Article(id=1321490129840091212, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1220038251117760515, issueId=1321490128967675980, articleNumber=null, orderNo=null, doi=10.11868/j.issn.1001-4381.2024.000851, pmid=null, cstr=32421.14.j.issn.1001-4381.2024.000851, oa=null, hot=null, price=null, onlineType=0, articleFormat=0, articleType=null, articleTypeStr=research-article, receivedDate=1734624000000, receivedDateStr=2024-12-20, revisedDate=null, revisedDateStr=null, acceptedDate=1737302400000, acceptedDateStr=2025-01-20, onlineDate=1792997399053, onlineDateStr=2026-10-26, pubDate=1768838400000, pubDateStr=2026-01-20, doiRegisterDate=null, doiRegisterDateStr=null, onlineIssueDate=1792997399053, onlineIssueDateStr=2026-10-26, onlineJustAcceptDate=null, onlineJustAcceptDateStr=null, onlineFirstDate=null, onlineFirstDateStr=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, createTime=1792997399053, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1792997399053, updator=13701087609, issue=Issue{id=1321490128967675980, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1220038251117760515, year='2026', volume='54', issue='1', pageStart='1', pageEnd='259', issueExtLink='null', onlineDate='null', pubDate='1768838400000', pubDateStr='2026-01-20', beforeIssueId=null, nextIssueId=null, price=null, status=1, issueComplete=1, articleOrder=1, issueType=-1, specialIssue=null, createTime=1792997398845, creator='13701087609', updateTime=1792997398845, updator='13701087609', preIssue=null, nextIssue=null, articleTotal=null, ext=null, issueFiles=null, downloadFileDto=null}, startPage=103, endPage=113, ext={EN=ArticleExt(id=1321490130259521613, articleId=1321490129840091212, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1220038251117760515, language=EN, title=Research progress of polyvinyl alcohol-based physical crosslinked gels featuring high mechanical properties, columnId=1220689389424919062, journalTitle=Journal of Materials Engineering, columnName=REVIEW, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

With the emergence and rapid advancement of cutting-edge sciences like artificial intelligence and brain-computer interface, significant progress has been achieved in the development of flexible gel materials. Due to the good biocompatibility, adaptability to multifunctional components, and cost-effectiveness, polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) is widely used as an ideal skeleton for the construction of gel materials. According to the reports on PVA-based gels in the past years, in this paper, we provide a comprehensive overview of design methods, especially the mechanical reinforcement strategies, to construct physical crosslinked networks of PVA, including freeze-thawing, salt-outing, annealing, and solvent exchange. Furthermore, we summarize the current challenges in high-performance PVA-based gel materials, and propose insights into future developments and potential applications.

, authors=Yujia JIANG, Ning TANG, Jun HU, authorsList=Yujia JIANG, Ning TANG, Jun HU, authorCompany=null, correspAuthors=Jun HU, authorNote=null, correspAuthorsNote=null, copyrightStatement=null, copyrightOwner=null, extLink=null, articleAbsUrl=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, pdfUrl=null, pdf=null, pdfFileSize=null, pdfExtLink=null, richHtmlUrl=null, mobilePdfUrl=null, reviewReport=null, pdfFirstPage=null, abstractGraph=null, abstractGraphContent=null, abstractVideo=null, citation=null, cebUrl=null, magXmlContent=null, mapNumber=null, fund=null), CN=ArticleExt(id=1321490134667735136, articleId=1321490129840091212, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1220038251117760515, language=CN, title=高力学性能聚乙烯醇基物理交联凝胶材料研究进展, columnId=1220689389663994406, journalTitle=材料工程, columnName=综述, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

随着人工智能、人机交互等前沿科学的兴起和快速发展,柔性凝胶材料得到广泛研究与报道。聚乙烯醇作为一种具有良好生物相容性和多功能组分适配性的低成本高分子,是凝胶骨架的理想构筑基元。本文通过调研近年来聚乙烯醇基凝胶材料的研究成果,综述了其物理交联网络的设计方法,包括冻融法、盐析法、退火法、溶剂交换法等,重点阐述了增强材料力学性能的策略。在此基础上,分析了目前制备高力学性能聚乙烯醇基凝胶面临的挑战,并对其发展方向与应用前景进行了展望。

, authors=江宇佳, 唐宁, 胡君, authorsList=江宇佳, 唐宁, 胡君, authorCompany=null, correspAuthors=胡君, authorNote=null, correspAuthorsNote=
胡君(1985—),男,教授,博士,从事含动态键的高性能多功能聚合物材料研究,联系地址:北京市朝阳区北三环东路15号北京化工大学东校区(100029),E-mail:
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articleId=1321490129840091212, language=CN, label=图9, caption=高力学性能PVA基物理交联凝胶材料的发展进程, figureFileSmall=pDOtOrof23l8UpbMFPPyxw==, figureFileBig=FQtTiBneOaSyA4PtvSB0Gg==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1321927382693430238, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1220038251117760515, articleId=1321490129840091212, language=EN, label=Table 1, caption=

