Article(id=1321926982653300780, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1220038251117760515, issueId=1321926982078681131, articleNumber=null, orderNo=null, doi=10.11868/j.issn.1001-4381.2025.000276, pmid=null, cstr=32421.14.j.issn.1001-4381.2025.000276, oa=null, hot=null, price=null, onlineType=0, articleFormat=0, articleType=null, articleTypeStr=research-article, receivedDate=1747584000000, receivedDateStr=2025-05-19, revisedDate=null, revisedDateStr=null, acceptedDate=1750262400000, acceptedDateStr=2025-06-19, onlineDate=1793101552879, onlineDateStr=2026-10-27, pubDate=1771516800000, pubDateStr=2026-02-20, doiRegisterDate=null, doiRegisterDateStr=null, onlineIssueDate=1793101552879, onlineIssueDateStr=2026-10-27, onlineJustAcceptDate=null, onlineJustAcceptDateStr=null, onlineFirstDate=null, onlineFirstDateStr=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, createTime=1793101552879, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1793101552879, updator=13701087609, issue=Issue{id=1321926982078681131, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1220038251117760515, year='2026', volume='54', issue='2', pageStart='1', pageEnd='311', issueExtLink='null', onlineDate='null', pubDate='1771516800000', pubDateStr='2026-02-20', beforeIssueId=null, nextIssueId=null, price=null, status=1, issueComplete=1, articleOrder=1, issueType=-1, specialIssue=null, createTime=1793101552742, creator='13701087609', updateTime=1793101552742, updator='13701087609', preIssue=null, nextIssue=null, articleTotal=null, ext=null, issueFiles=null, downloadFileDto=null}, startPage=40, endPage=62, ext={EN=ArticleExt(id=1321926982963679278, articleId=1321926982653300780, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1220038251117760515, language=EN, title=3D printing of zirconia ceramics for dental applications: materials, technology,and challenges, columnId=1321926982854627373, journalTitle=Journal of Materials Engineering, columnName=CERAMIC ADDITIVE MANUFACTURING AND ITS APPLICATIONS, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

Zirconia (ZrO₂) is widely used in dental restorations for its excellent mechanical properties, continuously improved optical properties, and durability. CNC machining for zirconia dental restorations is mature yet inflexible, with a phase transformation risk that can affect performance and stability. Additive manufacturing, with its high degree of freedom and accuracy, can create complex 3D geometries unachievable by subtractive manufacturing, while reducing material waste, energy consumption, and production time. These features have drawn increasing attention to additive manufacturing in the dental restoration market. Zirconia-based restorations, a significant part of the dental market, have achieved performance in additive manufacturing comparable to that of traditionally manufactured (CAD/CAM) restorations. Therefore, it is necessary to summarize the latest achievements of zirconia in dental restoration manufacturing. This article summarizes the various applicable additive manufacturing methods (including vat photopolymerization, material extrusion, material jetting, powder bed fusion, and binder jetting) for zirconia-based dental restorations based on the latest research, provides the available dental materials, manufacturing examples, and performance requirements, and identifies the challenges for current additive manufacturing of dental restoratives. This review aims to help dentists and researchers better understand the current zirconia additive manufacturing technology and choose suitable dental materials and methods when manufacturing restorations or prostheses.

, authors=Zibin ZENG1, Haoming CHEN1, Liang WANG1, Bocong FENG1, Hanjing FAN1, Huachen CUI2, Xin DENG1, 3, Shanghua WU1, authorsList=Zibin ZENG, Haoming CHEN, Liang WANG, Bocong FENG, Hanjing FAN, Huachen CUI, Xin DENG, Shanghua WU, authorCompany=null, correspAuthors=Xin DENG, Shanghua WU, authorNote=null, correspAuthorsNote=null, copyrightStatement=null, copyrightOwner=null, extLink=null, articleAbsUrl=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, pdfUrl=null, pdf=null, pdfFileSize=null, pdfExtLink=null, richHtmlUrl=null, mobilePdfUrl=null, reviewReport=null, pdfFirstPage=null, abstractGraph=null, abstractGraphContent=null, abstractVideo=null, citation=null, cebUrl=null, magXmlContent=null, mapNumber=null, fund=null), CN=ArticleExt(id=1321926986340094010, articleId=1321926982653300780, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1220038251117760515, language=CN, title=牙科应用中氧化锆陶瓷的增材制造:材料、技术与挑战, columnId=1321926983152422959, journalTitle=材料工程, columnName=陶瓷增材制造及其应用, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

氧化锆以其优异的力学性能、不断改进的光学性能和耐用性被广泛应用于牙齿修复中。氧化锆牙齿修复体的CNC加工成熟但不灵活,存在相变风险,可能影响性能和稳定性。增材制造具有高自由度和精度,可以创造出减材制造无法实现的复杂三维几何形状,减少材料浪费、能耗和生产时间。这些特点引起了牙科修复市场对增材制造越来越多的关注。基于氧化锆的修复体作为牙科市场的重要组成部分,在增材制造方面已经实现了与传统制造(CAD/CAM)修复体相当的性能。因此,有必要对氧化锆在牙科修复体制造方面的最新成果进行总结。本文总结了基于最新研究的各种适用于氧化锆基牙科修复体的增材制造方法(包括还原光聚合、材料挤出、材料喷射、粉末床熔融、黏结剂喷射),提供了可用的牙科材料的制造实例和性能要求,并提出当前牙科修复体增材制造面临的挑战。本综述旨在帮助牙医和研究人员更好地了解氧化锆增材制造的最新技术,并在制造修复体时选择合适的牙科材料和方法。

, authors=曾子彬1, 陈浩明1, 汪亮1, 冯博聪1, 范晗婧1, 崔华晨2, 邓欣1, 3, 伍尚华1, authorsList=曾子彬, 陈浩明, 汪亮, 冯博聪, 范晗婧, 崔华晨, 邓欣, 伍尚华, authorCompany=null, correspAuthors=邓欣, 伍尚华, authorNote=null, correspAuthorsNote=
伍尚华(1963—),男,教授,博士,研究方向为先进材料和先进制造技术,联系地址:广东省广州市番禺区小谷围街广州大学城外环西路100号广东工业大学机电工程学院(510006),E-mail:
邓欣(1971—),男,教授,博士,研究方向为硬质合金及超硬材料的增材制造,联系地址:广东省广州市番禺区小谷围街广州大学城外环西路100号广东工业大学机电工程学院(510006),E-mail:
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journalId=1220038251117760515, articleId=1321926982653300780, doi=null, pmid=null, pmcid=null, year=2024, volume=15, issue=4, pageStart=91, pageEnd=null, url=null, language=null, rfNumber=[180], rfOrder=179, authorNames=JIN H W, NOUMBISSI S, WIEDEMANN T G, journalName=Journal of Functional Biomaterials, refType=null, unstructuredReference=JIN H W, NOUMBISSI S, WIEDEMANN T G.Comparison of zirconia implant surface modifications for optimal osseointegration[J].Journal of Functional Biomaterials,2024,15(4):91., articleTitle=Comparison of zirconia implant surface modifications for optimal osseointegration, refAbstract=null), Reference(id=1321927027641405757, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1220038251117760515, articleId=1321926982653300780, doi=null, pmid=null, pmcid=null, year=2016, volume=296, issue=null, pageStart=88, pageEnd=95, url=null, language=null, rfNumber=[181], rfOrder=180, authorNames=OYANE A, KAKEHATA M, SAKAMAKI I, journalName=Surface and Coatings Technology, refType=null, unstructuredReference=OYANE A, KAKEHATA M, SAKAMAKI I,et al.Biomimetic apatite coating on yttria-stabilized tetragonal zirconia utilizing femtosecond laser surface processing[J].Surface and Coatings Technology,2016,296:88-95., articleTitle=Biomimetic apatite coating on yttria-stabilized tetragonal zirconia utilizing femtosecond laser surface processing, refAbstract=null), Reference(id=1321927027721097534, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1220038251117760515, articleId=1321926982653300780, doi=null, pmid=null, pmcid=null, year=2009, volume=5, issue=6, pageStart=2246, pageEnd=2257, url=null, language=null, rfNumber=[182], rfOrder=181, authorNames=BACCHELLI B, GIAVARESI G, FRANCHI M, journalName=Acta Biomaterialia, refType=null, unstructuredReference=BACCHELLI B, GIAVARESI G, FRANCHI M,et al.Influence of a zirconia sandblasting treated surface on peri-implant bone healing:an experimental study in sheep[J].Acta Biomaterialia,2009,5(6):2246-2257., articleTitle=Influence of a zirconia sandblasting treated surface on peri-implant bone healing:an experimental study in sheep, refAbstract=null), Reference(id=1321927027800789311, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1220038251117760515, articleId=1321926982653300780, doi=null, pmid=null, pmcid=null, year=2023, volume=37, issue=8, pageStart=1458, pageEnd=1470, url=null, language=null, rfNumber=[183], rfOrder=182, authorNames=SOTO-MONTERO J, MISSIATO A V, DOS SANTOS DIAS C T, journalName=Journal of Adhesion Science and Technology, refType=null, unstructuredReference=SOTO-MONTERO J, MISSIATO A V, DOS SANTOS DIAS C T,et al.Effect of airborne particle abrasion and primer application on the surface wettability and bond strength of resin cements to translucent zirconia[J].Journal of Adhesion Science and Technology,2023,37(8):1458-1470., articleTitle=Effect of airborne particle abrasion and primer application on the surface wettability and bond strength of resin cements to translucent zirconia, refAbstract=null), Reference(id=1321927027880481088, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1220038251117760515, articleId=1321926982653300780, doi=null, pmid=null, pmcid=null, year=2024, volume=40, issue=1, pageStart=111, pageEnd=117, url=null, language=null, rfNumber=[184], rfOrder=183, authorNames=MIRT T, KOCJAN A, HOFER A K, journalName=Dental Materials, refType=null, unstructuredReference=MIRT T, KOCJAN A, HOFER A K,et al.Effect of airborne particle abrasion and regeneration firing on the strength of 3D-printed 3Y and 5Y zirconia ceramics[J].Dental Materials,2024,40(1):111-117., articleTitle=Effect of airborne particle abrasion and regeneration firing on the strength of 3D-printed 3Y and 5Y zirconia ceramics, refAbstract=null), Reference(id=1321927027955978561, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1220038251117760515, articleId=1321926982653300780, doi=null, pmid=null, pmcid=null, year=2019, volume=90, issue=null, pageStart=515, pageEnd=522, url=null, language=null, rfNumber=[185], rfOrder=184, authorNames=REIS A F N E, RAMOS G F, CAMPOS T M B, journalName=Journal of the Mechanical Behavior of Biomedical Materials, refType=null, unstructuredReference=REIS A F N E, RAMOS G F, CAMPOS T M B,et al.The performance of sol-gel silica coated Y-TZP for veneered and monolithic dental restorations[J].Journal of the Mechanical Behavior of Biomedical Materials,2019,90:515-522., articleTitle=The performance of sol-gel silica coated Y-TZP for veneered and monolithic dental restorations, refAbstract=null), Reference(id=1321927028056641858, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1220038251117760515, articleId=1321926982653300780, doi=null, pmid=null, pmcid=null, year=2022, volume=47, issue=5, pageStart=574, pageEnd=584, url=null, language=null, rfNumber=[186], rfOrder=185, authorNames=ELRAGGAL A, CHEN X, SILIKAS N, journalName=Operative Dentistry, refType=null, unstructuredReference=ELRAGGAL A, CHEN X, SILIKAS N.Effect of sandblasting with fluorapatite glass-ceramic powder and chemical primers/adhesives on shear bond strength of indirect repairing composite to zirconia[J].Operative Dentistry,2022,47(5):574-584., articleTitle=Effect of sandblasting with fluorapatite glass-ceramic powder and chemical primers/adhesives on shear bond strength of indirect repairing composite to zirconia, refAbstract=null), Reference(id=1321927028253774147, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1220038251117760515, articleId=1321926982653300780, doi=null, pmid=null, pmcid=null, year=2023, volume=461, issue=null, pageStart=129436, pageEnd=null, url=null, language=null, rfNumber=[187], rfOrder=186, authorNames=ZHANG Y J, WANG G Q, KONG T T, journalName=Surface and Coatings Technology, refType=null, unstructuredReference=ZHANG Y J, WANG G Q, KONG T T,et al.Infiltrating fluorapatite glass-ceramics on the surface of dental 3% yttria-stabilized zirconia to enhance bond strength[J].Surface and Coatings Technology,2023,461:129436., articleTitle=Infiltrating fluorapatite glass-ceramics on the surface of dental 3% yttria-stabilized zirconia to enhance bond strength, refAbstract=null), Reference(id=1321927028392186180, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1220038251117760515, articleId=1321926982653300780, doi=null, pmid=null, pmcid=null, year=2019, volume=35, issue=11, pageStart=1576, pageEnd=1593, url=null, language=null, rfNumber=[188], rfOrder=187, authorNames=LUNT A, SALVATI E, BAIMPAS N, journalName=Dental Materials, refType=null, unstructuredReference=LUNT A, SALVATI E, BAIMPAS N,et al.Investigations into the interface failure of yttria partially stabilised zirconia-porcelain dental prostheses through microscale residual stress and phase quantification[J].Dental Materials,2019,35(11):1576-1593., articleTitle=Investigations into the interface failure of yttria partially stabilised zirconia-porcelain dental prostheses through microscale residual stress and phase quantification, refAbstract=null), Reference(id=1321927028476072261, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1220038251117760515, articleId=1321926982653300780, doi=null, pmid=null, pmcid=null, year=2024, volume=29, issue=null, pageStart=4588, pageEnd=4596, url=null, language=null, rfNumber=[189], rfOrder=188, authorNames=YE Z Q, ZHU L, ZHOU T H, journalName=Journal of Materials Research and Technology, refType=null, unstructuredReference=YE Z Q, ZHU L, ZHOU T H,et al.Shear bond strength,finite element analysis,flexural strength and accuracy analysis of additively manufactured bio-inspired 3Y-TZP for dental applications[J].Journal of Materials Research and Technology,2024,29:4588-4596., articleTitle=Shear bond strength,finite element analysis,flexural strength and accuracy analysis of additively manufactured bio-inspired 3Y-TZP for dental applications, refAbstract=null), Reference(id=1321927028555764038, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1220038251117760515, articleId=1321926982653300780, doi=null, pmid=null, pmcid=null, year=2005, volume=26, issue=27, pageStart=5474, pageEnd=5491, url=null, language=null, rfNumber=[190], rfOrder=189, authorNames=KARAGEORGIOU V, KAPLAN D, journalName=Biomaterials, refType=null, unstructuredReference=KARAGEORGIOU V, KAPLAN D.Porosity of 3D biomaterial scaffolds and osteogenesis[J].Biomaterials,2005,26(27):5474-5491., articleTitle=Porosity of 3D biomaterial scaffolds and osteogenesis, refAbstract=null), Reference(id=1321927028635455815, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1220038251117760515, articleId=1321926982653300780, doi=null, pmid=null, pmcid=null, year=2023, volume=142, issue=null, pageStart=105812, pageEnd=null, url=null, language=null, rfNumber=[191], rfOrder=190, authorNames=RODRIGUES J V M, CRUZ B S, GOMES M M, journalName=Journal of the Mechanical Behavior of Biomedical Materials, refType=null, unstructuredReference=RODRIGUES J V M, CRUZ B S, GOMES M M,et al.Infiltration of 5Y-PSZ with thermally compatible glass:strength,microstructure and failure mode analyses[J].Journal of the Mechanical Behavior of Biomedical Materials,2023,142:105812., articleTitle=Infiltration of 5Y-PSZ with thermally compatible glass:strength,microstructure and failure mode analyses, refAbstract=null)], funds=[Fund(id=1321926992761573509, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1220038251117760515, articleId=1321926982653300780, awardId=2017BT01C169, language=CN, fundingSource=广东省“珠江人才计划”本土创新科研团队资助项目(2017BT01C169), fundOrder=null, country=null), Fund(id=1321926992837070982, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1220038251117760515, articleId=1321926982653300780, awardId=2020B090923002, language=CN, fundingSource=广东省重点领域研发计划(2020B090923002), fundOrder=null, country=null), Fund(id=1321926992904179847, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1220038251117760515, articleId=1321926982653300780, awardId=12302157, language=CN, fundingSource=国家自然科学基金(12302157), fundOrder=null, country=null)], companyList=[AuthorCompany(id=1321926986642083899, tenantId=1146029695717560320, 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tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1321926992170176639, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1220038251117760515, articleId=1321926982653300780, language=EN, label=Table 1, caption=

