强化镍基高温合金[12-15],满足了新一代航空发动机燃烧室壳体所需的稳定高温强度和优异抗蠕变性能等要求。该合金主要依靠γ′相析出强化,关键元素包括Cr、Al和Ti。高铬含量赋予K439B卓越的抗氧化性能,同时铝、钛等γ′相形成元素确保其在室温与高温下均保持优异的力学性能。然而,随着发动机性能要求的提升,结构部件日益呈现薄壁化趋势,并且表面质量要求越来越高。由于薄壁区域存在显著温度梯度,高温合金薄壁铸件在充型与凝固过程中,易产生浇不足、冷隔等成型缺陷。铸造工艺在制造高精度、复杂结构零部件方面逐渐显现出局限性[16-24]。因此,亟须开发和应用新型制造工艺以满足高温合金薄壁构件生产和制造的需求。增材制造(additive manufacturing,AM)技术作为一种新兴的成型工艺,具备高制造精度、高设计自由度以及复杂结构一体化成型等优势,已广泛应用在航空航天高精度结构件生产领域。其中激光粉末床熔融(laser powder bed fusion, LPBF)技术是常用的增材制造技术之一,其基本原理是利用高能激光束对金属粉末进行选区熔化和固结,通过逐层堆叠实现整体构件的成型。该技术不仅能够制造具有复杂几何形状的零件,还可以提升合金性能。采用合适的工艺参数,LPBF能够制备致密度高、缺陷少的构件,从而有效克服传统铸造工艺中易出现的组织缺陷[25-33]。然而,K439B镍基高温合金的增材制造工艺及其成型样品的组织性能还有待进一步研究。综上所述,系统全面地研究LPBF工艺制备K439B合金的组织与性能,对于拓展该合金在航空领域的应用具有重要的理论意义和工程价值。
为了获得具有高致密度、低裂纹率及优异力学性能的增材制造零件,国内外学者开展了大量工艺参数的研究,Kanagarajah等[25]对比了选区激光熔化技术和铸造IN939合金的室温性能以及高温性能,发现打印态合金呈现出各向异性并且室温性能优于铸态样品,但高温性能较差,经时效处理后高温强度有一定上升,且塑性变化不大。Bae等[26]尝试在IN939合金中掺杂TiB2相,发现TiB2相可以均匀化IN939基体,进而提升LPBF技术制造的IN939合金性能。Xiao等[31]通过定向能量沉积方法制备了高强度高塑性的TiZr- NbVAl高熵合金,证明了增材制备工艺有同时提升成型材料的强塑性的能力。李鑫等[33]研究了LPBF成型的CM247LC、Inconel 939和Inconel 718 4种镍基高温合金的开裂行为,发现裂纹敏感性低的合金,如Inconel 718,在激光打印过程中基本无裂纹,但针对CM247LC、Inconel 939这2种合金,会形成凝固裂纹与固态裂纹,这极大地限制了2类合金的LPBF工艺应用。Zhang等[34]研究了选区激光熔化技术制造的IN738合金,提出了打印工艺窗口,并仔细研究了打印态合金熔池随输入的能量密度演化过程,发现经选区激光熔化技术制造的IN738合金强度和塑性都获得了提升。Sun等[35]在研究LPBF成型FeNiCoAl高熵合金成型工艺参数时,发现较低和较高的能量沉积密度都会导致成型样品的孔隙率提升,较低的能量密度会导致粉末无法充分熔融,产生未熔合裂纹及不规则孔洞,而较高的能量密度又会导致合金中的低熔点元素发生气化,气体溶解在合金液中无法及时排除,形成圆形孔洞。
本研究以K439B合金为研究对象,系统分析激光功率以及扫描速率对LPBF成型试样缺陷尺寸分布以及微观组织的影响,基于缺陷最少化和致密度最大化的质量控制标准,通过定量分析孔洞缺陷含量,提出K439B合金LPBF成型的最佳工艺参数窗口,并在工艺窗口内选择了2个参数成型试样进行拉伸测试和组织观察。
本研究中所使用的材料为镍基高温合金K439B,合金主要成分如表1所示。采用等离子旋转电极雾化法制备合金粉末,使用LPBF技术加工成型样品,打印设备型号为HBD-150。技术原理如图1(a)所示,通过供粉仓逐层上升,由刮刀在打印区域铺展粉末,激光根据切片模型逐层打印。打印策略如图1(b)所示,设置层高Δh为30 μm,打印条间距Δl为80 μm,每层之间的旋转角度为67°,不同打印工艺参数打印出的块体如图1(c)所示,块体大小为5 mm×5 mm×5 mm,通过观察金相组织确定合适的工艺参数。根据先前的研究[35],XOY方向上性能最佳,故采用如图1(d)所示的加工方法,根据光镜观察到的结果选用合适的工艺参数加工2种厚度的薄板。