Effect of freezing-thawing conditions on mechanical properties of PVA hydrogels[13]

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Freezing

temperature

Thawing

temperature

Thawing rate

Concentration of

PVA solution

Molecular weight of PVA
---++
), ArticleFig(id=1321927382777316319, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1220038251117760515, articleId=1321490129840091212, language=CN, label=表1, caption=

冻融条件对PVA水凝胶力学性能的影响[13]

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=

Freezing

temperature

Thawing

temperature

Thawing rate

Concentration of

PVA solution

Molecular weight of PVA
---++
), ArticleFig(id=1321927382940894176, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1220038251117760515, articleId=1321490129840091212, language=EN, label=Table 2, caption=

Statistics of the mechanical properties of PVA-based physical cross-linked gel materials

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
CompositionStructure/methodTensile stress/MPaTensile strain/%

Young’s

modulus/MPa

Toughness /(MJ·m-3)
PVA-Na2SO4 hydrogel[25]Freezing-assisted salting-out1521002.5150
HA-PVA hydrogels[26]Freezing-assisted salting-out23.52900210
PVA organo-hydrogel[27]Freeze-casting assisted solution substitution6.517101.758.9
PCNA anisotropic hydrogel[28]Freeze-casting, metal complexation, and salting-out25.9556422.690.9
PVA-Ca2+ hydrogel[34]Freeze-thaw, annealing, and salting-out8.403802.7514.16
BC-PVA hydrogel[35]Freeze-thaw and annealing50.5503.9
Sal-exogel[43]Solvent exchange and salting-out25.2120052.3120.7
SEWA25-12030 hydrogel[36]Solvent-exchange-assisted wet annealing11.1918792.7551.66
exogel-18 hydrogel[38]Solvent exchange3.139000.45
nf-PVA-10 hydrogel[39]Solvent exchange2.77000.61.3
DES-PVA20 eutectogel[41]Solvent exchange20.255016.162.7
A-SE-PVA20 eutectogel[42]Freeze-thaw, annealing, and solvent exchange31.825.676.0
(PVA/PAA-AS) hydrogel[65]Double network8.156503.630
PVA/alginate hydrogel[66]Double network12.916113.2
), ArticleFig(id=1321927383016391649, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1220038251117760515, articleId=1321490129840091212, language=CN, label=表2, caption=

PVA基物理交联凝胶材料的力学性能统计表

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
CompositionStructure/methodTensile stress/MPaTensile strain/%

Young’s

modulus/MPa

Toughness /(MJ·m-3)
PVA-Na2SO4 hydrogel[25]Freezing-assisted salting-out1521002.5150
HA-PVA hydrogels[26]Freezing-assisted salting-out23.52900210
PVA organo-hydrogel[27]Freeze-casting assisted solution substitution6.517101.758.9
PCNA anisotropic hydrogel[28]Freeze-casting, metal complexation, and salting-out25.9556422.690.9
PVA-Ca2+ hydrogel[34]Freeze-thaw, annealing, and salting-out8.403802.7514.16
BC-PVA hydrogel[35]Freeze-thaw and annealing50.5503.9
Sal-exogel[43]Solvent exchange and salting-out25.2120052.3120.7
SEWA25-12030 hydrogel[36]Solvent-exchange-assisted wet annealing11.1918792.7551.66
exogel-18 hydrogel[38]Solvent exchange3.139000.45
nf-PVA-10 hydrogel[39]Solvent exchange2.77000.61.3
DES-PVA20 eutectogel[41]Solvent exchange20.255016.162.7
A-SE-PVA20 eutectogel[42]Freeze-thaw, annealing, and solvent exchange31.825.676.0
(PVA/PAA-AS) hydrogel[65]Double network8.156503.630
PVA/alginate hydrogel[66]Double network12.916113.2
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高力学性能聚乙烯醇基物理交联凝胶材料研究进展
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江宇佳 , 唐宁 , 胡君
材料工程 | 综述 2026,54(1): 103-113
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材料工程 |综述 2026 , 54 (1) : 103 -113
高力学性能聚乙烯醇基物理交联凝胶材料研究进展
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江宇佳, 唐宁, 胡君
作者信息
  • 北京化工大学 软物质科学与工程高精尖创新中心,北京 100029
通讯作者:
胡君(1985—),男,教授,博士,从事含动态键的高性能多功能聚合物材料研究,联系地址:北京市朝阳区北三环东路15号北京化工大学东校区(100029),E-mail:
Research progress of polyvinyl alcohol-based physical crosslinked gels featuring high mechanical properties
Yujia JIANG, Ning TANG, Jun HU
Affiliations
  • Beijing Advanced Innovation Center for Soft Matter Science and Engineering,Beijing University of Chemical Technology,Beijing 100029,China
出版时间: 2026-01-20 doi: 10.11868/j.issn.1001-4381.2024.000851
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随着人工智能、人机交互等前沿科学的兴起和快速发展,柔性凝胶材料得到广泛研究与报道。聚乙烯醇作为一种具有良好生物相容性和多功能组分适配性的低成本高分子,是凝胶骨架的理想构筑基元。本文通过调研近年来聚乙烯醇基凝胶材料的研究成果,综述了其物理交联网络的设计方法,包括冻融法、盐析法、退火法、溶剂交换法等,重点阐述了增强材料力学性能的策略。在此基础上,分析了目前制备高力学性能聚乙烯醇基凝胶面临的挑战,并对其发展方向与应用前景进行了展望。