Major materials for zirconia-based dental restorations and their characteristics

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
MaterialCompositePropertySensitivity to LTDApplication
3Y-TZP

Entirely t-phase, with some

m-phase formed after LTD

Good opalescence but very opaque,

high flexural strength and high fracture

toughness

High sensitivity

Framework,veneered (or monolithic)

posterior restorations

4Y-TZP

Composed of t-phase and

c-phase

Improved translucency,slightly lower

mechanical properties than 3Y-TZP

Less sensitive than 3Y-

TZP

Monolithic single crown for anterior and posterior restorations; three-unit bridges in the anterior region
5Y-TZP

c-phase (over 50%) and

t-phase

Higher semi-translucency;the flexural

strength is comparable to that of 3Y-

TZP subjected to LTD

High c-phase content

makes it insensitive to

LTD

8Y-PSZ

Almost entirely composed of

the c-phase

Ultra-high translucency but low

mechanical properties

Inlay, onlay, and laminate veneer
Zirconia-based composites

Zirconia doped with glass

phase, other dental materials,

bioactive materials, etc.

Appropriate performance can be obtainedA new option for 3D printing can promote implant osseointegration or enhance restoration reliability
), ArticleFig(id=1321926992279228544, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1220038251117760515, articleId=1321926982653300780, language=CN, label=表1, caption=

氧化锆基牙科修复体的主要材料及其特性

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
MaterialCompositePropertySensitivity to LTDApplication
3Y-TZP

Entirely t-phase, with some

m-phase formed after LTD

Good opalescence but very opaque,

high flexural strength and high fracture

toughness

High sensitivity

Framework,veneered (or monolithic)

posterior restorations

4Y-TZP

Composed of t-phase and

c-phase

Improved translucency,slightly lower

mechanical properties than 3Y-TZP

Less sensitive than 3Y-

TZP

Monolithic single crown for anterior and posterior restorations; three-unit bridges in the anterior region
5Y-TZP

c-phase (over 50%) and

t-phase

Higher semi-translucency;the flexural

strength is comparable to that of 3Y-

TZP subjected to LTD

High c-phase content

makes it insensitive to

LTD

8Y-PSZ

Almost entirely composed of

the c-phase

Ultra-high translucency but low

mechanical properties

Inlay, onlay, and laminate veneer
Zirconia-based composites

Zirconia doped with glass

phase, other dental materials,

bioactive materials, etc.

Appropriate performance can be obtainedA new option for 3D printing can promote implant osseointegration or enhance restoration reliability
), ArticleFig(id=1321926992358920321, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1220038251117760515, articleId=1321926982653300780, language=EN, label=Table 2, caption=

Common additive manufacturing methods and characteristics of zirconia restorations

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
Printing methodPrinting materialAdvantageDisadvantage
VPDLP

Zirconia powder is uniformly mixed with

resin to obtain slurry or paste

High precision and resolution;

suitable for batch production

Complex post-processing
SLA

Higher precision than DLP; good

surface quality; material diversity

High material cost; slow printing speed;

complex post-processing

PBFSLS

The direct method uses powder, indirect

method uses powder with light absorbers,

binders, etc.

High material utilization; material

diversity

High surface roughness; high equipment cost;

bad mechanical properties; complex post-

processing

SLMLow-melting-point spherical powderExcellent material properties; high precision

High equipment cost; slightly high surface

roughness;slow printing speed;material limitations

MEXDIW

Zirconia mixed with organic matter to

form slurry, paste, and ink

Strong material adaptability; high

design flexibility

Stepped surface
FDM

Flexible filament made of thermoplastic

material and zirconia

Low equipment cost; low material

cost

Slightly high surface roughness; material

limitations

MJLow-viscosity ink

Strong material adaptability; high

design flexibility

High solvent loss
BJFree-flowing zirconia powder

High-speed production; flexible

design

High porosity; complex post-processing; high

surface roughness

), ArticleFig(id=1321926992451195010, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1220038251117760515, articleId=1321926982653300780, language=CN, label=表2, caption=

氧化锆修复体的常用增材制造方法及其特点

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
Printing methodPrinting materialAdvantageDisadvantage
VPDLP

Zirconia powder is uniformly mixed with

resin to obtain slurry or paste

High precision and resolution;

suitable for batch production

Complex post-processing
SLA

Higher precision than DLP; good

surface quality; material diversity

High material cost; slow printing speed;

complex post-processing

PBFSLS

The direct method uses powder, indirect

method uses powder with light absorbers,

binders, etc.

High material utilization; material

diversity

High surface roughness; high equipment cost;

bad mechanical properties; complex post-

processing

SLMLow-melting-point spherical powderExcellent material properties; high precision

High equipment cost; slightly high surface

roughness;slow printing speed;material limitations

MEXDIW

Zirconia mixed with organic matter to

form slurry, paste, and ink

Strong material adaptability; high

design flexibility

Stepped surface
FDM

Flexible filament made of thermoplastic

material and zirconia

Low equipment cost; low material

cost

Slightly high surface roughness; material

limitations

MJLow-viscosity ink

Strong material adaptability; high

design flexibility

High solvent loss
BJFree-flowing zirconia powder

High-speed production; flexible

design

High porosity; complex post-processing; high

surface roughness

), ArticleFig(id=1321926992535081091, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1220038251117760515, articleId=1321926982653300780, language=EN, label=Table 3, caption=

Recent research on manufacturing zirconia via additive manufacturing

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
Printing methodMaterialFlexural strength/MPa

Fracture toughness/

(MPa⋅m1/2)

HardnessRelative density/%Reference
DLP3Y-TZP7085.4914.74 GPa98.3[63]
DLP3Y-TZP(IDG)6.3313.03 GPa98.9[57]
DLP3Y-TZP1210±2014.115.16 GPa98.85±0.32[64]
DLP4Y-PSZ911±40.7(1371±14.4)HV97.16±1.38[68]
SLA3Y-TZP820±595.89±0.63(13.67±0.72) GPa[65]
SLA3Y-TZP(CPS)742.37±22.525.34±0.29(7.29±0.15) GPa96.3[100]
DIW3Y-TZP520±20(14.4±0.1) GPa98.5[83]
DIW5Y-PSZ5.31±0.21(12.7±0.3) GPa95[81]
DIW3Y-TZP101015.9 GPa99.3[84]
MJ3Y-TZP699±1047.52±0.34(12.43±0.09) GPa99.5[89]
FDM3Y-TZP5.02±0.3(13.79±0.3) GPa96.2[86]
FDM3Y-TZP257.45±39.8[87]
SLS3Y-TZP85[76]
SLS8YSZ(1550-1930)HV97[75]
SLS3Y-TZP279.50±10.5086.65±0.20[77]
BJ3Y-TZP1047.80±88.454.74±0.12(13.71±0.12) GPa98.75 ± 0.19[97]
), ArticleFig(id=1321926992644132996, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1220038251117760515, articleId=1321926982653300780, language=CN, label=表3, caption=