通过AXIO Observer A1m型光学显微镜(OM)观察金相,以评估最优LPBF成型工艺参数。采用ImageJ软件量化孔隙率,每组样品测量5张图像以获取平均孔隙率值。通过ZEISS SIGMA500型扫描电子显微镜(SEM)观察微观组织,并使用能谱仪(EDS)对微观组织开展元素定性鉴定与定量含量分析。利用SIGMA 500型扫描电子显微镜上的取向成像显微系统进行电子背散射衍射(EBSD)分析,表征样品的织构与晶粒尺寸。
通过电火花线切割机加工制备拉伸试样。室温拉伸实验采用AGS-X 10KN型电子万能试验机进行测试,高温拉伸实验则使用TSE105D型双立柱电子万能试验机进行测试,变形速率均设定为10-3 s-1。测试重复进行以确保统计可靠性。应力数据直接采集自负载传感器,伸长率通过数字图像相关技术(DIC)分析测得。1 mm厚试样的标距长度为7 mm,2 mm厚试样标距长度为13 mm,如图1(d)所示。高温拉伸实验由试样在炉内加热至800 ℃后进行。
根据公式:VED=Pv×h×t,其中P为激光功率,单位为W;v为扫描速率,单位为mm/s;h为扫描间距,单位为mm;t为层间距,单位为mm。不同工艺参数的VED值如表2所示。图2(a)展示了不同工艺参数下样品的金相组织,从图中可以看出,随着扫描速率的提升,孔隙率先降低后上升,在低激光功率下,孔隙率的上升尤为明显;而在同扫描速率下,随着激光功率的提升,孔隙率变化没有表现出统一的规律。孔隙的形成是导致密度下降的主要原因。在金相组织中,观察到2种不同形貌的孔隙(不规则形和圆形)。根据热力图分布(图2(c))可以发现,当能量输入较低(VED<48.61 J/mm³)时,LPBF加工过程中形成的熔池因能量供给不足,导致粉体未实现充分熔化与冶金结合,最终在样品内部同时出现不规则孔隙与圆形孔隙2类缺陷。其中,不规则孔隙尺寸自数十微米至数百微米均有分布,其主要源于未熔合的粉体团聚体及熔池铺展不充分而形成;随着体积能量密度的提高,熔池流动性与存续时间显著提升,未熔合现象得到有效抑制,不规则孔隙逐渐消失,样品中仅留存圆形孔隙。圆形孔隙的直径范围为10~100 μm,其形成本质为快速凝固过程中熔池内溶解的气体无法及时逸出,最终以圆形孔隙的形式保留在微观结构中[34]。综上我们获得了图2(a)蓝色矩形框中K439B合金LPBF技术的工艺窗口,选择了其中2个致密度>99.9%且无明显孔隙的工艺参数,分别是160 W-1000 mm/s和220 W-1200 mm/s,进行薄壁件制备并开展力学性能测试。
采用160 W-1000 mm/s和220 W-1200 mm/s 2种工艺参数通过LPBF加工了1 mm和2 mm 2种厚度的样品。样品的金相组织如图3所示,可以发现,制备的板材样品与图2(a)中选择参数的块体样品孔隙率存在一定差异,其中以160 W-1000 mm/s参数成型样品的孔隙率差异更为明显。出现差异的原因是成型形态(板材/块体)导致的散热差异,薄壁样品的散热速率显著高于块体样品,最终导致板材样品孔隙率增加。通过ImageJ软件统计的孔隙率分别为2.15%、1.60%、0.27%和0.13%,同工艺参数下1 mm厚度样品的孔隙率明显高于2 mm厚度样品。1 mm样品由于尺寸小,在加工过程中表现出更高的散热速率,削弱了粉末的熔化及冶金结合效果。当采用160 W-1000 mm/s的工艺参数时,由于能量输入较低,制备的样品内部存在大量形态不规则的孔洞缺陷。此外,少量未熔合的粉末颗粒导致微观结构不均匀。而在220 W-1200 mm/s工艺参数样品中,样品中仅存在圆形孔洞缺陷。其中,厚度为1 mm的样品中,圆形孔洞的直径分布范围为20~40 μm;厚度为2 mm的样品中,圆形孔洞的直径分布范围为10~25 μm。可以发现,220 W-1200 mm/s参数样品不仅孔隙尺寸明显降低,孔洞数量也大大减少。综上所述,当采用160 W-1000 mm/s工艺参数制备薄板样品时,对应的能量沉积量(66.67 J/mm³)不足以使粉体材料发生充分熔化与铺展,不仅导致样品孔隙率显著升高,还在微观结构中形成大量形态不规则的孔洞缺陷,这些缺陷无疑会降低成型样品的力学性能。