柔性材料  /  凝胶  /  聚乙烯醇  /  高力学性能

With the emergence and rapid advancement of cutting-edge sciences like artificial intelligence and brain-computer interface, significant progress has been achieved in the development of flexible gel materials. Due to the good biocompatibility, adaptability to multifunctional components, and cost-effectiveness, polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) is widely used as an ideal skeleton for the construction of gel materials. According to the reports on PVA-based gels in the past years, in this paper, we provide a comprehensive overview of design methods, especially the mechanical reinforcement strategies, to construct physical crosslinked networks of PVA, including freeze-thawing, salt-outing, annealing, and solvent exchange. Furthermore, we summarize the current challenges in high-performance PVA-based gel materials, and propose insights into future developments and potential applications.

flexible materials  /  gels  /  polyvinyl alcohol  /  high-mechanical performance
江宇佳, 唐宁, 胡君. 高力学性能聚乙烯醇基物理交联凝胶材料研究进展. 材料工程, 2026 , 54 (1) : 103 -113 . DOI: 10.11868/j.issn.1001-4381.2024.000851
Yujia JIANG, Ning TANG, Jun HU. Research progress of polyvinyl alcohol-based physical crosslinked gels featuring high mechanical properties[J]. Journal of Materials Engineering, 2026 , 54 (1) : 103 -113 . DOI: 10.11868/j.issn.1001-4381.2024.000851
凝胶是一类以三维聚合物网络作为分散相、液体作为分散介质的柔性软材料,在柔性传感器[1-2]、电子皮肤[3-5]、柔性电池[6-7]、医用材料[8-10]、超级电容器[11]等领域引起了人们的广泛关注。聚乙烯醇(polyvinyl alcohol,PVA)具有价格低廉、生物相容性好、结构规整且易于结晶等优点,常被用作凝胶材料的分散相。目前,构建PVA三维网络的方法主要包括化学交联、辐射交联和物理交联。然而,化学交联会难以避免地引入化学试剂[12-13],残留在凝胶内部的小分子单体往往会对生物体造成不良影响。辐射交联虽然能有效避免有毒物质的残留,但高能射线诱导分子聚合的条件相对苛刻[14]。与化学交联和辐射交联相比,物理交联制备PVA基凝胶的过程则更加绿色和便捷。