通过增材制造方式制备氧化锆修复体的最新研究

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
Printing methodMaterialFlexural strength/MPa

Fracture toughness/

(MPa⋅m1/2)

HardnessRelative density/%Reference
DLP3Y-TZP7085.4914.74 GPa98.3[63]
DLP3Y-TZP(IDG)6.3313.03 GPa98.9[57]
DLP3Y-TZP1210±2014.115.16 GPa98.85±0.32[64]
DLP4Y-PSZ911±40.7(1371±14.4)HV97.16±1.38[68]
SLA3Y-TZP820±595.89±0.63(13.67±0.72) GPa[65]
SLA3Y-TZP(CPS)742.37±22.525.34±0.29(7.29±0.15) GPa96.3[100]
DIW3Y-TZP520±20(14.4±0.1) GPa98.5[83]
DIW5Y-PSZ5.31±0.21(12.7±0.3) GPa95[81]
DIW3Y-TZP101015.9 GPa99.3[84]
MJ3Y-TZP699±1047.52±0.34(12.43±0.09) GPa99.5[89]
FDM3Y-TZP5.02±0.3(13.79±0.3) GPa96.2[86]
FDM3Y-TZP257.45±39.8[87]
SLS3Y-TZP85[76]
SLS8YSZ(1550-1930)HV97[75]
SLS3Y-TZP279.50±10.5086.65±0.20[77]
BJ3Y-TZP1047.80±88.454.74±0.12(13.71±0.12) GPa98.75 ± 0.19[97]
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牙科应用中氧化锆陶瓷的增材制造:材料、技术与挑战
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曾子彬 1 , 陈浩明 1 , 汪亮 1 , 冯博聪 1 , 范晗婧 1 , 崔华晨 2 , 邓欣 1, 3 , 伍尚华 1
材料工程 | 陶瓷增材制造及其应用 2026,54(2): 40-62
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材料工程 |陶瓷增材制造及其应用 2026 , 54 (2) : 40 -62
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曾子彬1, 陈浩明1, 汪亮1, 冯博聪1, 范晗婧1, 崔华晨2, 邓欣1, 3 , 伍尚华1
作者信息
  • 1.广东工业大学 机电工程学院,广州 510006
  • 2.香港科技大学(广州) 系统枢纽智能制造学域,广州 511458
  • 3.广东工业大学 广东省微创手术器械与制造技术重点实验室,广州 510006
通讯作者:
伍尚华(1963—),男,教授,博士,研究方向为先进材料和先进制造技术,联系地址:广东省广州市番禺区小谷围街广州大学城外环西路100号广东工业大学机电工程学院(510006),E-mail:
邓欣(1971—),男,教授,博士,研究方向为硬质合金及超硬材料的增材制造,联系地址:广东省广州市番禺区小谷围街广州大学城外环西路100号广东工业大学机电工程学院(510006),E-mail:
3D printing of zirconia ceramics for dental applications: materials, technology,and challenges
Zibin ZENG1, Haoming CHEN1, Liang WANG1, Bocong FENG1, Hanjing FAN1, Huachen CUI2, Xin DENG1, 3 , Shanghua WU1
Affiliations
  • 1.School of Electromechanical Engineering,Guangdong University of Technology,Guangzhou 510006,Guangdong,China
  • 2.Smart Manufacturing Thrust,Systems Hub,The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology (Guangzhou),Guangzhou 511458,China
  • 3.Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Minimally Invasive Surgical Instruments and Manufacturing Technology,Guangdong University of Technology,Guangzhou 510006,China
出版时间: 2026-02-20 doi: 10.11868/j.issn.1001-4381.2025.000276
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氧化锆以其优异的力学性能、不断改进的光学性能和耐用性被广泛应用于牙齿修复中。氧化锆牙齿修复体的CNC加工成熟但不灵活,存在相变风险,可能影响性能和稳定性。增材制造具有高自由度和精度,可以创造出减材制造无法实现的复杂三维几何形状,减少材料浪费、能耗和生产时间。这些特点引起了牙科修复市场对增材制造越来越多的关注。基于氧化锆的修复体作为牙科市场的重要组成部分,在增材制造方面已经实现了与传统制造(CAD/CAM)修复体相当的性能。因此,有必要对氧化锆在牙科修复体制造方面的最新成果进行总结。本文总结了基于最新研究的各种适用于氧化锆基牙科修复体的增材制造方法(包括还原光聚合、材料挤出、材料喷射、粉末床熔融、黏结剂喷射),提供了可用的牙科材料的制造实例和性能要求,并提出当前牙科修复体增材制造面临的挑战。本综述旨在帮助牙医和研究人员更好地了解氧化锆增材制造的最新技术,并在制造修复体时选择合适的牙科材料和方法。

增材制造  /  牙科应用  /  氧化锆  /  修复体

Zirconia (ZrO₂) is widely used in dental restorations for its excellent mechanical properties, continuously improved optical properties, and durability. CNC machining for zirconia dental restorations is mature yet inflexible, with a phase transformation risk that can affect performance and stability. Additive manufacturing, with its high degree of freedom and accuracy, can create complex 3D geometries unachievable by subtractive manufacturing, while reducing material waste, energy consumption, and production time. These features have drawn increasing attention to additive manufacturing in the dental restoration market. Zirconia-based restorations, a significant part of the dental market, have achieved performance in additive manufacturing comparable to that of traditionally manufactured (CAD/CAM) restorations. Therefore, it is necessary to summarize the latest achievements of zirconia in dental restoration manufacturing. This article summarizes the various applicable additive manufacturing methods (including vat photopolymerization, material extrusion, material jetting, powder bed fusion, and binder jetting) for zirconia-based dental restorations based on the latest research, provides the available dental materials, manufacturing examples, and performance requirements, and identifies the challenges for current additive manufacturing of dental restoratives. This review aims to help dentists and researchers better understand the current zirconia additive manufacturing technology and choose suitable dental materials and methods when manufacturing restorations or prostheses.