在激光增材制造过程中,熔池处于动态非平衡热物理状态,其传热与能量传递过程具有复杂性,包括:向已成型层及相邻扫描轨迹的热传导、熔池内液态金属的对流流动与铺展、激光在小孔内的菲涅耳反射与吸收,以及极端情况下液态金属的气化与等离子体形成等系列物理现象[34]。这些过程共同作用最终决定了熔池的形貌特征。观察发现,2种工艺参数下熔池的几何形状无明显差异,均呈现椭圆形特征,熔池形貌本质上是激光能量输入与金属粉末相互作用的宏观体现,上述结果表明,在66.67~114.58 J/mm³的能量输入范围内,激光与K439B合金粉末的相互作用机制没有明显差异。
图4展示了2种工艺参数下的微观组织,以及相应矩形区域的元素分布情况。在160 W-1000 mm/s工艺参数样品组织中,观察到晶粒内的胞状亚结构和白色析出相。EDS结果显示,胞状亚结构的边缘区域明显存在Ti元素的富集现象。结合镍基高温合金的凝固理论分析,这一现象源于凝固后期熔池液相中Ti、C元素的微观偏析效应。Ti以及C元素在析出相中呈现了富集现象(图4(a),(b)),这表明块状析出相为碳化物。随着凝固的进行,Ti、C元素在枝晶间区域发生选择性富集,当元素浓度达到析出阈值时,便形成了富含Ti的碳化物相(如TiC)。一般情况下,块状碳化物与K439B合金中γ基体相没有共格关系[14,36],γ基体与碳化物的界面强度低,在变形过程中裂纹不但易于萌生,且会沿界面处扩展;块状碳化物本身也容易开裂产生微裂纹。综上所述,块状碳化物会降低LPBF成型的K439B合金力学性能。对于220 W-1200 mm/s工艺参数制备的样品,微观组织分布均匀,同样观察到了晶粒内的胞状亚结构,但未观察到块状的碳化物相。针对样品中碳化物的析出行为,在160 W-1000 mm/s工艺条件下,由于较低的能量输入与较高的扫描速率,导致Ti等强碳化物形成元素难以扩散均匀,形成局部富集,达到析出阈值后直接形核并快速生长为块状碳化物;而在220 W-1200 mm/s工艺过程中,熔池冷却速率相对降低,溶质原子有足够时间进行扩散,固液界面前沿的溶质偏析程度大幅减轻,避免了元素的局部富集,碳化物只能在基体中均匀形核,且受限于扩散距离,难以生长为块状。220 W-1200 mm/s工艺参数制备的样品优异的微观结构为材料力学性能的优化奠定了基础[22]。在同一工艺参数下,不同厚度(1 mm与2 mm)样品的微观组织特征未呈现明显差异。
图5为2种工艺参数制备样品的EBSD实验结果。由反极图发现,2种参数制备的K439B镍基高温合金样品的微观组织均包含柱状晶以及等轴晶。值得注意的是,在1 mm厚样品中还弥散分布着少量尺寸极为细小的等轴晶粒(见图5(a),(c)中矩形框)。结合前文所述的散热特性分析,出现该现象的原因是1 mm薄板样品在增材制造过程中散热速率更高,导致熔池凝固冷却速率显著高于2 mm样品,从而形成细小晶粒。晶界统计结果如表3所示,由数据结果可知,220 W-1200 mm/s样品中大取向角占比低于160 W-1000 mm/s样品,而大角度取向差是阻碍晶粒生长的主因[34,37],这表明在较高能量沉积密度的条件下样品晶粒更易生长,从而使得晶粒尺寸较大。定量统计得到的平均晶粒尺寸依次为 54.69、59.05、56.89、66.61 μm,可见晶粒尺寸的变化趋势与大角度晶界占比的高低相吻合。
图6为采用2种不同打印工艺参数制备的K439B镍基高温合金,在不同测试温度条件下的拉伸应力-应变曲线。该图同步呈现了关键力学性能指标,包括屈服强度(YS)、抗拉强度(UTS)及断后伸长率(EL)的测量结果,并给出了同样实验条件下铸造K439B合金的性能[12,38]。可以发现,在室温环境中,相较于铸态K439B合金,160 W-1000 mm/s工艺成型1 mm及2 mm厚度试样强度相较于铸态K439B合金有一定的下降,断后伸长率较低,与铸态相近。综合来说,相较于铸态样品没有明显的优势,这是由于存在大量不规则孔洞导致(如图3(a)所示)。