已报道的构建物理交联PVA基凝胶的策略主要包括冻融法[15]、盐析法[16]、退火法[17]和溶剂交换法[18]。得益于PVA分子结构的高度规整性[19],物理交联法通过促进PVA分子链内或链间形成氢键,诱导部分链段有序排列形成结晶域,作为物理交联点构建PVA网络。在受外力过程中,网络内部氢键解离与重组可以有效提升材料能量耗散和网络恢复的能力,且刚性结晶域的存在可以有效地抑制裂纹扩展。这些优点使物理交联法成为目前制备PVA基凝胶材料的首选方法。此外,还可以通过构建双网络结构[20]、引入纳米填料[21]等策略进一步优化凝胶组分,在改善材料力学性能的同时赋予PVA基凝胶更丰富的功能,助力材料的高价值应用。本文梳理了近年来PVA基物理交联凝胶的设计理念与制备技术(图1),详细介绍了提高凝胶力学性能的策略,并对高力学性能PVA基凝胶材料的进一步研究与应用进行了展望。
1975年,Peppas[22]发现循环冷冻-融化(冻融)可以有效地促进PVA分子链在水溶液中的结晶,形成物理交联PVA水凝胶。冻融法诱导PVA水溶液成胶的机理如图2所示[23]:在PVA水溶液的凝固点以下,冰晶的生长可以有效地推动PVA分子链段的聚集(尤其是富羟基部分),而羟基在氢键的作用下能够诱导部分自由链段通过有序排列形成稳定的结晶域,作为物理交联点形成PVA聚合物网络。在解冻后,冰晶融化形成的液态水与物理交联的聚合物骨架共同组成了PVA基水凝胶材料。增加冻融循环次数可以使富羟基区内的自由链段进一步聚集,诱导更高密度氢键和更大尺寸结晶域的形成,进而增强网络结构的稳定性。除此之外,在冻融过程中,改变冷冻温度、解冻温度、解冻速率、PVA浓度及分子量等因素,可以在一定范围内调整PVA水凝胶的力学性能,具体如表1所示。
值得注意的是,单纯利用冻融法制备PVA基凝胶材料的力学性能往往较弱。将盐析法作为冻融法的后处理步骤,可以进一步提升PVA基凝胶材料的力学性能。盐析法基本原理是:在盐析剂的存在下,盐离子会与PVA分子争夺水分子,导致体系内自由水分子的数量减少,从而有效提高PVA浓度,通过相分离诱导PVA结晶域的形成与生长[24]。He团队[25]对PVA水溶液进行三次循环冻融后,将其分别浸泡于多种盐溶液中,在分子层面上实现对PVA链聚集状态(包括结晶域尺寸、结晶域数量、聚合物网络氢键含量等)的调控,成功制备了一系列具有不同力学性能的PVA水凝胶。通过系统研究盐析剂组分对凝胶网络结构的影响,他们发现经硫酸钠盐析制备的PVA水凝胶具有最佳力学性能,甚至优于聚二甲基硅氧烷、合成橡胶和天然蜘蛛丝等材料。而在去除无机盐后,凝胶的高力学性能仍然可以保持,避免了过量盐溶液可能引发的生物不相容问题。
此外,在冻融过程的冷冻阶段,利用特定方向上的温度差诱导冰晶的定向生长(定向冷冻),通道状的冰晶迫使PVA凝胶内部形成类似于人体肌腱组织的各向异性网络结构,赋予材料在取向方向上卓越的力学性能。He团队[26]首先通过定向冷冻法制备了具有显著取向结构的PVA水凝胶,随后在柠檬酸钠的盐析效应下,水凝胶内部形成蜂窝状的多尺度分级结构,最终构建了具有优异机械耗散性能的PVA水凝胶(图3)。该PVA水凝胶的含水量在70%~95%之间,具有23.5 MPa的拉伸应力、2900%的拉伸应变以及210 MJ/m3的韧度,疲劳阈值达到10.5 kJ/m2,其力学性能接近天然肌腱。这种盐析辅助定向冷冻策略亦可推广至其他聚合物基凝胶体系,以制备多种适用于能源存储、环境科学等领域的柔性软材料。
Zhai团队[27]开发了一种冷冻铸造辅助溶液替代策略,将经定向冷冻处理的PVA水凝胶浸入低浓度氯化铁的乙醇溶液中,通过盐析和溶剂替代的方法制备了一种具有各向异性蜂窝状微观结构的抗冻有机凝胶。结果表明,该凝胶材料在溶剂含量高达87%的前提下,依然展现出强拉伸应力(6.5 MPa)、大拉伸应变(1710%)和高韧度(58.9 MJ/m3),且体系中的自由离子赋予凝胶较高的电导率(6.5 S/m)和优异的应变传感性能。Jiang团队[28]首先采用定向冷冻法构建出具有各向异性结构的PVA水凝胶,然后用饱和柠檬酸钠和硫酸铝复合水溶液浸泡处理,实现了网络结构的致密化,并在此基础上与羧甲基壳聚糖复合。所得的高力学性能PVA/羧甲基壳聚糖复合水凝胶具有优异的导电性能,作为高精度的应变传感器,在不同形变下输出稳定清晰的信号。此外,根据电阻峰值的相对变化,该应变传感器可以被用于传输和识别不同的字母、数字、标点符号和句子,该工作为柔性电子设备材料的制造及其在信息加密传输领域中的应用提供了新的见解。