additive manufacturing  /  dental application  /  zirconia  /  restoration
曾子彬, 陈浩明, 汪亮, 冯博聪, 范晗婧, 崔华晨, 邓欣, 伍尚华. 牙科应用中氧化锆陶瓷的增材制造:材料、技术与挑战. 材料工程, 2026 , 54 (2) : 40 -62 . DOI: 10.11868/j.issn.1001-4381.2025.000276
Zibin ZENG, Haoming CHEN, Liang WANG, Bocong FENG, Hanjing FAN, Huachen CUI, Xin DENG, Shanghua WU. 3D printing of zirconia ceramics for dental applications: materials, technology,and challenges[J]. Journal of Materials Engineering, 2026 , 54 (2) : 40 -62 . DOI: 10.11868/j.issn.1001-4381.2025.000276
牙科修复材料包括金属、陶瓷和复合树脂,其中氧化锆、氧化铝和玻璃陶瓷构成了牙科修复中使用的主要陶瓷材料。几十年来,由于其卓越的力学特性、光学特性、生物相容性、化学稳定性和抗辐射性,氧化锆一直是牙科修复体制造的关键材料,并得到了广泛的临床应用和研究的验证[1-4]。目前制造牙齿修复体的方法,首先会通过口腔内扫描仪获得患者口腔的数字数据进行建模,然后通过计算机数控(CNC)加工制造牙齿修复体。CNC铣削虽然定位效率高、精度高,但它限制了设计自由度,难以产生小曲率表面和薄壁特征,并造成原材料浪费、材料回收困难和刀具磨损[5]。同时,传统的陶瓷制造方法,如注射成型、干压成型和热压成型,只能制造简单的几何形状,缺乏定制修复的灵活性。
增材制造(additive manufacturing,AM)技术,凭借其快速发展和逐层制造方法,大大降低了总体材料使用量,并促进了高度复杂结构的创建,在牙科修复制造领域吸引了相当大的关注。此外,通过这种连续的建造过程,可以定制牙科修复体局部颜色和半透明等属性。这种方法提供了经济、高效和环保的技术,同时展示了出色的可靠性和稳定性,避免了传统CAD/CAM加工中应力诱导的低温降解(low-temperature degradation,LTD)的风险[6-7]。在单个制造过程中可以同时生产多种不同的修复体,既提高生产效率,又可减少患者的等待时间。增材制造氧化锆牙科产品,包括但不限于牙冠、牙桥、贴面、嵌体等修复体。
本文旨在对氧化锆基牙科材料的AM工艺、材料性能、技术参考和性能标准等方面的最新知识进行总结和更新,希望可以为制造更先进的AM氧化锆口腔修复体提供借鉴。
氧化锆具有三种主要晶相包括m相(monoclinic phase)、t相(tetragonal phase)和c相(cubic phase),它们随着温度的升高依次转变。在1170 ℃时,氧化锆的m相转变为t相,在2370 ℃时,进一步转变为c相。在氧化锆中加入氧化钇、氧化铈和氧化钙,在其晶格中形成固溶体,可以部分稳定t相或c相,从而获得单斜氧化锆不具有的力学和光学性能[8-9]。
相变增韧(phase transformation toughening,PTT)机制是四方氧化锆陶瓷所表现出的一种独特现象。当初裂纹形成时,应力集中诱导相变从t相向m相转变,相变颗粒附近出现小微裂纹,导致体积膨胀,产生压缩应力,阻止表面引发的裂纹扩展,从而提高韧性和强度[10]。t相可以通过PTT机制增强氧化锆材料的断裂韧性,但会增加氧化锆的不透明度。目前,用于牙齿修复的主要氧化锆材料是含有摩尔分数为3%氧化钇的四方氧化锆多晶体(3Y-TZP)和摩尔分数为5%氧化钇部分稳定氧化锆(5Y-PSZ)。实现氧化锆美学特性和力学特性之间的平衡已成为牙科市场的新需求。表1总结了氧化锆基牙科修复体的主要材料及其特性。
LTD现象在氧化锆材料中非常常见,也称为老化或时效,这种现象标志着氧化锆在室温条件下从部分稳定的t相自发向m相转变,这种转变通常是从材料表面向内部发展,会显著削弱氧化锆牙科修复体的断裂韧性,增加牙科修复体断裂的潜在风险。在口腔环境中,咀嚼负荷和唾液的协同作用会加速这一过程。在传统的CAD/CAM加工中,机械应力、材料内部残余应力场的破坏以及表面非晶层材料碎裂引起的额外磨损,都会诱发氧化锆LTD,这在临床上是不可接受的,会威胁到全氧化锆修复体的长期稳定性[11-12]。目前牙科用氧化锆主要通过调控氧化钇掺杂量来精确调配四方相与立方相比例,或者在钇稳定氧化锆材料的基础上加入新的材料,以满足不同修复部位对力学性能、美学特性与LTD稳定性的差异化需求。
3Y-TZP是口腔修复体市场上一种成熟的材料。虽然第一代3Y-TZP牙科材料具有高达1000 MPa的抗弯强度,但非常不透明。研究人员曾试图通过改变烧结工艺来提高其半透明性,但没有成功。因此,基于3Y-TZP的牙冠通常需要贴面或釉料来提高半透明性,但这些处理层在高温烧制后冷却过程中,由于氧化锆和陶瓷之间的热失配,往往会碎裂[13]。第二代3Y-TZP材料将氧化铝的添加量从0.25%(质量分数,下同)降低到0.05%,通过将Al2O3颗粒钉扎在ZrO2的晶界处,减少了光散射,实现了更高的半透明性,力学性能未下降,但其半透明度仍仅为二硅酸锂的70%[14]。目前市场上的3Y-TZP产品经过优化,达到了一定的半透明度,但仍有改进的空间(图1[15])。
3Y-TZP经高温烧结后可实现 t 相完全转变,兼具优异断裂韧性与抗弯强度;虽乳光性佳,却呈高度不透明,且该t相易受LTD效应侵蚀。LTD可诱导t相向m相转变,修复体的力学性能和光学性能会受到严重影响。目前对于LTD的机理有两种推测解释:第一种理论认为水分子渗透到氧化锆晶格内部,导致晶格收缩,表面拉伸应力积累,从而引发晶格缺陷。这些晶格缺陷作为成核位点,促进t相向m相转变,形成LTD[16]。第二种理论认为,水分子会与氧化钇发生反应,消耗了氧化锆中用以稳定t相的部分氧化钇,导致t相向m相的转变。氧化锆中氧化钇含量的减少伴随着LTD,为这一理论提供了证据[17]。这些理论解释了LTD如何影响氧化锆材料的性能和稳定性。
为了避免LTD现象,对增材制造中使用的3Y-TZP原材料有多种优化策略。例如,在原本没有玻璃相的氧化锆中引入玻璃相,可以通过添加二氧化硅来实现[18]。添加少量氧化铝,或者引入生物活性物质可以调节氧化锆的生长,羟基磷灰石[19]、磷酸三钙[20]就是典型例子。此外,将少量体积分数的多壁碳纳米管掺入多晶纳米结构Y-TZP中进行火花等离子烧结,可以使材料同时具有耐老化和抗裂性能[21]。这些策略发挥作用的前提是实现氧化锆打印和烧结体的致密化。
4Y-TZP或4Y-PSZ的氧化钇含量高于3Y-TZP,差异约为0.8%~2.8%,这种差异会影响晶粒尺寸。3Y-TZP的晶粒尺寸一般在0.5~1 μm之间[22],由于4Y-TZP和5Y-TZP等材料中氧化钇含量较高,导致c相比例较高,晶粒尺寸可增大至约1.5 μm[23]。根据Kyung等[24]的研究,在比较铣削和增材制造的Y-TZP晶粒尺寸时,发现增材制造试样的Y-TZP晶粒尺寸更小,特别是在4Y-TZP的情况下,氧化钇含量的增加显著降低形成c相所需的温度,影响氧化锆中的立方相含量。c相含量的增加也降低了氧化锆对LTD现象的敏感性,同时通过c相固有的各向异性赋予修复体出色的半透明性。然而,晶粒尺寸的增大会导致t相自发转变为m相,从而导致力学性能下降[25]。4Y-TZP作为介于3Y-TZP和5Y-TZP之间的折中选择,在半透明和力学性能之间实现了有效的平衡。Mclaren等[26]发现,在经过不同的后处理(抛光、喷砂)后,4Y组力学性能都优于5Y组,同时绝对透过率仅比文献报道的5Y材料低5%左右。4Y-TZP已用于生产整体式氧化锆牙冠和三单元修复体[27]。以往的增材制造研究大多集中在3Y-TZP上,针对4Y-TZP的研究还需要进一步拓展。
5Y-PSZ作为高c相含量氧化锆的代表,具有增强的半透光性,高于3Y-TZP,但低于二硅酸锂[28]。氧化钇摩尔分数为3%~10%的钇稳定氧化锆(YSZ)被称为第三代氧化锆牙科材料[25]。由于其良好的半透明性,由5Y-PSZ制成的牙科修复体通常不需要额外的贴面,并且力学性能没有实质性的下降。5Y-PSZ的断裂韧度约为3.6 MPa·m1/2,该数值介于3Y-TZP体系的断裂韧度(约5.0 MPa·m1/2))和微晶玻璃体系的断裂韧度(约2.2 MPa·m1/2)之间[29]。第三代Y-PSZ具有高透光性,适用于单牙冠,在体内的长期存活率高。5Y-PSZ烧结体的立方相比例(大于70%)高于4Y-PSZ(25%~50%),这意味着断裂韧度、强度和可靠性的降低。然而,高立方相含量使得5Y-PSZ对LTD现象不太敏感。有报道表明,经过LTD模拟循环后,3Y-TZP与高c相含量氧化锆的抗弯强度差异不显著[30]。纳米颗粒的应用和快速烧结技术的发展有望增强高c相含量氧化锆的抗弯强度。
在第三代氧化锆材料中,8Y-PSZ是一种几乎完全由c相组成的氧化锆材料。烧结后,其晶粒尺寸相当于5Y-TZP的6~7倍,表现出超高的透明度[31]。早期研究人员试图通过CAD/CAM加工链加工将这种氧化锆用于生产牙科修复体,由于其力学性能不符合预期,最终被放弃。尽管8Y-PSZ本身性能与牙科需求不符,但将其与3Y-PSZ 复合可提高四方相含量,获得接近5Y-PSZ的半透明度和更高的力学性能[32]。
氧化锆基复合材料是增材制造的新选择。例如,与纯氧化锆陶瓷相比,采用氧化铝增韧氧化锆可以实现优越的断裂韧性和抗老化效果[33];采用玻璃包覆的氧化锆颗粒作为增材制造材料,可减少打印时氧化锆折射率的影响,增加固化深度并弥补氧化锆中玻璃相的缺失,达到良好的力学性能和半透明性[34]。氧化锆具有生物惰性,这意味着植入后其不能与周围组织实现快速的生物骨整合,因为成骨细胞不能在氧化锆表面自然生长。生物活性材料的加入可以促进植入物在人体内的骨整合。例如,可以采用生物活性玻璃(Na2O-2SiO2)作为烧结助剂增强氧化锆植入物的骨整合效果[35]。添加传统的牙科材料,如白云母基、HAP(Ca10(PO4)6(OH)2)和氟化羟基磷灰石,也有相似的效果。在生物体中,HA能够与骨组织形成良好的化学键合,促进骨细胞的黏附和生长,从而加速骨折愈合,而氟化羟基磷灰石则在HA的基础上引入氟离子,抑制细菌生长,预防龋齿和骨感染。目前,HAP和β-TCP(β-Ca3(PO4)2)是促进种植体骨整合的两种常用材料[36-37]。这些材料不仅在一定程度上减少氧化锆牙科修复体在人体内的异物感,而且保证修复体与人体原有骨骼或牙齿的弹性模量、硬度、光泽度更加接近,同时不会明显降低耐磨性,适应牙科应用的新需求。
AM技术有着丰富多样的历史,一些技术可以追溯到60多年前,而另一些技术则是在过去十年中出现的。还原光聚合起源于掩模光刻,这是一种自20世纪60年代以来广泛用于创建二维物体的技术。1980年,Charles Hull发现丙烯酸基光敏聚合物可以在紫外光下聚合,从而彻底改变了增材制造技术,他将这一突破性的工艺命名为“立体光刻”[38]。在20世纪80年代,卡尔·迪卡德博士和乔·比曼博士在德克萨斯大学开发了选择性激光烧结(selective laser sintering,SLS)[39]。SLS打印机的最初商业化发生在1992年,在同年应用于模拟牙根的牙种植体的制造。数字光处理(digital light processing,DLP)技术在2000~2010年蓬勃发展。随后,在2011年,维也纳大学在之前的技术基础上开展了基于光刻技术的陶瓷制造[40]。黏结剂喷射(binder jetting,BJ)技术是Ely Sachs和Mike Cima的突破性创新,于1993年在MIT开发[41]。增材制造最早在20世纪90年代应用于医疗领域,现已被应用于生产各种氧化锆牙科修复体(图2)。不同的打印方式具有不同的成型原理,因此具有完全不同的零件特征。表2总结了氧化锆修复体的常用增材制造方法及其特点。