对于220 W-1200 mm/s工艺参数制备的K439B镍基高温合金样品,厚度为1 mm的样品YS降低约13%,UTS降低约7.4%,但EL提升了约247%;而厚度为2 mm的样品,YS降低约10%,UTS降低约6.3%,但EL提升了约262%。综上所述,220 W-1200 mm/s工艺参数使得K439B合金塑性大大增强。然而800 ℃高温拉伸结果显示,LPBF制备的K439B镍基高温合金样品断后伸长率为0.5%,且强度也有一定程度的降低,表现出了脆性断裂的结果。先前针对镍基高温合金在高温脆性方面的研究表明[27],在600 ℃以下面心立方晶格中的多个〈110〉{111}滑移系统被激活,并且晶体错配度较低,交叉滑移更易于发生,因此产生强化效用;但在800 ℃下,镍基高温合金的变形机制主要为Orowan位错和堆垛层错,因此失去了强化作用。针对LPBF技术成型K439B高温合金的脆性现象,实验结果表明微观组织中不存在γ′强化相,因此高温下位错的钉扎作用大大降低,导致裂纹快速扩展。
图7为LPBF制备的K439B镍基高温合金试样在室温及高温拉伸后的断口处金相组织。在室温条件下,观察到与拉伸方向呈45°的倾斜剪切面,这是塑性变形过程中由剪切应力为主导的断裂表现,表现为典型塑性断裂现象。值得注意的是,采用160 W-1000 mm/s工艺参数制备的试样,其断口倾斜面在打印顶层区域(图中矩形框处)发生显著角度偏转,进一步观察发现该区域存在大量未熔合粉末颗粒及形态不规则的孔洞缺陷。这些缺陷不仅是拉伸过程中裂纹萌生的主要源头,且由于缺陷区域应力集中效应显著,裂纹在此处的扩展阻力大幅降低,最终限制了该工艺参数下试样力学性能的进一步提升;对于220 W-1200 mm/s工艺制备的试样,其断口处孔洞的数量与体积分数显著降低,同时可观察到晶粒发生明显塑性变形,表明较高能量输入下材料的塑性变形能力得到充分发挥。室温拉伸后,2种工艺参数制备的试样断口中均未发现明显第二相析出,观察到少量沿晶扩展的裂纹,结合断口的塑性变形特征,表明K439B镍基合金室温拉伸的断裂模式为韧性断裂与沿晶断裂共存的混合型断裂。在高温测试环境下,所有试样的断口均呈现整齐的沿晶断裂形貌,裂纹沿晶界呈平直状扩展,且在试样内部也检测到明显的裂纹延伸痕迹,这一现象与高温下晶界弱化、沿晶结合力下降的微观机制密切相关,最终导致高温环境下断裂模式转变为典型沿晶断裂。
图8为LPBF技术制备的K439B镍基高温合金试样,经室温及高温拉伸实验后的断口附近扫描电子显微镜微观组织形貌。从图8的室温拉伸断口微观表征结果可以清晰地发现,无论是低能量密度(160 W-1000 mm/s)还是高能量密度(220 W-1200 mm/s)工艺参数成型的样品,在室温拉伸变形后,其晶粒内部的胞状亚结构均完整保留,未发生明显的形态变化或溶解现象,且亚结构的尺寸与分布特征与打印态样品保持一致。然而,经高温拉伸后的试样,其断口附近区域的晶粒内部已观察不到任何亚结构的痕迹,表明高温环境与外力作用的耦合效应已导致亚结构完全消失。已有研究表明[26],LPBF成型镍基高温合金中的胞状亚结构,其胞壁处会形成高密度的位错缠结与溶质原子偏聚,可通过位错增殖强化与晶界阻碍强化的协同作用,有效阻碍位错在晶粒内部的运动,进而显著提升合金的室温强度与塑性。这意味着室温拉伸试样因亚结构的完整保留,仍具备较强的微观强化效果;而高温拉伸试样中亚结构的完全消失,使其失去了这一关键的强化机制,导致材料的高温力学性能出现了显著下降。
(1)通过缺陷最少化和致密度最大化的标准确定了LPBF加工K439B合金的工艺窗口。从工艺窗口中挑选了2个孔隙率低于0.01%的参数,分别为160 W-1000 mm/s和220 W-1200 mm/s,打印了1 mm和2 mm 2种厚度的样品,观察其组织,发现工艺窗口内打印熔池形貌均为椭圆形。
(2)2种参数成型样品组织均同时包含柱状晶和等轴晶。由于LPBF过程中快速冷却,相组成包括γ基体以及少量富含Ti的碳化物相,并且在晶粒内部形成了大量胞状亚结构。在220 W-1200 mm/s工艺参数下,粉末熔融更加充分,缺陷仅为由溶解在合金液中的气体析出导致的圆孔状缺陷,并且致密度>99%。其中2 mm厚度成型样品因熔池冷却速率相对较低,粉末融合效果更好,成型质量优于1 mm薄壁构件。220 W-1200 mm/s工艺参数样品大角度晶界占比更高,晶粒尺寸更均匀。室温下,220 W-1200 mm/s参数样品力学性能显著优于传统铸造工艺,160 W-1000 mm/s参数样品因存在不规则孔洞和未熔合粉末,力学性能没有明显优势。