退火技术最初专为金属材料设计[29],是将金属逐渐升温至特定温度并维持一段时间,随后以适宜速率进行冷却的过程[30]。其目的在于实现材料组织与成分的均匀分布,促进材料性能的整体提升。该技术如今已被成功应用于无机非金属及聚合物材料。对PVA基凝胶材料而言,当温度在PVA的玻璃化转变温度(约75~80 ℃)以上时[31],高弹态的PVA分子链运动能力增强。分子链的运动不仅可以均匀化聚合物网络,也能够诱导链段上羟基之间形成氢键,促进结晶域的形成与生长,进而显著地提高PVA基凝胶材料的力学性能。然而,对于高含水量PVA水凝胶而言,直接退火处理会导致凝胶内部大量水分快速地挥发,形成气泡、裂纹等缺陷结构,影响材料力学性能。鉴于此,目前PVA水凝胶的退火工艺如下:首先在相对温和的温度下保持一定时间,以除去PVA水凝胶中的大部分自由水;随后在高于PVA玻璃化温度的条件下进行退火处理;最后将退火后的干凝胶置于去离子水中重新溶胀,得到PVA水凝胶[32]。
Alvarez团队[33]对冻融法制备得到的PVA水凝胶在不同温度下进行了退火处理,分析了经退火处理后的PVA水凝胶的玻璃化转变温度、结晶度以及结合水含量等参数,他们发现对不同聚合物含量的PVA水凝胶而言,随着退火温度的提升,水凝胶的最大膨胀度、厚度及结合水含量均呈现下降趋势,而结晶度显著上升。Ye团队[34]为增强PVA水凝胶网络内的非共价相互作用,采取了冻融+退火+离子配位的方法构筑PVA水凝胶。研究表明,退火过程显著增强了PVA分子间的氢键作用,在提升结晶度和晶粒尺寸的同时减小了晶粒间距,使PVA的网络结构更加致密。除此之外,PVA分子上羟基与Ca2+间的配位作用进一步提高了PVA水凝胶的能量耗散效率。Wiley团队[35]利用细菌纤维素(BC)强化了PVA物理交联网络,并通过退火处理构建了高结晶度和低含水量的BC-PVA水凝胶。相比于未经退火处理的水凝胶,BC-PVA的拉伸和压缩强度分别提高了5倍和1.8倍。此外,该材料附着在金属基底上的剪切强度超过了软骨对骨的附着强度,展现了其作为软骨植入物替代品的可行性。
然而,由于退火过程中水的蒸发,致密的网络结构限制了PVA分子链的运动空间,在一定程度上会限制凝胶力学性能的调控。为了解决上述问题,Gao团队[36]在原有退火策略的基础上,提出了一种“湿退火”的方法(图4)。他们将PVA水凝胶中的水替换为不易挥发的甘油,将凝胶网络在溶胀状态下置于高温环境下,进行湿退火处理,给予聚合物网络结构更多的可调时间与空间。在湿退火后,再用水替换网络中的甘油,得到PVA水凝胶。“湿退火”过程有效调控了PVA分子链的运动,在促进PVA结晶的同时优化了聚合物网络构象,改善了PVA水凝胶的断裂强度、弹性模量、抗疲劳等性能。Zhang团队[37]提出了一种定向冷冻与湿退火相结合的策略构建PVA水凝胶。其中,定向冷冻过程建立了有序排列的通道,可以促进离子传输;后续的湿退火过程调节了PVA链的聚集程度,实现了聚合物网络的增强与增韧,进而构建了兼具超强力学性能和高离子电导率的PVA低共熔凝胶,其韧度为196 MJ/m3,疲劳阈值为1100 J/m2,离子电导率为5.2 mS/cm。基于湿退火策略构建的PVA水凝胶材料可以在生物医学、软机器人和人机交互等领域发挥关键作用。
根据PVA与不同溶剂分子形成氢键的倾向性差异,Qiu团队[38]提出一种溶剂交换策略,即先选择PVA的良溶剂二甲基亚砜(DMSO)溶解PVA,这一过程有效地破坏分子间的氢键,实现溶剂分子与PVA上羟基的氢键缔和,进而在PVA预胶液中构建了均匀聚合物网络;随后,利用相对不良溶剂水对良溶剂DMSO进行替换,在解离DMSO-PVA间氢键作用的同时促进PVA分子间氢键的重建,从而在PVA水凝胶内构筑均匀且坚韧的聚合物网络。在此基础上,他们又成功开发出一种两步溶剂交换策略[39]。该策略首先利用不良溶剂驱动PVA凝胶的原位相分离,在纳米级别上实现聚合物片段的可控聚集;随后更换为良溶剂,诱导形成均匀且致密的纳米纤维,最终得到具有多尺度纤维结构的各向同性PVA水凝胶。其优异的弹性模量和韧性为构建单一组分承重水凝胶材料提供了新思路。此外,Liu团队[40]通过改变预胶液中乙醇/水的比例来调节PVA与单宁酸(TA)间氢键密度,通过一锅法制备了具有超疏油特性的水凝胶涂料。其基本原理是:乙醇可以有效地破坏PVA与TA间的氢键,得到具有适宜黏度和流动性的预胶液。在刷涂到表面后,乙醇的挥发使原本被破坏的氢键重建,触发原位的溶胶-凝胶转变,形成水凝胶涂层。这种涂层具有卓越的断裂强度和长期稳定性,有望被应用于水下石油运输、石油泄漏事故处理、生活污水净化等场景。