VP的原理是使用光源(如激光或数字光)照射带有光引发剂的液态光敏树脂,引发化学反应,使其固化。在VP法制备氧化锆牙修复体时,首先要对扫描获得的牙模型进行切片处理。然后,根据切片数据,利用紫外光将预混合的氧化锆陶瓷浆料逐层固化,制成陶瓷坯体。最后,通过脱脂和烧结,从坯体中去除有机成分,得到氧化锆修复体。由此产生的牙齿修复体将进行一系列后处理,包括抛光和上釉。VP的代表包括立体光刻(stereolithography,SLA)、DLP以及基于这两者的其他打印技术。VP技术制造的产品具有精度高、表面粗糙度低等特点,非常适用于牙科修复体的制造。
SLA是制造牙科部件最常用的技术,可以实现高精度制造。该技术使用强紫外激光引发光敏树脂的硬化反应,使液态树脂逐点固化。激光由一个可移动的镜面振镜引导,它将光束重新定向到树脂上的精确位置。由于其精度高,SLA打印仿生图案可用于增强基台的软组织整合和贴面的黏附性[42-43]。在过去的30年中,SLA技术在医学骨科种植体和牙科修复体领域得到了广泛的应用。十多年来,它一直用于生产种植体、牙模、定制冠[44-45]。
DLP使用投影仪将每一层的图像投射到陶瓷浆料的表面,使该区域的陶瓷浆料固化。一层固化后,打印平台沿着z轴移动一层厚度(根据设备设计向上或向下移动),然后投射下一层的图像进行固化,并不断重复这一过程。在自上而下的DLP方法中,投影仪位于打印平台上方,投影到树脂表面以固化树脂。固化后,平台再次上升,继续固化下一层。在自下而上的方法中,投影仪放置在树脂盒的透明底板下方,将光线向上投射到透明底板上固化一层层厚树脂,然后再次降低平台以固化下一层。自下而上的方法更经济,零件生产需要的树脂较少,而自上而下的方法擅长于制造更大的部件。这种逐层固化方法为DLP提供了比SLA更高的打印速度,后者逐点固化树脂。这些优势引起了市场对DLP的极大关注,特别是在数字化制造牙科模型方面。然而,与SLA采用激光产生的高分辨率相比,DLP的分辨率略低[46]。因此,DLP更适合快速制造大但不太复杂的零件,而SLA擅长制造需要特殊精度和复杂性的组件。
光聚合产生了许多著名的成型方法,例如:双光子聚合(two-photon polymerization,TPP)、动态界面打印(dynamic interface printing,DIP)和体积打印(volumetric additive manufacturing,VAM)[47-49]。随着纳米颗粒技术的发展,获得半透明的氧化锆纳米颗粒分散体已经变得可行。因此,具有各向同性的高c相含量纳米颗粒成为这些打印方法的潜在原料[50-51]。
DIP技术使用浸入预聚合物的中空打印头(底部开放,顶部密封)。尖端的气液界面充当打印表面,通过可见光固化光聚合物,通过气压调节界面的位置和曲率,使其与焦平面对齐,通过连续投影2D图像实现三维结构成型。DIP技术的一个核心特点是通过声学调制来振动打印界面,产生毛细重力波,增强材料交互,提高打印速度和精度。通过调节打印头内的空气压力,在打印过程中控制界面的形状和位置。
TPP基于双光子吸收效应,利用飞秒激光在光刻胶中进行精确聚焦,通过聚合反应构建三维微纳米结构。它在复杂3D结构的高精度和无掩膜制造方面表现出色,在生物医学领域有广泛的应用,包括组织支架和微针。飞秒激光加工可以生产氧化锆抗菌表面[52-53]。这表明TPP打印在制造具有优异抗菌性能的小尺寸、高精度的牙科物品(如贴面和基牙)方面非常有前途。
VAM是一种一次性固化整个三维体积的增材制造技术,区别于传统“逐层累加”的层叠式 3D 打印。其中较为有名的是Xolography技术。Xolography使用两种不同波长的光进行固化。当处于休眠态的光引发剂分子吸收第一个波长的光时会进入潜伏态,在吸收与第一波长正交的第二波长的光后固化。这两个正交光源的重叠部分形成了模型的每一层,从而实现了极快的固化速度[54]。这项技术能够实现快速、高分辨率的打印,打印出来的物体表面异常光滑,无需后续抛光。Xolography技术展示了制造正畸器具、夹板和牙冠的潜力。在这些应用中,各向同性材料确保了一致的强度和卓越的美观性。这项技术使新材料和设计的快速成型和测试成为可能,卓越的打印速度足以支持椅旁修复的快速生产,拓展出解决牙科问题的新方向。这些新的打印方法为需要超高分辨率、超高效率、可扩展制造和生物相容性打印的应用提供了新的解决方案,为牙科修复体的增材制造开辟了广阔的前景。
作为一种高精度的打印方法,VP在制造高密度和低裂纹风险的微小零件方面非常有效,使其成为陶瓷材料增材制造技术中最受欢迎的选择。ZrO2颗粒表面富含有亲水性基团羟基,而研究人员常用的紫外光固化树脂是疏水性的。亲水陶瓷粉与疏水树脂之间相容差可能导致沉淀增加或颗粒团聚,因此必须在陶瓷悬浮液的黏度和固含量之间取得平衡。
评价陶瓷悬浮液质量的原则包括:(1)低黏度的悬浮液可以保证悬浮液能被刮刀均匀涂抹到每一层;(2)高固含量的悬浮液可以降低陶瓷件烧结后的收缩率;(3)足够的固化深度可促进固化层之间的牢固黏结;(4)窄固化宽度有助于还原扫描模型的复杂结构,获得高精度的牙种植体。
在用于VP打印的氧化锆陶瓷浆料中,氧化锆陶瓷颗粒本身的密度过高,在分散时增加了颗粒之间的摩擦。这也使得颗粒容易沉降,影响浆料的均匀性,从而影响坯体的质量。原始粒径影响颗粒在树脂中的分散质量,尤其是使用纳米级颗粒时会因为静电力造成严重的团聚,限制了追求更细更均匀晶粒的陶瓷VP制造[55]。采用表面改性技术和颗粒级配技术是获得低黏度、高固含量浆料的有效手段。表面改性技术通过添加包覆改性剂的颗粒来增加陶瓷颗粒和光聚合树脂之间的相容性,从而提高流动性,同时也有助于削弱颗粒之间的静电作用[55-56]。颗粒级配则通过分散小颗粒,填补大颗粒之间的空隙,以提高固相含量[57]。此外,适当的添加剂可以调节浆料的流变性能,如分散剂、流变助剂、消泡剂、增塑剂等[58-59]。
目前,根据光敏树脂的类型,陶瓷浆料可大致分为两类:研究最广泛的一类是不挥发的树脂基陶瓷浆料,另一类是水基陶瓷浆料。一般来说,与相同固含量的水基陶瓷浆料相比,树脂基陶瓷浆料表现出更高的固化性能,因此研究人员更倾向于研究树脂基陶瓷浆料。与树脂基陶瓷浆料相比,水基陶瓷浆料有其独特的优势,包括黏度低,不需要挥发性有机化合物清洗工艺。水性树脂和油性树脂的坯体状态通常不同,用水性树脂打印的坯体通常韧性较低,这可能导致烧结前出现缺陷。打印精度受打印角度、方向、打印机参数和配方的影响[60-61],其中打印角度的影响在桌面级增材制造机器中更为明显[62]。最近,在使用水性树脂打印氧化锆修复体方面取得了突破。Yao等[63]开发了一种用于光聚合打印冠的水悬浮液,打印牙冠的平均抗弯强度为708 MPa,相对密度为98.3%,维氏硬度为14.7 GPa。研究人员将打印环境温度设置为50 ℃,固相含量设置为40%(体积分数),以获得最佳打印浆料黏度。这项工作中采用DLP打印的修复体在烧结后具有很高的拟合精度,烧结体与原始模型的误差小于0.1 μm的部分占92.8%,这凸显了DLP在定制氧化锆牙冠中的超高自由度和精度。在水性悬浮液体系中,添加聚乙二醇(PEG)等增塑剂可以增强坯体质量,提高烧结修复的可靠性[64-65]。这种通过水基陶瓷浆料进行环境可持续打印的方法已经证明了高重复性,在修复体的增材制造中展现应用潜力。
单个牙冠的美学特性也是牙科评估的重要组成部分。人类前牙从牙根到牙尖的厚度变化会导致光泽度的差异,功能梯度材料(functionally graded materials,FGM)提供了一种新的方法来实现模拟天然牙釉质和牙本质的梯度特性。Romario等[66]通过将摩尔分数3%~5%氧化钇含量的氧化锆在牙冠上梯度分布,制备了具有可调节力学性能和梯度半透明特性的氧化锆牙冠。这种设计使牙根部分不透明,从牙冠到牙尖的半透明度逐渐增加,从而复制了天然牙齿的光学特性,不同含钇量氧化锆材料间结合紧密,使生产具有半透明梯度的牙齿成为可能。Kim和Koh[67]通过调控4Y-PSZ和5Y-PSZ粉末的混合比例来制备成分连续变化的梯度氧化锆打印体,每提高25%(体积分数)的5Y-PSZ构建一个梯度层。通过对不同5Y-PSZ含量的浆料曝光时间进行优化,得到完全无缺陷氧化锆打印件,抗弯强度从(865±80) MPa下降到(613±56) MPa,透光率从(24.1±0.4)%显著提高到(31.9±0.3)%,透光率接近商用多层氧化锆。缺陷控制不仅有利于提高增材制造修复体的力学性能,还有助于提高光学性能。Yang等[68]将固体樟脑作为新型稀释剂加入光敏树脂HDDA单体中,并通过DLP技术制造了4Y-PSZ牙冠。这项工作中的氧化锆冠实现了优异的半透明性。随着浆料中稀释剂含量的增加,樟脑的稀释效应变得更加明显。树脂单体光聚合后,樟脑重结晶,并在脱脂过程中升华,樟脑晶体在树脂分解前被去除,建立脱脂通道,从而最大限度地减少缺陷的形成,获得了高力学性能(双轴抗弯强度911 MPa,维氏硬度(1371±14.4)HV)和光学透明度(TP = 7.77±0.32, CR = 0.809±0.007)的氧化锆零件。氧化锆-玻璃陶瓷复合材料兼具玻璃陶瓷的高透光性,又具有满足牙科应用要求的力学性能。Zhang等[57]研究了惰性牙科玻璃(inert dental glass,IDG)的含量对DLP制备氧化锆陶瓷物理性质和微观结构的影响。在氧化锆牙科陶瓷样品中,掺入1%的IDG后,IDG作为离散的第二相存在于氧化锆晶粒的交界处,适量玻璃相的加入对氧化锆的力学性能有积极的影响,是一种提高通过DLP制造的修复体性能的潜在方法。
在前牙修复中,将片状贴面覆盖在受损的牙齿上,可以最大限度地保留剩余的自然牙齿,这种高度保守的修复体厚度通常不超过0.3 mm。减法制造超薄贴面时易因切削应力导致贴面碎裂,难以实现其可控制备。Cheng等[69]通过立体光刻技术利用溶剂型陶瓷浆料实现了厚度为0.1 mm的超薄单板制造。文献报道的最终产品相对密度大于96%,抗弯强度值在603.79~764.27 MPa之间。尽管使用了透光性差的3Y-TZP,但超薄贴面仍然具有由背景材料决定的色差,表明VP在制造高精度贴面方面具有替代铣削的潜力。
氧化锆对牙本质具有明显的磨损作用,优化氧化锆修复体的摩擦学相容性已成为重要研究方向之一。Dong等[70]使用SLA和真空浸渍工艺相结合的方法制备了氧化锆-树脂互渗相复合材料(interpenetrating phase composites,IPC)牙科修复体。他们将具有三周期最小表面结构的氧化锆支架与树脂集成在一起。氧化锆支架是使用还原性光聚合增材制造技术制备的。随后,树脂被热固化,并通过支架表面硅烷化直接与氧化锆结合,形成IPC牙。在采用TA2球进行耐磨学测试时,发现低杨氏模量的IPC较纯氧化锆牙接触应力显著降低。同时软质IPC具有润滑作用,这使得在耐磨性测试中的TA2球的磨损比纯氧化锆牙小得多,实现了硬度和耐磨性之间的平衡。这种制造策略是实现修复体与对颌牙的匹配相容性。
牙种植体必须在力学性能和生物相容性之间取得平衡。Binobaid等[71]将硅酸钙与氧化锆混合以提高生物活性,提出了一种满足种植体性能要求的复合材料。他们实施了全因子实验设计(DOE),以全面评估不同打印条件对氧化锆-硅酸钙复合材料生成的影响。通过掺入硅酸钙,提高了流动性,降低了黏度。在分析了各种因素对流变性的影响后,在牺牲一定浆料流动性的同时选择了较高的固相含量,体现了浆料中实现高固相含量和保持低黏度之间的平衡。种植体的力学性能趋向于模仿人松质骨特性(最大强度为(8.78±5.2) MPa),通过降低弹性模量减少应力屏蔽、优化受力分布,反映了几十年临床应用后市场产生的新共识。