(3)800 ℃高温环境下,LPBF成型K439B合金在拉伸过程中出现脆性断裂现象,断后伸长率低于0.5%。镍基高温合金的高温强化机制主要依赖于γ′相对位错运动的阻碍作用。然而,LPBF成型的K439B试样中缺乏γ′强化相,导致其高温强度显著降低。在高温断裂过程中,晶粒内细胞状亚结构的逐渐消失,导致晶界对位错阻碍作用降低。2种原因共同导致了LPBF成型K439B合金极差的高温性能。LPBF工艺适用于K439B合金室温服役构件制造,如需高温环境下服役,需通过热处理等方式改善其高温性能。
  • 中国航空发动机集团有限公司自主创新专项基金(ZZCX-2022-040)
  • 国家自然科学基金面上项目(52474416)
  • 上海市自然科学基金面上项目(23ZR148800)
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2026年第54卷第5期
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doi: 10.11868/j.issn.1001-4381.2025.000719
  • 接收时间:2025-12-09
  • 首发时间:2026-10-27
  • 出版时间:2026-05-20
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  • 收稿日期:2025-12-09
  • 录用日期:2026-01-05
基金
中国航空发动机集团有限公司自主创新专项基金(ZZCX-2022-040)
国家自然科学基金面上项目(52474416)
上海市自然科学基金面上项目(23ZR148800)
作者信息
    1.上海交通大学 上海市先进高温材料及其精密成形重点实验室,上海 200240
    2.上海交通大学;金属基复合材料国家重点实验室,上海 200240
    3.中国航发北京航空材料研究院 先进高温结构;材料重点实验室,北京 100095
    4.中国航发四川燃气涡轮研究院 先进动力总体部,成都 610500

通讯作者:

杜大帆(1987—),男,副教授,博士,研究方向为高温合金精密铸造和增材制造,联系地址:上海市东川路800号上海交通大学材料B楼411(200240),E-mail:
董安平(1977—),男,特聘教授,博士,研究方向为高温合金精密铸造和增材制造,联系地址:上海市东川路800号上海交通大学材料A楼305A(200240),E-mail:
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2种不同金属材料的力学参数
科
Family
属数
Number of
genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of
total species (%)
属
Genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of total
species (%)
鹅膏菌科Amanitaceae 2 11 5.26 鹅膏菌属 Amanita 10 4.78
小菇科 Mycenaceae 2 12 5.74 丝盖伞属 Inocybe 5 2.39
多孔菌科 Polyporaceae 8 14 6.70 蜡蘑属 Laccaria 5 2.39
红菇科 Russulaceae 3 23 11.00 小皮伞属 Marasmius 6 2.87
小菇属 Mycena 11 5.26
光柄菇属 Pluteus 5 2.39
红菇属 Russula 17 8.13
栓菌属 Trametes 5 2.39
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