本课题组[41]利用PVA在水与低共熔溶剂(DES)中溶解行为的差异,采用溶剂交换策略调控聚合物网络中非共价相互作用的时域性表达,成功制备了PVA低共熔凝胶,其断裂强度和韧度分别为20.2 MPa和62.7 MJ/m3(图5)。首先,通过良溶剂水的溶剂化作用削弱PVA链段间的非共价相互作用,使PVA在水中分散形成交织的自由链,得到均一、透明的水溶液;随后,以DES作为聚合物的不良溶剂与水交换,通过增强PVA链段间的氢键作用诱导结晶域的形成,实现物理交联聚合物网络的重构。DES的引入不仅克服了传统水凝胶对极端温度的不耐受性,而且赋予了材料高导电率、生物相容性和低成本等多种特性。此外,这一策略还适用于通过湿法纺丝连续制造导电凝胶纤维,所得的凝胶纤维不仅可以通过编织表现出一定的承重能力,也能够有效地识别和监测电信号变化,为开发具有良好适应性和稳定性的智能织物提供了新方法。
在上述工作的基础上,我们进一步提出退火与溶剂交换相结合的方法[42],对聚合物网络实施连续的调整与优化,在微观层面逐步增加聚合物的交联点数量及尺寸,实现凝胶材料力学性能的逐步增强(图6)。所得PVA低共熔凝胶的断裂强度为31.8 MPa,韧度为76.0 MJ/m3,弹性模量为25.6 MPa,同时具有出色的抗裂纹扩展性能,实现了对已报道PVA低共熔凝胶材料力学性能的显著超越。这一逐步增强策略已被证明适用于多种DES体系,有潜力成为未来开发机械工程凝胶材料的关键模板与方法。由于凝胶内部的DES由可聚合的丙烯酸(AAc)与氯化胆碱(ChCl)组成,AAc单体可在紫外光引发下发生自由基聚合形成聚合物链,因此可以实现对PVA低共熔凝胶的二次加工,原位形成图案化的多功能低共熔凝胶。
此外,Qiu团队[43]先通过溶剂交换法构建了一个均匀且松散交联的PVA网络,然后在盐析作用下进一步形成新的晶体域,使初始的低交联密度网络转化为高交联密度网络。该PVA水凝胶实现了高模量(52.3 MPa)与高韧度(120.7 MJ/m3)间的平衡。在小应变下,初始均匀分布的晶体域能够保持完整以限制网络变形;而在大应变下,晶体域逐步解缠以高效耗散能量。而在撤去外力后,结晶域在一定程度上得以恢复,表明结晶域具有动态性和适应性。该方法同样适用于其他由PVA构成的其他先进软材料,包括有机凝胶、离子凝胶和弹性体等。
由单一PVA网络构建的凝胶材料通常存在着强度与韧性、力学性能与电导率之间的平衡问题,其综合性能往往难以适配特定使用场景的需求。因此,构建双网络结构或向体系中添加纳米填料,已成为目前改善PVA基凝胶材料力学、电学等性能的有效手段。
双网络凝胶的概念由Gong等[44]于2003年最早提出,是指由两种聚合物网络通过互穿缠结而形成的凝胶。其中,高度交联的刚性结构为第一网络,松散交联的柔性结构为第二网络,由此得到双网络凝胶的综合力学性能优于其中任一单网络凝胶。根据两个网络的交联方式,双网络凝胶材料可分为共价双网络凝胶、共价-非共价杂化双网络凝胶以及非共价双网络凝胶。得益于双网络策略的广泛适用性,多种聚合物已被应用于开发双网络凝胶材料。
Vlassak团队[45]对PVA-聚丙烯酰胺(PAAm)双网络水凝胶进行退火处理,得到了兼具高力学性能和良好化学稳定性的双网络水凝胶(图7)。其中,PAAm共价交联网络在变形时保持网络的弹性,并抑制水凝胶的膨胀;PVA结晶域作为稳定且可逆的物理交联点,在外力作用下解离。由于PAAm和PVA的不相容性,解离的PVA结晶域可以在撤去外力后重新形成,在此过程中实现了能量的高效耗散,使水凝胶表现出非凡的强度与韧性。Pourjavadi等[46]将磷酸钠作为交联剂,与阳离子聚合物壳聚糖进行离子配位,形成刚性的第一网络;通过循环冻融法使PVA结晶,构建了柔性的第二网络。在此基础上,将富含果糖的蜂蜜作为增塑剂添加到凝胶体系中,有效促进壳聚糖与PVA网络间形成氢键。这种壳聚糖/PVA双网络水凝胶微观结构均匀,生物相容性良好,其断裂强度可达11.52 MPa。
Haraguchi等[47]于2002年首次提出纳米复合水凝胶的概念,即通过共价或非共价作用,将纳米材料引入到水凝胶三维聚合物网络中形成的复合材料。通常以碳纳米管[48]、氧化石墨烯[49]、液态金属[50]、MXene[51]等无机粒子作为填料组分,目前还扩展到芳纶纳米纤维[52]、纤维素纳米晶[53]、木质素[54]等有机材料。纳米填料的引入不仅能增加聚合物网络交联密度,有效提升力学性能,同时其本征特性得以保留,为开发多功能、高性能凝胶材料提供了可能。