这种方法利用激光通过烧结粉末材料(塑料、陶瓷、金属)逐层构建物体。由于打印过程中经历热熔化过程,成型的部件通常需要冷却才能安全取出。氧化锆导热系数低,严重限制了PBF在高熔点氧化锆打印中的应用。PBF技术包括SLS和选择性激光熔化(selective laser melting,SLM)。
SLS通过熔化粉末或黏合剂来促进粉末的黏结。在SLS制造中,给粉系统将一层粉末均匀地铺展到粉末床上。激光根据切片软件提供的扫描路径选择性地对粉末进行烧结,形成零件的横截面层。一层粉末被烧结后,打印平台会下降一个粉末层厚度,系统铺展一层新的粉末。然后,激光根据下一个横截面轮廓烧结新一层,这一过程不断重复直到整个零件完成。最后,去除未烧结的粉末,对零件进行热处理以提高其密度和力学性能。此外,通过SLS生产的零件表面粗糙度往往低于标准,并且在投入使用之前需要在CNC工艺链中进行打磨,抛光和其他后处理过程。SLS制造的氧化锆产品过于粗糙,缺乏足够的力学性能,即使经过抛光,也达不到牙科标准,目前只适用于钛种植体。
在SLM的加工过程中,高能激光束根据三维模型扫描切片的预定路径熔化粉未。高能量激光将粉末熔化重新凝固,形成零件的一层,然后逐层固化。在SLM中,使用的粉末不含黏合剂,低熔点球形粉末是保证流动性和熔化效率的唯一选择。依托SLM的基本原理所提供的优势,使用SLM制造的牙种植体具有高密度、高强度和高尺寸精度。使用SLM制造的零件经历加热冷却过程会存在显著的内应力,甚至可能由于热分布不均匀而开裂。充分的热处理工艺是缓解内应力的有效手段,以获得优异的力学性能,同时满足牙科要求的表面处理是必要的。此外,原材料的选择极其有限,能够承受高激光能量且具有良好流动性的陶瓷粉末仍有待开发。
PBF技术用于陶瓷制品的制造仍是一项发展中的技术。陶瓷导热性差,激光辐照时易形成陡峭的局部热梯度;骤热骤冷引发热冲击,且热量在粉末间分布不均。虽然要获得致密的氧化锆零件需要高激光能量密度,但也要考虑到过高的冷却速度会导致零件出现裂纹。尽管存在这些共同的挑战,但使用SLM和SLS制造氧化锆仍然是可以实现的。对于SLS,研究人员主要采用直接SLS和间接SLS两种方法制备陶瓷材料。在直接SLS中,氧化锆粉末被激光束加热,氧化锆颗粒通过固态烧结或部分熔融结合在一起[72]。间接SLS则使用结合了陶瓷和黏结剂的粉末作为打印材料。在打印过程中,使用激光照射和熔化复合粉末中的黏结剂,陶瓷颗粒通过黏结剂结合[73-74]。在SLS制造的氧化锆中,通常会加入石墨、碳基材料等黑色吸光剂[75-76],这是因为纯YSZ粉末在特定波长下的能量吸收率很低,转化的激光能量无法满足烧结或熔融所需的条件。采用压力渗透(pressure infiltration,PI)、冷等静压(cold isostatic pressing,CIP)和温等静压(warm isostatic pressing,WIP)可以提高SLS制备的ZrO2坯体的密度[76-77]。Wilkes等[78]首次采用直接SLS法制作了三单元牙桥模型,但其表面粗糙度极高,不适合直接应用。最近,在一项短期的实验研究中,研究者对使用SLM生产的后牙修复用增材制造氧化锆牙冠进行了临床评价[79]。评价结果显示,经过24周的随访,SLM打印的氧化锆牙冠在种植环境中表现出可靠的兼容性,并显示出与牙本质高度相似的外观(图3)。总的来说,对于SLS而言,成型零件的高表面粗糙度和孔隙率已成为其在牙科应用的主要障碍;而对于SLM技术,能源和原材料问题有待解决。
DIW技术通过喷嘴挤出高固含量原料和有机物的均匀混合物,材料通过热固化或光固化在构建平台上成型。该过程一直持续到模型完全打印完成。DIW是一种稳定的增材制造方法,可以获得具有高力学性能的氧化锆陶瓷,经济高效地制造复杂的陶瓷结构[80-81]。与VP技术相比,DIW制造的修复体表面没那么光滑,需要如抛光等额外的后处理,这可能会导致扫描模型和最终产品之间的差异。DIW已显示出制造基台和种植体的潜力。
FDM是MEX技术中应用最广泛的牙科器械制造方法,具有出色的高速生产能力。FDM工艺采用的是ABS、PLA塑料、尼龙、陶瓷、低熔点金属、铸造蜡等可熔融材料,这些材料一般会做成丝材,在使用过程中经过加热、熔化,再通过喷嘴连续均匀地挤出。同时,喷嘴由数控系统控制,沿预定轨迹运动,根据软件切片信息打印填充图案。经过熔融和冷却过程挤出的柔韧细丝组成横截面层,层层堆叠形成所需的三维模型。FDM技术的限制因素主要包括喷嘴尺寸和熔融材料黏度,同时可供打印的氧化锆细丝很少。然而,作为成本最低的打印方法,FDM具有广阔的桌面端打印市场和巨大的椅旁牙科制造潜力。与VP相比,FDM受其成型原理的限制,分辨率相对较低。
尽管 DIW的打印分辨率有限,难以成型微孔结构,但其低成本优势已使其广泛用于定制骨支架[82],并有研究预测该工艺在牙科领域同样具备低成本应用潜力[80]。DIW成型件的力学性能与油墨流变特性密切相关:油墨需在剪切应力作用下顺畅流动,而一旦挤出又能快速恢复结构强度以维持形状,表明悬浮液具有剪切-恢复可逆稳定性,适用于DIW成型[33,81]。打印精度可以通过控制打印速度、喷嘴直径、填充沉积图案、分割高度等打印参数调整。DIW技术在植入物制造中显示出独特的优势。在义齿制造中,DIW打印的修复体显示出高效率和良好的力学性能。Shi和Wang[83]使用固体体积分数为55%的氧化锆陶瓷墨水,采用DIW法成功打印了氧化锆陶瓷牙齿。在15 mm/s的打印速度下,氧化锆陶瓷牙齿的制备时间小于5 min,烧结样品的力学性能达到ISO13356:2015标准,显示了DIW快速成型相对于其他打印方法的突出优势。通过DIW获得的产品通常有阶梯状表面,适当的后处理是必要的。Dos Santos等[81]进行了烧结等后处理工艺,得到的5Y-PSZ样品的相对密度约为94%~95%,维氏硬度为(12.7±0.3) GPa,断裂韧度为(5.31±0.21) MPa·m1/2,杨氏模量为(195.4±45) GPa。特征强度可达303 MPa,适用于牙弓不同位置的单一修复体,具有良好的半透明性。Sun等[84]开发了一种柔性细丝,并具有自支撑特性。 这项工作最终使产品的烧结密度达到99.3%,最大抗弯强度为1010 MPa,硬度为15.9 GPa。在FGM材料的情况下,DIW可能比DLP更合适。用于多材料打印时,DIW不需要进行DLP的清洁步骤,这使DIW更适合FGM的制造,同时连续层间结合与非连续层间结合相比,出现界面问题的风险更低[85]。
FDM以其低廉的设备成本、用户友好的操作和经济实惠的原材料而闻名。研究者可以利用开源硬件和软件自主设计并搭建自己的AM系统。FDM工艺的力学性能可以受到打印材料和结构参数、挤出温度和速度、层沉积时间、喷嘴速度、床层温度等诸多因素的显著影响。传统的基于聚合物的FDM设备一直使用固定直径的柔性细丝。然而,制备柔性陶瓷长丝并不容易,因为即使在低至30%的固含量下,聚合物黏结剂和陶瓷粉末的混合物也会表现出脆性。最近的一份报告指出,一款来自法国的Zetamix长丝的固体负荷为90%已经被开发,并证明了可打印性[86]。Hajjaj等[87]使用该公司的商用白色氧化锆Zetamix长丝(Nanoe SAS)打印氧化锆样品。在该报告中,测试的力学性能满足贴合式单单元修复体的要求(最低为100 MPa)。在常规烧结和快速烧结下,氧化锆最终烧结体的力学性能没有显著差异[87-88],这证明了快速烧结在氧化锆烧结中的巨大潜力。
MJ成型方法与MEX类似,都是在构建平台上逐层沉积陶瓷浆料。它们的不同之处在于,MJ使用的是低黏度油墨,在打印过程中以液滴的形式喷射出来。油墨通过压电或热效应形成液滴,根据模型信息从喷嘴喷射到构建平台上通过光固化或热固化成型。喷射过程需要恒定的墨流或按需形成液滴。尽管限制了固体负载(体积分数20%~40%),但低黏度油墨的水性或有机溶剂在热固化过程中会迅速蒸发。这确保了坯体中的低有机物含量和烧结体的高密度,并克服了MEX的喷嘴容易堵塞的问题。PolyJet是MJ方法中的一项知名技术,采用紫外线固化,作为一种环保且方便的选择,用于制造牙科种植体的手术导板[44]。
XJet的纳米颗粒喷射技术(nanoparticle jetting technology,NJT)是一种先进的增材制造技术,也是一种MJ技术。该技术使用含纳米颗粒的专用油墨进行快速打印,配合集成多至数百个喷嘴的打印设备,提高了制造速度,可在大幅面成形区域内允许多种材料沉积,适合批量快速生产。NJT凭借微小的喷嘴半径(约20 μm)可实现高分辨率打印,其边缘适应性和精度可与传统铣削方法媲美[89-91]。Zhang等[92]通过NJT技术使用氧化锆陶瓷打印具有层状表面形貌的牙科种植体,制备的种植体具有致密的核芯结构,并表现出良好的抗压强度。植入物的外层具有几乎垂直于表面的定向孔(图4[93]);内核致密,核与表面孔隙之间没有明显的边界,实现了可靠的骨整合效果。定向孔的产生得益于NJT独特的成型原理。同时,NJT生产的氧化锆产品精度与SLA和DLP相当,收缩率更低[91],但表面粗糙度的问题仍有待优化[91]。
BJ是一种AM技术,通过选择性地将黏结剂沉积到粉末床上,逐层构建零件。在打印过程中,一个滚筒在打印平台上辅展一层固定厚度的粉末层。然后打印头根据数字设计文件,将黏结剂精确喷涂到指定区域,黏结剂通过毛细作用进入粉末间隙中,并将粉末颗粒黏结在一起。每层黏结完成后,打印平台就会降低一层粉末层厚度,铺展新的粉末层覆盖在打印层上,并重复黏结剂喷涂过程,直到整个部件完成构建。零件完全成型后,还要进行脱胶和烧结等后处理步骤,以达到最终的力学性能。该技术的优点是过程简单、成本低、速度快,制备的零件颜色易于控制,但是通过BJ生产的氧化锆修复体烧结后孔隙率较大,有时甚至超过50%。合适的多孔结构有望促进牙种植体在人体内的细胞黏附和生长,对骨整合有积极影响,有利于患者术后恢复和长期种植。BJ技术在陶瓷增材制造领域的发展历史相对于其他打印方法而言较短,仍有很大的成长改进空间。
用BJ制备的陶瓷中固有的残余孔隙率已被有效地用于制造骨组织工程应用的支架[94-95]。然而,这种固有的孔隙率不利于陶瓷的致密化,特别是在牙科应用中,种植体具有高断裂风险,在临床上是不可接受的。为了解决BJ制造产品的高孔隙率问题,研究人员已经进行了许多尝试,主要是通过颗粒优化、打印工艺的改进和后处理技术的改进来增加烧结后陶瓷的相对密度。
(1)颗粒优化:颗粒优化,也称为颗粒级配,通过优化不同氧化锆粒度占粉末总量的比例,以提高烧结体的相对密度。这种策略可以降低烧结体的孔隙率。但最终烧结体的晶粒尺寸不均匀,会影响其强度。
(2)打印工艺:打印工艺包括调整打印粉末的层厚、滚筒速度、固体黏结剂的体积分数、饱和度等参数。这些调整可以影响粉末的堆积密度和颗粒之间的结合,从而影响烧结陶瓷的最终密度和强度。
(3)后处理工艺:后处理工艺对BJ制备陶瓷的致密化影响最为显著。这一步包括CIP、脱脂、渗透和烧结等方法。例如,使用CIP可以大大增加试样的坯体密度,减少颗粒之间的间距,促进烧结过程中的后续致密化。脱脂对于在烧结前从坯体中消除黏结剂和其他有机成分至关重要,并且可以使用渗透法用其他材料填充烧结体中的孔隙,以增强其密度和力学性能。烧结是巩固陶瓷颗粒,达到理想密度和强度的最后一步。
这三个过程贯穿了整个BJ制造过程[96]。纳米材料、新型打印策略和后处理技术是BJ在氧化锆修复体制造中应用的推进动力。Huang等[97]对脱脂后的氧化锆打印样品进行CIP处理,发现在1400 ℃烧结后,ZrO2陶瓷的相对密度达到(98.75±0.19)%,抗弯强度达到(1047.80±88.45) MPa。虽然由于BJ打印方法固有的局限性,样品的表面质量欠佳,但其抗弯强度已经达到种植体的标准。该团队还报道了一种通过玻璃浸润实现高相对密度的制造方法[98]。作者认为,这两种方法的结合很好地符合了氧化锆修复体与人类牙本质匹配的新趋势,并且BJ的精度是可预测的[99]。同时,与其他制造方法相比,BJ的低成本和高效率将是竞争优势。
了解氧化锆材料的性能对于氧化锆陶瓷修复体的制造至关重要。不同类型的修复体有不同的性能要求,对氧化锆修复体进行合理的评价是满足市场应用需求和人体植入体需求的必要条件。本节介绍氧化锆修复体的性能要求以及为满足这些要求现有的后处理方法。通过深入的分析,可以更好地了解AM技术在氧化锆修复体生产中的评价标准和未来需求。表3[57,63-65,68,75-77,81,83-84,86-87,89,97,100]汇总了通过各种增材制造方式制备氧化锆修复体的最新研究。特别值得注意的是,在所有研究记录中,只有两项关于氧化锆AM的临床研究符合纳入标准[79,101]。由于临床研究数量有限,本章将主要针对体外研究作分析。
晶粒尺寸对氧化锆陶瓷修复体的半透明性有影响。一些研究者认为,为了保证Y-TZP陶瓷的力学性能,可以通过将晶粒尺寸减小到远小于可见光波长的范围来增强其半透明性。以这种方式在Y-TZP陶瓷中实现良好的半透明性,晶粒尺寸应低于100 nm[22]。此外,晶粒尺寸还会影响牙科应用所需的力学性能,包括断裂韧性和弯曲强度以及可靠性。对于Y-TZP,超过1 μm的晶粒在烧结温度冷却过程中会自发地发生从t相到m相的相变,从而产生内部裂纹。这些裂纹会严重影响材料的强度,意味着应避免通过增加Y-TZP的晶粒尺寸来提高半透明性[102]。Hu[23]提供了一个通过本征强度和晶粒尺寸计算3Y-TZP氧化锆陶瓷断裂韧性KIC的公式:
KIC≈KIC-2ρ3G3G+2ρ≈2ft3G
式中:KIC表示本征断裂韧性;KIC-2ρ 表示表观断裂韧性;G表示平均晶粒尺寸;2ρ表示利用飞秒激光引入的纳米级缺口宽度;ft表示本征强度。该研究还测量了其他几种类型的氧化锆陶瓷。在测试细晶粒的3Y-TZP和其他多晶陶瓷的纳米/微米级缺口宽度时,纳米级裂纹尖端的锐度取决于2ρ< 0.5G的条件,而不是纳米级裂纹尖端的绝对测量值。对于G约为400 nm的3Y-TZP, 200 μm宽的缺口可视为钝缺口。当G = 100~500 nm时,其ft为1500~1900 MPa。相比之下,第二代氧化锆牙科材料的晶粒尺寸更大。值得注意的是,理论上,过小的晶粒尺寸会影响LTD的进展,较多的晶界会促进LTD的进程。然而,一些文献表明,小于0.35 μm的晶粒尺寸可能会阻止LTD的发生,这使得晶粒尺寸对LTD的影响备受争议[103]。对于高c相含量的氧化锆,虽然对LTD现象不敏感,但晶粒尺寸也增加了该类型氧化锆的耐老化性。此外,由于牙冠、贴面和全牙弓固定种植义齿通常需要加入有色金属氧化物来获得类似牙本质的光泽度,这可能会改变材料的晶体学组成和微观结构,从而导致力学性能的变化[104-105]。
抗弯强度被广泛认为是评价脆性材料强度的一个关键而可靠的指标。抗弯强度受牙齿修复体设计的影响,如牙冠和牙桥的厚度和形状。足够的抗弯强度可确保修复体在长期使用过程中不会断裂,从而在保持强度和稳定性的同时实现更薄、更美观的设计。在ISO 6872:2015中,三点抗弯强度实验、四点抗弯强度实验(棒状试样)和双轴抗弯强度实验(矩形试样和圆盘状试样)是测量抗弯强度的建议方法[106]。在这些方法中,双轴抗弯测试最能模拟临床的复杂应力情况。ISO 6872:2024建议采用双轴弯曲实验来评估3Y-TZP或高钇含量氧化锆的水热稳定性。LTD不仅使氧化锆体积膨胀产生微裂纹,而且削弱了氧化锆相变增韧的预留空间,导致微裂纹过度膨胀,氧化锆的抗弯强度和使用寿命显著降低[28]。根据ISO 6872:2024标准,三单元氧化锆牙科修复体的平均抗弯强度必须超过500 MPa,而单单元氧化锆牙科修复体在前后区域的最低抗弯强度为300 MPa,后磨牙区域的最低抗弯强度为800 MPa。除烧结体的抗弯强度外,经过LTD或耐磨测试后的修复体也需要高于此标准。经历LTD的氧化锆抗弯强度不足时,事先优化打印的连接结构就显得尤为重要[107]。打印后的氧化锆修复体通常会经历一个烧结过程,抗弯强度与烧结温度密切相关。文献报道烧结温度集中在1300~1600 ℃之间。在1300 ℃以下,AM的氧化锆基零件通常具有不高的抗弯强度和耐磨性,这通常是由于致密化不充分,在低烧结温度和短烧结时间下获得完全致密的氧化锆部件仍然是一个挑战。
硬度高的氧化锆能够抵抗口腔环境中的摩擦和咀嚼力,从而减少磨损,延长使用寿命,保持表面美观。而且足够的硬度可以保证修复体形状的稳定性,保持正常的咬合关系和咀嚼功能。氧化锆样品的硬度建议采用ISO 14705:2016中的维氏硬度或努氏硬度表征[108],也有研究人员使用马氏硬度进行氧化锆硬度测试[109-110]。人类牙釉质的硬度约为4 GPa,而由氧化锆基材料制成的零件的硬度通常比这个值高得多,但仍需要考虑LTD后修复体硬度的差异[110]。较高的硬度值为氧化锆修复体表面提供了长期稳定的表面粗糙度。烧结温度升高与硬度提高有关[111],而快速烧结能获得更高的硬度值[87]。通过AM得到的氧化锆硬度与传统铣削获得的氧化锆硬度相似[87,108]。抛光、研磨和喷砂均可能在氧化锆中诱发残余压应力。在摩尔分数3%~4%氧化钇稳定的氧化锆中,m相更容易形成,会加剧残余压应力的增加。在表面处理的过程中,研磨和喷砂(特别是喷砂)会诱发相变,在材料表面产生残余压应力,从而提高样品的硬度,增强其稳定性[112]。
断裂韧性是评价脆性材料在失效时的稳定性和强度的最佳标准。考虑到LTD对氧化锆的影响,高压灭菌后的断裂韧性是测量标准之一,可采用单刃V形切口梁(SEVNB)法在134 ℃高压灭菌5 h前后进行测量。单边预裂梁(ISO 15732)和表面弯曲裂纹(ISO 18756)方法也可用于评估牙科产品的断裂韧性。尽管ISO 6872:2024没有推荐使用维氏硬度测试,但一些研究人员仍然使用维氏硬度测试来测试断裂韧性,这可能是由于在四边形多晶氧化锆中难以形成锋利的缺口尖端半径,另一个原因则是SEVNB法还规定了避免用于测量晶粒尺寸小于1 μm的细晶粒材料的断裂韧性。ISO 6872:2024提供了整体式陶瓷修复体的推荐断裂韧性值,包括贴合式(单单元前或后假体(≥ 1.0 MPa·m1/2))和非贴合式(单单元前或后假体和三单元非磨牙假体(≥ 2.0 MPa·m1/2),三单元磨牙修复体(≥ 3.5 MPa·m1/2)和四单元磨牙修复体(≥ 4.0 MPa·m1/2))。LTD后,快速烧结的氧化锆陶瓷不会显著降低断裂韧性[113]。快速冷却会在氧化锆表面产生压应力层,应力层的厚度与高冷却速率呈正相关,从而增加断裂韧性[114]。对于3Y系列氧化锆来说,碎裂往往出现在为了提高美观性能而附着的贴面,而不是在牙冠本身。有研究报道,二硅酸锂牙冠比氧化锆牙冠具有更高的断裂韧性,这可能是由于氧化锆的弹性模量更高,导致结合界面处应力集中增加[115]。由于人类牙本质和氧化锆材料的弹性模量不同,与修复体相配合的对颌牙更容易受到长期磨损,同时高弹性模量也是氧化锆桩修复难度更大的原因。因此,建议修复体的弹性模量应更接近人类牙本质的弹性模量[116]。对于不能直接承受磨损的薄贴面,建议满足透明度要求的同时取更高的厚度值,以获得足够的断裂韧度(≥ 0.7 MPa·m1/2),预防贴面过早失效[117]。
考虑到牙科材料的寿命要求,耐磨性的可靠性测试是必要的。测试磨损特性的一种方法是在咀嚼模拟器中安装陶瓷样品和牙釉质模拟对颌牙,并通过垂直加载对其进行老化[118]。咀嚼模拟器的循环次数可在3000~1500000之间调节,可以通过调节测试温度来加速,使用液体环境来模拟人类口腔环境。使用人牙釉质、滑石或3Y-TZP作为来模拟口腔环境中对颌牙和陶瓷牙咬合时的冲击和滑动磨损。在这个过程中,釉面氧化锆表面比抛光表面更容易磨损,玻璃釉料断裂会产生微小的碎片,划伤氧化锆表面,加剧磨损[119-121]。另一种方法是将制备好的氧化锆置于高压灭菌器中,并在134 ℃和0.2 MPa下进行热机械加载,使用不锈钢或钛模拟对颌牙咬合,并将最终的磨损损失厚度作为测量标准[8,122-123]。阶梯应力法是评估牙科陶瓷疲劳性能的最常用方法[124]。不同钇含量的氧化锆修复体与AM或非增材制造的氧化锆修复体是否具有相似的耐磨性仍存在争议[121,125-126]。测试样品的形状、不同的模拟对颌牙、咀嚼模拟方法等都是导致结果存在争议的原因。表面纹理化技术有望在提高氧化锆耐磨性的同时改善其亲疏水性能,这在一定程度上归功于仿生学的发展[127]。
氧化锆牙冠、牙桥的美学特性通常是根据它们的乳光度和半透明度来评估的。乳光的产生是由于材料内部粒子与周围基质之间的折射率不匹配。当这些相位之间的折射率比为1.1或更高时,材料呈现乳白色的外观[128]。人类牙本质的平均乳光(OP)参数在4.8~7.4之间[129],当氧化锆厚度增加时,可以得到类似的乳光值[130-131]。在修复体中达到与相邻牙齿相匹配的乳光值,可以显著增强其逼真的外观。此外,虽然快速烧结被认为对光学特性和微观结构的临床影响很小[132-133],但仍值得探究如何优化快速烧结参数改善AM制备氧化锆修复体的美学特性。
半透明(TP)、对比度(CR)和OP通常使用色度计进行评估[109]。在测试氧化锆的光学性能时,将厚度约为1 mm的氧化锆圆盘放置在彩色线上,并使用通过圆盘的彩色痕迹的可见度来表征半透明度(图5(b)[68]。透光率测试过程需要在特定波长范围内(可见光)并以设定的波长间隔进行测量。样品厚度、粗糙度、前后侧面等因素,以及D65标准光源的色温(约6500 K)、显色指数、紫外线强度、照射角度等都应考虑在内。老化可能会增加半透明性,这可能由于晶体形态(晶相、尺寸和形状)的重排有利于提高半透明性。反射光谱通常使用分光光度计进行评估[26]。一些文献表明,LTD对抛光和釉面氧化锆修复体的反射率没有显著影响[134]。当氧化锆用作贴面时,贴面与牙本质结构结合处会产生消光(散射)现象,影响反射率。氧化锆的半透明性受其厚度的影响很大。研究表明,在0.5 mm处,3Y和5Y系列氧化锆的光学差异极小,但在1.4 mm处出现显著差异[135]。AM提供了一种生产超薄贴面的经济方法[69],即使采用低透明度的氧化锆,也可以借助AM技术实现超薄贴面制造以获得良好的光学性能。
颜色稳定性也是评价氧化锆美学性能的标准之一。该指标(ΔE < 0.5)可以通过将材料浸泡在溶液中一段时间来验证,且浸泡温度升高可显著缩短验证时间[136]。但需要注意的是,验证过程也可能由于LTD的影响,导致氧化锆修复体呈现出较差的颜色稳定性。颜色稳定性在氧化锆基贴面和全弓固定种植支撑假体(complete arch fixed implant-supported prosthesis,CAFIP)的制造中尤为重要。对于贴面来说,其厚度相对较薄,如果出现严重的变色,可能会失去其对牙本质或修复体的美学功能。无饰面的CAFIP或全锆冠因高亮白氧化锆透光率低、色阶单一,常显“过白”,难以与邻牙自然融合。为了提升视觉融合效果,有效的着色技术如装饰瓷和染色可以应用于牙弓或牙冠的表面,显著提高修复体的美学质量。最常用的染色剂是Fe2O3[137],可通过提高其浓度影响修复体的对比度[138]。稀土元素的加入可以赋予氧化锆修复体原本缺乏荧光特性[139-140]。一些研究表明,这些着色过程会影响氧化锆产品的力学性能和美学特性[134,141],可能导致潜在的应力集中断裂,但也有研究表明,这种影响是微乎其微的[142-143]。