液态金属(liquid metal,LM)因其无毒性、高电导率、低黏度以及优异的变形性,引起了科研界的广泛关注[55]。Ford等[56]将液态金属(含75%的镓和25%的铟)与PVA水溶液均匀混合,通过冻融法制备了复合凝胶材料。研究结果表明,在液态金属浓度较高、粒径较大、沉降作用较强的情况下,相邻液滴之间更倾向于自发形成导电通路,所得到的复合材料电导率更高。Li团队[57]将液态金属微滴加到单宁酸(TA)改性的PVA预胶液中,液态金属以自烧结的方式在材料底部形成导电通路,制备了液态金属掺杂的PVA-LM水凝胶。这种凝胶材料的电导率高达217,895 S/m,能被用作柔性传感器精确监测生物电信号。得益于PVA-PVA、PVA-TA、PVA-LM间形成的多重氢键,PVA-LM水凝胶也展现出优异的力学性能,其拉伸应力为15.44 MPa,拉伸应变为704%,韧度为43.02 MJ/m3。此外,水凝胶中的液态金属填料可通过氢键的解离实现回收利用。
MXene是一类含类石墨烯结构的二维材料[58],由过渡金属碳化物、氮化物或碳氮化物构成,其化学通式为M n+1X n T x。Song团队[59]将含MXene (Ti3C2T x )和纤维素纳米纤维的PVA混合水溶液进行冻融处理,随后用甘油和水进行溶剂交换,构建了一种兼具抗冻和可拉伸性的纳米复合PVA有机水凝胶,其电导率可达8.7 S/m。该材料被硅橡胶封装构建的摩擦纳米发电机可以在-20 ℃的极端环境中稳定运行超过15000次循环,可用于实时信号监测,实现对被抓取物体的大小和表面纹理的识别。Fu团队[60]以PVA和聚乙烯吡咯烷酮的混合水溶液作为预胶液,通过循环冻融法构建水凝胶骨架,并加入MXene (Ti3C2T x )和聚苯胺作为导电功能填料形成导电层,采用分层组装技术制备了具有水凝胶-导电材料-水凝胶三明治结构的应变传感器。当MXene添加量为5%时,材料的拉伸应力和拉伸应变分别超过10 MPa和1000%,其传感灵敏度为5.88,在微变形、超变形和任意形状下均可实现良好的传感响应。
芳纶纳米纤维(aramid nanofibers,ANFs)是一种由芳香族聚酰胺分子构成的纳米材料[61],其直径介于10~100 nm之间,具有较大的比表面积、良好的分散性、较高的保水率以及出色的阻燃性。通过物理、化学或自组装等多种方式,芳纶纳米纤维可以与聚合物实现高效复合,有效避免了其在材料内部的堆叠与团聚。在开发高力学性能PVA基凝胶材料的需求下,芳纶纳米纤维发挥了关键作用,被视为该领域最具潜力的纳米级构件之一。
Zhu团队[62]首先采用静电纺丝技术制备了ANFs/PVA复合纤维垫,再结合真空辅助过滤技术,将纤维垫置于银纳米线(silver nanowires,AgNWs)/PVA预胶液中溶胀、组装,制备了具有夹心结构的ANF-PVA/AgNWs-PVA复合水凝胶。ANFs与PVA间形成的氢键增强了该水凝胶的力学性能,其拉伸应力为3.3 MPa,弹性模量为10.7 MPa。AgNWs的引入使其电导率高达1.66×104 S/m,同时具备优异的电热和电磁屏蔽特性。Zhao团队[63]通过蒸发诱导自组装技术制备了PVA/ANFs复合水凝胶。一方面,体系中尺寸极小的磷酸钙低聚物作为无机增强前驱体,在PVA/ANFs网络中原位聚合,形成一维的羟基磷灰石纳米线;另一方面,对水凝胶整体施加外力,可以诱导PVA/ANFs网络形成取向结构。在有机-无机协同增韧机制和各向异性结构的共同作用下,该纳米复合水凝胶的断裂强度和韧度分别达到了24.15 MPa和15.68 MJ/m3。此外,物理交联点的可逆性以及酸性条件下无机矿物纳米填料的可溶性,使得上述凝胶材料可以循环再生。Xu团队[64]提出了一种利用组装技术制备聚合物纳米纤维网络导电水凝胶的方法(图8)。首先利用DMSO充分溶解ANFs和PVA,随后在水中进行溶剂交换得到ANFs-PVA水凝胶。在此基础上,向ANFs-PVA纳米多孔水凝胶中渗透吡咯单体,并在氧化剂氯化铁的作用下诱导吡咯单体原位聚合形成导电聚吡咯,成功将聚吡咯分子链整合进入ANFs-PVA网络。上述混合聚合物纳米纤维网络的构筑,赋予水凝胶高电导率(80 S/cm)和高达17 MPa的拉伸应力。此外,该材料还展现出良好的生物相容性,在先进植入型设备和组织工程技术等领域具有广阔的应用前景。