LTD过程会影响氧化锆修复体的力学和光学性能,其抗老化能力是评价修复体的重要指标。理论上,在134 ℃下高压灭菌1 h可以模拟3~4年的人体种植环境。这种方法是最被广泛接受的研究方法之一[105,144-145]。控制LTD后的单斜相含量已成为关键的判据。根据ISO 13356:2008,如果在134 ℃和0.2 MPa高压灭菌5 h后m相含量保持在25%以下,则Y-TZP材料被认为适合生物医学应用。然而,这种评价方法需要考虑人体实际口腔环境,如唾液中含有离子[146-148]、酸性饮料[149]、动态变化的pH值[148]以及咀嚼[150]、刷牙[151]、日常行为产生的机械应力等。同时,氧化锆中由于LTD引起的相变是自催化的。在这一过程中,一部分t相在转变部位转变为m相,形成双相材料。在这种双相材料中,m相处于压缩状态,而t相处于拉伸状态。研究表明,每10%(体积分数)的相变,t相的拉伸应力增加250 MPa[109-110]。拉伸应力的提高增加了t相发生相变的可能性,导致单斜相的含量更高。当m相占总氧化锆的20%时,在剩余的t相氧化锆中产生700 MPa的拉应力。这触发了额外的相变,导致m相含量从20%增加到35%[5]。因此,在考虑LTD的影响时,还应充分考虑残余拉应力的影响。快速烧结可显著提升氧化锆的LTD抗性,为椅旁即刻制造带来突破性机遇[152]。
生物相容性是氧化锆修复体的优势之一,但其生物惰性限制了氧化锆的骨整合能力。骨整合能力是通过体内钙、磷酸盐离子的离子交换来体现的,表现为骨组织的再矿化。各种金属氧化物,如锌、钛、铜、锆、锰、铋和铁,以及它们与氧化石墨烯(GO)的纳米复合材料,已被用于与羟基磷灰石联合增强合成骨[153-156]。此外,它们正在成为陶瓷工业和牙科中重要的抗菌剂用于治疗目的,如治疗口腔疾病、根管治疗、牙齿矫正和牙科种植。同时,牙科陶瓷在口腔中容易发生化学溶解。化学溶解度目前在ISO 6872:2015中规定了用于测试的试样总表面积(≥30 cm²),但它没有描述形貌或几何形状[157-158]。根据ISO 10993,生物材料必须证明细胞活力超过70%才能被归类为无细胞毒性[69]。在将新生物材料应用于人类之前,进行动物实验是对其进行测试的关键步骤。临床前动物实验可以进行详细的组织学测量,可动态评估骨整合全过程,为后续临床安全铺平道路[159]。
表面活化技术,如紫外线(UV)照射提高材料的性能。UV处理可以改善生物相容性,降低细胞毒性,促进细胞增殖和黏附。这种技术能抑制氧化应激和炎症,同时增强氧化锆的润湿性,促进与骨组织结合[160]。血浆处理通过改善表面润湿性,有效增强人牙龈成纤维细胞(HGF)的黏附性[160-164]。表面活化技术通过调控材料的化学和物理性质,为提高材料的生物相容性和功能性提供了新的机会。将表面化学应用于氧化锆,可以使用硅烷或磷酸盐底漆进行表面涂层,以增强骨整合和软组织附着。此外,与细胞兼容的含硼涂层表现出强大的抗菌性能,可以增强5Y-PSZ的力学性能和可靠性,使其成为抗菌涂层的一个有前途的选择[35]。其他新型生物活性涂层包括羟基磷灰石涂层[165-166]、氟化羟基磷灰石涂层[167]、铈共掺杂涂层[168]、二氧化硅涂层[169]、钠长石纳米陶瓷增强涂层[170]、双相磷酸钙涂层[171]和硅灰石涂层[172-173]。这些涂层都能提高一定的抗菌性能。其中,铈共掺杂涂层可以增强氧化锆修复体抗LTD的能力并通过改变粗糙度影响骨整合,羟基磷灰石涂层、双相磷酸钙、氟化羟基磷灰石涂层可以促进细胞增殖黏附和增强再矿化能力,二氧化硅、钠长石纳米陶瓷增强涂层可以提高修复体的力学性能。这些处理方法对于氧化锆基修复体的骨整合都是有效的。
氧化锆修复体的表面粗糙度会显著影响相邻修复体的磨损。尽管在临床实践中,抛光良好的氧化锆修复体对相邻修复体造成磨损所引起的表面粗糙度变化可以忽略不计[174-175],但是氧化锆修复体的表面粗糙度可能会因LTD的影响而增加[176-177],这可能与表面处理方法有关[178-179]。表面粗糙度也会影响氧化锆种植体的骨整合,过小的纳米孔可能不利于种植体与人体骨组织的融合[180],延长术后恢复期,给患者带来不必要的痛苦,还会增加龋齿和牙菌斑生长的风险。AM技术制造的氧化锆修复体通常在烧结前需要先打磨,但最终烧结体是否需要额外抛光仍有待研究[12]。喷砂、酸蚀和激光照射都是用来提高氧化锆附着力的粗糙化工艺。这些方法增强了材料的表面粗糙度和可润湿性,为进一步的表面化学修饰和生物活化铺平了道路[181-183]。在喷砂过程中,使用粒度为50~250 μm的氧化铝颗粒或玻璃微珠来获得良好的表面粗糙度[24,182]。喷砂前应谨慎考虑其对氧化锆的影响,以避免抗弯强度显著下降[184]。酸蚀可以在微米水平上增加表面粗糙度和润湿性,为表面生物活化提供了有效手段。直接上釉或镶嵌烧结修复体或许是更优选择。为获得理想的表面粗糙度,常需在牙冠与贴面交界处先以微晶玻璃作底漆促进硅烷化[185-187],然后用树脂水门汀粘接,最后再通过树脂水门汀进行粘接。通过调控表面纹理可以进一步促进三者之间的结合[188],引入增强弱剪切结合强度(SBS)的仿生结构是解决这一问题的新方法[43,189]。新一代的氧化锆材料通常具有较高的氧化钇含量,粗糙度对光折射和散射的影响有限。然而,考虑到对颌牙磨损和LTD对高立方相氧化锆的影响有限,仍然需要充分的抛光。对于需要骨整合的位置,如桩、种植体,应具有适宜表面粗糙度,具有非封闭的定向孔更佳[190]。用于氧化锆修复体需要光滑的表面,如贴面、嵌体,表面渗透可以提高表面质量和力学性能。研究表明,将热相容玻璃渗透技术应用于5Y-PSZ,可以有效减少表面缺陷,改变其失效模式。这种方法可显著提高材料的特征强度,改善其结构均匀性,为更可靠的应用铺平道路[191],同时表明,在基于氧化锆的牙科修复体中,兼顾美观和力学性能是可行的。
氧化锆陶瓷的AM技术在牙科领域的应用取得了许多进展,为牙科修复材料的未来发展提供了广阔的前景。AM技术,如VP、PBF、MEX、MJ和BJ,已经证明了生产具有复杂几何形状和定制特性的氧化锆修复体的能力。这些技术不仅减少了材料浪费,而且能够制造出高性能、高精度和美观的牙科修复体。各种氧化锆材料,例如3Y-TZP、4Y-TZP、5Y-PSZ以及各种氧化锆基材料,在AM技术制造上得到广泛开发。氧化锆牙科修复体的性能可以从几个方面来评估,包括晶粒尺寸、硬度、抗弯强度、断裂韧性、耐磨性和美学特性。
氧化锆在牙科中的应用已经证明了理论和临床的成功,为该领域的创新进步铺平了道路。用于氧化锆牙科产品的增材制造技术百花齐放,牙科材料研究人员正致力于开发修复体,以平衡机械强度和美学质量,与牙本质相适应。AM技术是一种高效率、低材料消耗的齿科制造方法,但利用该技术制造氧化锆牙科修复体仍存在提升空间:
(1)纳米颗粒材料的发展为AM技术在氧化锆牙科上的应用带来了机遇,但新材料与技术的适配仍需要经验加以巩固。新兴的光固化高速AM方法,如DIP和xolography,需要高度半透明的浆料来实现超高的打印速度,如何提高氧化锆基材料在这些打印材料中的固体含量,同时保持较高的生产效率和精度,这种平衡仍有待实现。
(2)关于氧化锆增材制造在牙科临床应用上的研究较少,临床疗效认识仍有待深化。深入的临床实验和长期跟踪研究可以为技术的改进和推广提供临床依据。
(3)在牙科种植手术中,行业内的主要目标之一是缩短总体种植时间。对于需要分期手术的患者来说,缩短牙科种植体的必要恢复期尤为重要。通过开发与打印技术相匹配的后处理工艺设备,如高速脱脂烧结设备,最大限度地减少打印、烧结和后处理时间,并确保修复体与患者之间的精确匹配,可以显著提高患者的舒适度和满意度。这种对效率的关注对于氧化锆牙科市场的扩张至关重要。
(4)桌面式增材制造设备的推广也在改变着椅旁牙科制造业。随着专业设备的快速发展,它们变得更加容易获得,有望在牙科诊所中广泛应用。经济实惠的打印机将进一步加强牙医和牙科实验室之间的合作,促进创新和改善患者的治疗效果。
(5)增材制造在创建组织工程支架和递送生物活性分子和细胞方面的潜在用途,为氧化锆牙科植入技术开辟了新的途径,这是传统减材制造所不具备的。
(6)机器视觉的发展有利于氧化锆增材制造产品的评估,如产品的缺陷检测和光学性能评估。
总的来说,氧化锆牙科增材制造正朝着高精度、个性化、多技术融合、微创治疗、市场增长及国产化加速等方向发展,逐步迈向个性化、智能化、高效化的新阶段。
  • 广东省“珠江人才计划”本土创新科研团队资助项目(2017BT01C169)
  • 广东省重点领域研发计划(2020B090923002)
  • 国家自然科学基金(12302157)
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2026年第54卷第2期
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doi: 10.11868/j.issn.1001-4381.2025.000276
  • 接收时间:2025-05-19
  • 首发时间:2026-10-27
  • 出版时间:2026-02-20
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  • 收稿日期:2025-05-19
  • 录用日期:2025-06-19
基金
广东省“珠江人才计划”本土创新科研团队资助项目(2017BT01C169)
广东省重点领域研发计划(2020B090923002)
国家自然科学基金(12302157)
作者信息
    1.广东工业大学 机电工程学院,广州 510006
    2.香港科技大学(广州) 系统枢纽智能制造学域,广州 511458
    3.广东工业大学 广东省微创手术器械与制造技术重点实验室,广州 510006

通讯作者:

伍尚华(1963—),男,教授,博士,研究方向为先进材料和先进制造技术,联系地址:广东省广州市番禺区小谷围街广州大学城外环西路100号广东工业大学机电工程学院(510006),E-mail:
邓欣(1971—),男,教授,博士,研究方向为硬质合金及超硬材料的增材制造,联系地址:广东省广州市番禺区小谷围街广州大学城外环西路100号广东工业大学机电工程学院(510006),E-mail:
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2种不同金属材料的力学参数
科
Family
属数
Number of
genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of
total species (%)
属
Genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of total
species (%)
鹅膏菌科Amanitaceae 2 11 5.26 鹅膏菌属 Amanita 10 4.78
小菇科 Mycenaceae 2 12 5.74 丝盖伞属 Inocybe 5 2.39
多孔菌科 Polyporaceae 8 14 6.70 蜡蘑属 Laccaria 5 2.39
红菇科 Russulaceae 3 23 11.00 小皮伞属 Marasmius 6 2.87
小菇属 Mycena 11 5.26
光柄菇属 Pluteus 5 2.39
红菇属 Russula 17 8.13
栓菌属 Trametes 5 2.39
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