近年来,随着制备方法的优化和功能组分的引入(图9),物理交联PVA基凝胶材料的力学性能屡创新高(表2[25-28,34-36,41-43,65-66])。优异的力学性能使得PVA基凝胶材料在生物传感、环境检测和柔性电子器件等领域表现出了极高应用潜力。然而,高力学性能PVA基凝胶材料在设计、制备及应用开发的过程中,仍存在着一些亟待解决的问题:
(1)PVA基凝胶材料往往难以实现力学性能的全方位提升。得益于氢键的增韧效果,物理交联的PVA凝胶通常具有较高的断裂伸长率,但在断裂强度和弹性模量等方面仍无法达到与天然凝胶组织相当的水平。结合多种适当的加工方法协同促进高密度PVA结晶域的形成,可以有效增加网络的交联密度,实现凝胶材料力学性能的全面增强。
(2)PVA基凝胶材料的高力学性能与高电导率难以兼得。尽管致密的交联网络可以显著提高材料力学性能,但同时也限制了导电粒子的穿梭与移动,导致高力学性能PVA基凝胶材料的电导率较低,阻碍了其在生物传感、柔性储能等领域的应用。得益于PVA分子链的多羟基结构,纳米导电填料(如碳纳米管、氧化石墨烯、液态金属和MXene等)通过与PVA分子链间的氢键作用均匀分散在PVA网络中,有望构建兼具高力学性能和电学性能的PVA基凝胶材料。
(3)PVA水凝胶中溶剂水的挥发限制了材料的实际应用。虽然将水性分散剂替换为有机溶剂和离子液体可以确保材料的电导率,但这些溶剂往往存在导电性差、生物毒性高且不易降解等问题,一旦泄漏,将对环境造成严重污染。近年来,低共熔溶剂的出现为解决上述问题提供了新思路。低共熔溶剂集环境友好、成本低廉、生物相容、高电导率及制备简易等优点于一身,可作为溶剂组分用于制备PVA基低共熔凝胶材料,在生物医学、柔性电器、传感设备等领域展现出巨大的应用潜力。
  • 北京市自然科学基金-小米创新联合基金资助(L233016)
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2026年第54卷第1期
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doi: 10.11868/j.issn.1001-4381.2024.000851
  • 接收时间:2024-12-20
  • 首发时间:2026-10-26
  • 出版时间:2026-01-20
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  • 收稿日期:2024-12-20
  • 录用日期:2025-01-20
基金
北京市自然科学基金-小米创新联合基金资助(L233016)
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    北京化工大学 软物质科学与工程高精尖创新中心,北京 100029

通讯作者:

胡君(1985—),男,教授,博士,从事含动态键的高性能多功能聚合物材料研究,联系地址:北京市朝阳区北三环东路15号北京化工大学东校区(100029),E-mail:
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2种不同金属材料的力学参数
科
Family
属数
Number of
genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of
total species (%)
属
Genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of total
species (%)
鹅膏菌科Amanitaceae 2 11 5.26 鹅膏菌属 Amanita 10 4.78
小菇科 Mycenaceae 2 12 5.74 丝盖伞属 Inocybe 5 2.39
多孔菌科 Polyporaceae 8 14 6.70 蜡蘑属 Laccaria 5 2.39
红菇科 Russulaceae 3 23 11.00 小皮伞属 Marasmius 6 2.87
小菇属 Mycena 11 5.26
光柄菇属 Pluteus 5 2.39
红菇属 Russula 17 8.13
栓菌属 Trametes 5 2.39
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